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Haley Leitman
November 25, 2013
Asian Dance
Professor Jia Wu
Brecht, Chinese Acting, Exoticism, and Mei Lanfang
Bertolt Brecht was a German theatre practitioner who is most famous for his
non-Aristotelian form of theatre, Epic Theatre. Epic Theatre sought to break
conventional theatre structures of realism that he felt limited spectators ability to
think critically and reflectively about social issues. His form of theatre debunked
Aristotle’s concept of mimesis—an imitation of action—and katharsis—the purging
of pity and fear—in order to separate audience members from feeling an empathetic
connection to the central character or characters onstage. Brecht’s main concern
about empathy—feeling with a character or feeling for (otherwise known as
“sympathy”) a character—was that by identifying with the character and sharing his
or her feelings, the audience member was “locked into the perspective of the
character” (Curran, Angela Brecht’s Criticisms of Aristotle’s Aesthetics of Tragedy
173). As a result, the audience members lose the bigger picture perspective from
which they could analyze and interpret the social themes and issues addressed in
the play. In order to eradicate empathy from his theatre, Brecht employed the
concept of Verfremdung or the “Alienation Effect” to distance his performers and
audience members from the characters by making the familiar everyday incidents in
which the characters lived in “appear strange” or unfamiliar onstage (Brecht, Bertolt
“Alienation Effects in Chinese Acting” 92).
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Brecht first introduced his concept of the alienation effect or “A-effect” in his
essay, “Alienation Effects in Chinese Acting.” This essay first appeared in the winter
of 1936 in Life and Letters, translated by Eric White and was later published in 1949.
In this essay, through a series of (inaccurate) observations of Traditional Chinese
theatre, Brecht (wrongly) concludes that Chinese acting uses the concept of the
alienation effect. Because of his poorly educated background of Chinese theatre,
Brecht incorrectly assumes that Chinese theatre artists used theatrical techniques
that incorporated the alienation effect. Brecht, who came from a Western theatre
perspective, simply imposes Western concepts of theatre onto Chinese theatre, and
assumes that Chinese theatre uses the same structures and terminology as Western
theatre, which is not the case. Brecht used Chinese theatre for the basis of his
argument on the alienation effect without the proper research and understanding of
Chinese theatre itself and as a result, Brecht exoticized Chinese theatre through his
essay, “Alienation Effects in Chinese Acting” as a means to support his theatre
technique, Epic Theatre.
The term “exotic” implies the existence of “different” cultures. Labeling a
culture “exotic” deems that certain culture, the people within that culture, and
values, customs, beliefs that make up that culture as “different.” To determine a
culture as “different” a comparison between cultures needs to take place, that is
comparing one’s own (familiar) culture to the (different) exotic culture; “there
needs to be two humanities facing one another in which one partly appears alien to
the other—in other words, exotic”(Ménil, Reneé “Concerning Colonial Exoticism”
177). Exoticism is connected to power, privilege, and the dominant culture and
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therefore those who hold social status and power determine what is or who is
“exotic.” By labeling someone, something, some group, or some culture as exotic a
separation between groups of individuals is created, which as a result establishes a
hierarchy system. Those who labeled as “exotic,” “different,” or “other” are then
placed into an inferior position because they categorically do not fit into group in
which the judgment came.
Connected to this is the limited amount of knowledge of the exotic itself, but
ironically a praising of it. According to Srinivas Aravamudan, “knowledge is
incompatible with exoticism, but lack of knowledge is in turn irreconcilable with
praise of others; yet praise without knowledge is precisely what exoticism aspires to
be”(“Response: Exoticism beyond Cosmopolitanism?” 227). The exotic is praised
because of its unfamiliarity, which makes it fascinating to the dominant culture.
