Chapter 2 Notes
Sec. 1
Stereotyping – labeling every person in a group based upon a preconceived idea as to what that group represents.
Self-concept – our personal definition of ourselves. We develop our self-concept through our interactions with others.
In turn, the way we see ourselves comes to influence the way we communicate with others.
Self-concept is a set of relatively stable, subjective labels that you apply to yourself.
3 Elements of Self-Concept
1. A set of labels that you apply to yourself – Think about your self-concept as a list of answers to the question
“Who am I?”
2. A set of labels that are relatively stable – The qualities that are fundamental to who we are will likely change
little over time.
3. A set of labels that are subjective – The way we label ourselves has more to do with the way we perceive an
experience than the actual reality of that experience.
Reflected appraisal theory -- This theory suggests that people’s views about themselves are influenced by what they
think other people think of them.
Social comparison theory – This theory suggests that people’s views of themselves are influenced by comparisons them
make themselves with others in their environment and of their own characteristics with certain criteria that are valued
in that environment.
Individual selectivity theory -- This theory suggests that in regard to both reflected appraisal and social comparison
each of us has some control over the factors that influence our self-concept. We can choose the people whose voices
and opinions we will value and consider significant.
Sec. 2
Fear – a biological process that activates our emergency energy system so that we can cope with danger
Confidence -- the feeling you have when you believe that you are capable of handling a situation successfully
Perception – is a process by which we assign meaning to sensory data.
The Process of Perception
1. We select certain cues to interpret. – Because there are so many pieces of raw data bombarding us all the time,
we have to make choices as to which data to pay attention to. Sometimes our choices are influenced by the
data that is the most intense or that which is repeated. Often, however, we choose to interpret the data that
has the greatest personal influence.
2. We organize the cues we have selected. – We take the raw data from our environment and create complete
pictures.
3. We interpret the cues we have selected and organized. – We interpret the cues we have selected using a highly
complex and highly personal system based on a combination of the following:
a. Our knowledge
b. Our past experience
c. Our expectations
d. Our assumptions about human behavior
e. Our personal moods
*Remember, perception is an individual process. It is very likely that an individual will select, organize, and interpret
cues in a certain way in a certain situation, while someone else in exactly the same situation might arrive at a
different interpretation.
The Planks of CONFIDENCE
Being confident in any situation first begins with our perception of it. Then we must examine ourselves to ensure that
we can approach a situation with confidence. The acronym CONFIDENCE will help us create a strong framework for such
a mindset.
C – Content – Have something worthwhile to say (aka – be prepared and be informed).
O—Organization – Have an outline that is easy for both you and your audience to follow.
N – Notes – Notes provide you with a “memory springboard” – they are not meant to provide a word-for-word script for
your speech.
F – Friendliness – You can gain confidence if you are friendly to your audience and you can see that your audience is
giving you positive feedback.
I – Impression – How your audience perceives you from the very beginning is important.
D – Dedication – practice, practice, practice – be dedicated to improving your oral delivery of you speeches.
E – Empathy – a sincere understanding of the feelings, thoughts, and motives of others.
N – Newness – apply some originality – take a different slant or approach to a topic in your own unique way.
C – Conviction – believe in what you say.
E – Enthusiasm – get fired up! – if you want your audience to be excited about what you have to say, you need to be
excited first!
Sec. 3
We already discussed how self-concept develops through our interactions with others. As we interact, we gather
feedback, compare ourselves with them, and decide who we are. These are all aspects of perception. However, much
of the feedback that we receive is contradictory. While we could all have highly complicated self-concepts, we naturally
strive for simplicity and consistency.
To accomplish simplicity and consistency, we create a number of perceptual filters that call our attention only to those
cues that fit our view of the world. We notice only those things that fit our personal definition of “the truth.” This
process naturally distorts information.
Some filters that can distort include: education, biases, attitude, age, experience, emotions, religion, family, physical
condition, and morals.