However, the historical, cultural, social, and spiritual backgrounds of the exotic do
not necessarily interest those who praise it, rather it is only the surface level of the
exotic that interests those of the dominant culture. It is the outer appearance,
aestheticism, and impression of the exotic that is praised because in order for
something, someone, or some culture to be exoticized there has to be a lack of
knowledge of what the exotic truly is and what comprises it. Exoticism fails to
understand the historical, cultural, social, and spiritual backgrounds of the “exotic”
and therefore reduces its worth to a superficial level.
In his essay, “Alienation Effect in Chinese Acting,” Brecht shares his findings
about how Chinese acting uses the alienation effect, however Brecht did not have
the proper knowledge of Chinese theatre to derive that linkage, and therefore
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exoticized Chinese theatre. Brecht first came into contact with Chinese theatre in
Moscow in Spring of 1935 when he saw Mei Lanfang, a well-known professional
Chinese theatre artist perform in Dayu shajia or “The Fisherman’s Revenge.” Carol
Martin states,
“When Brecht saw Mei perform the female (dan) role in Moscow, it was
without costume, theatrical lighting, or any apparent interior preparation.
Seeing Mei confirmed for Brecht what was already taking shape in his own
thought and practice: that "character" in the theatre can and must be
manipulable independent of the actor. No total amalgam or identification of
actor with character need take place onstage. The Brechtian actor, like Mei,
does not live the role, he demonstrates it. (“Brecht, Feminism, and Chinese
Theatre” 77)
From this experience, Brecht wrote the “Alienation Effect of Chinese Acting” and
concluded that “traditional Chinese acting also knows the alienation effect, and
applies it most subtly” through the actor’s breaking of the fourth wall, symbolic
gestures, self-alienation, rejection of “complete conversion,” and estrangement
(Brecht 91-94). In Mei’s performance Brecht saw a distinct separation between the
actor and character onstage, which contrasts the realistic theatre approach to
character where the actor identifies to the character he or she is playing through
finding common experiences. Brecht assumed that the Mei was alienated from the
character he was portraying, which was probably influenced by the lack of costume,
makeup, and other elements of spectacle. Also, if Mei Lanfang’s performance was
Brecht’s first exposure to Chinese theatre, it is therefore safe to say that he lacked
the proper understanding of Chinese theatre to say that it used the alienation effect.
Brecht was simply enamored by Mei’s performance and what he thought was the
alienation effect. He admired Chinese acting for its aestheticism, but he didn’t have a
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deeper understanding of Chinese theatre itself. Therefore, in his essay, “Alienation
Effect in Chinese Acting” Brecht exoticized Chinese acting, which ultimately
diminished Mei Lanfang’s performance and the essence, history, and training of
Chinese acting.
Brecht from his “Western eyes”(Martin 78) came from a pre-established
Western idea of theatre, which caused him to exoticize Chinese theatre. In his essay,
“Alienation Effect in Chinese Acting” Brecht imposed the Western theatrical form
onto Chinese theatre. It was as though he assumed that Chinese theatre had similar
conventions to Western theatre, which is especially true when he refers to the
Chinese actor rejecting the fourth wall, empathy, and complete embodiment of the
character. Brecht failed to realize that Chinese theatre has different theatrical
conventions from Western theatre and ultimately his interpretations of Chinese
acting came from a place of (white) privilege and exoticism because he assumed that
the Western theatrical form is universal and used by Eastern theatre, which is not
the case.
Mei Lanfang (1894-1961) was a Chinese actor who is considered one of the
best female impersonators of Peking Opera. Mei came from a family lineage of
actors, he once wrote, "I come from a family that has long been connected with the
stage. My father and grandfather were actors, and, like myself, played female
roles”(Cosdon, Mark “Introducing Occidentals to an Exotic Art: Mei Lanfang in New
York” 170). Also, Mei made several artistic contributions to the world of Peking
Opera through his acting, music, and choreographic choices. He toured all over the
world and inspired several theatrical artists, such as Bertolt Brecht, Constantin
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Stanislavski, and Gordon Craig. Ultimately, Mei was brilliant performer who had a
deep impact both on Chinese and Western culture.