Communication can be a positive tool in perception formation when it is used to check the accuracy of our perceptions.
When we do not use communication to check our perceptions, we can sometimes create a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Self-fulfilling prophecy – occurs when we decide what our world is, collect sensory data to form perceptions that
support our view, and finally communicate to others as though our view represents the “truth.” Through this view, we
can influence our own behavior and the behavior of others.
Sec. 4
Our language is a system of symbols and rules that both reflects the world that we perceive and also shapes how we
perceive it.
3 Elements of Language
1. Language is a symbolic system -- A word is not an object; it is a representation of an object.
a. Denotation – dictionary definition
b. Connotation – personal, unique interpretation of a word
c. Bypassing – occurs when a single word is used to mean to different things or two different word are
used to mean the same thing.
2. Language is a system governed by rules – there are two different rules to language
a. Those that govern how language is put together are called the rules of syntax and semantics.
b. Those that govern how language works in a particular situation are called regulative rules.
3. Language relates to perception -- Language is invariably tied to culture.
Sec. 4
Paralanguage refers to the qualities that make up not what we say but how we say it. Paralanguage is concerned with
meaning that are conveyed through articulation and pronunciation, rate, pitch, volume, pauses, and any other vocal
qualities.
While speaking is an unconscious process for most of us, there is a complex anatomical process that is behind the
sounds we produce.
Producing Sound is a Multi-Stage Process
1. As you inhale, your diaphragm moves downward, drawing air into the lungs. At the same time, your rib cage
expands to make room for the air. As you exhale, or when you speak, the diaphragm moves upward, forcing air out
of the lungs.
When we are nervous, we tend to take shallow breaths from the top of our chests instead of using our full breath
capacity.
2. The second stage of speech takes place in the throat. Air moves out of your lungs through the trachea, or windpipe.
At the top of the trachea, the air passes through the larynx. The vocal chords are a pair of muscular folds across the
center of the larynx. When air moves past the vocal chords, they tighten and vibrate. The move rapid the
vibrations, the higher the pitch, or frequency of your voice.
3. After the air has passed your vocal chords, it enters your mouth. Before exiting your mouth, it resonates through
your nasal cavity and pharynx. The shape of these parts give your voice its unique characteristics.
Pronunciation is the clear and correct formation of words in the mouth.
Consonants are formed when a speaker touches or nearly touches the tongue and other parts of the mouth together.
Vowels are produced by changing the shape of the mouth when speaking.
A speaker who has crisp, clear consonants and distinct vowels has good articulation.
Speakers need to be mindful of the volume or loudness of their voices.
Rate or the speed with which one speaks is also an important aspect of speech.
Sec. 6
Nonverbal communication is the meaning that are created through a speaker’s use of posture, gestures, facial
expressions, touch, distance, appearance, and timing.
How Nonverbal Messages Work
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A nonverbal message can repeat a verbal one.
A nonverbal message can substitute for a verbal one.
A nonverbal message can compliment a verbal one.
A nonverbal message can emphasize a verbal one.
A nonverbal message can regulate a verbal one.
A nonverbal message can contradict a verbal one.
Seven Types of Nonverbal Communication
1. Posture and gesture (kinesics) -- These aspects sometimes substitute for words and other times they add a
layer of meaning.
2. Face and eyes (affect displays) –These aspects are often the first to be noticed; however, they may be the
hardest to decipher because of the tremendous complexity possible in expressions.
3. Touch (haptics) – This is our earliest means of communication, and studies have shown that touch is essential
for the healthy development of babies and children.
4. Clothing (artifactual communication) – Studies show that we make many assumptions about people based
upon their clothing and other items associated with them.
5. Distance (proxemics) – In American culture, there are four primary distance zones:
a. Intimate – touching to 18 inches
b. Personal – 18 inches to 4 feet
c. Social – 4-12 feet
d. Public – more than 12 feet.
6. Time (chronemic) – The way we use and structure our time sends specific messages about what we deem
important and unimportant