In the “Dance of the Swords,” Farewell my Concubine, Mei Lanfang dances
with Bawang Bieji. Both actors are in full Peking Opera makeup and costume.
However, the production itself does not use a painted backdrop or appear to use
theatrical lighting, which makes this performance somewhat similar to the
performance Brecht would of saw of Mei in 1930. But unlike to Brecht’s findings,
Mei completely converts to his character, Yuji, the concubine to Xiang Yu, the king,
by embodying the energy, essence, and physicality of femaleness. In the “Dance of
the Swords,” Yuji dances and sings in order to relieve Xiang Yu from his sorrows.
During the entirety of the piece, Xiang Yu sits behind a table upstage center and
watches her as she dances and sings. From the very beginning it is established that
Xiang Yu holds the power and Yuji is the watched object. She is to entertain both
Xiang Yu and the male spectators who were watching the piece through her singing,
dancing, and sword work. This gender dynamic remains throughout the duration of
the dance.
Often in the dance, Yuji lifts up one arm to her side, brushes the air with her
fingertips, brings it back down to her side, and then gracefully sweeps her arm in
front of her or up and over her head. She moves her arm while simultaneously
moving in in a circular floor pattern or even rotating the swords in a circle with the
other hand. Her movement is synchronized with the music and she often gestures to
the beat of the cymbal. Later, the music shifts slightly, she circles, and separates the
two swords, holding one in each hand. As she sings in a high-pitched falsetto voice,
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she spins herself and circles the swords in opposite directions. The swords spin in
an open and close motion or swing in the same direction in a fast-paced circular
motion. After she stops spinning, she crosses the swords in an “X” position or
positions them parallel to one another. Overall, her movement is very light,
sustained, and fluid, which is accentuated through the use of circles. The movement
is very soft and feminine and she does not use strong, heavy, or masculine
movement. Rather every movement is inherently (or stereotypically) “female.”
Farewell My Concubine, Peking Opera, and Chinese acting are inherently
different from Western theatre and dance. Stylistically, Western theatre/dance and
Peking Opera do not intersect because of differences in theatrical conventionalities
and aestheticism. Both forms use different stylistic choices, techniques, and
theatrical conventions, which therefore makes it difficult to find commonalties
between them. However, when Western and Eastern theatre were introduced to
each other, both started to incorporate the other’s aestheticism, thus resulting in
more shared components. For example, originally Peking Opera was performed in
“teahouses,” in which audience members sat facing each other, talking and eating,
while the performance was happening. However, in 1908 the teahouse stage set up
was replaced by a Western inspired stage called “The New Stage,” which caused the
“whole audience” to face “the same direction” and divided “the audience and the
stage space as if by an invisible fourth wall”(Goldstein, Joshua “Mei Lanfang and the
Nationalization of Peking Opera, 1912-1930” 389). From this, it is understandable to
why Brecht thought that Chinese acting used the element of the fourth wall because
the stage set up in which Mei was accustomed to performing in used the same
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Western convention. However, despite the stage similarity, Farewell My Concubine,
Peking Opera, and Chinese acting differ from Western theatre. One crucial difference
is that Western theatre is “realist” and Eastern theatre is “aesthetic,” meaning that
Eastern theatre is “not mimetic or realistic,” but rather “that every detail of sight and
sound-every step, gesture, glance, word, or cough” is “embellished and
stylized”(385). “Farewell my Concubine” reveals this elaborate form of stylized
gesture; every movement, gesture, and vocal phrase has a certain aestheticism that
is intrinsically different from the Western style of realistic theatre. To clarify,
difference in this context does not mean that Eastern theatre is “Othered” or
“exoticized,” but rather it means that Eastern theatre uses unique aesthetic choices
that contrast the realistic choices of Western theatre. Therefore, Farewell My
Concubine, Peking Opera, and Chinese acting reflect a distinct aestheticism that does
not intersect with Western theatre.
Mei Lanfang’s performance of “Dance of the Swords” reveals the specificity of
each movement, gesture, and vocal inflection, the beautiful aesthetic quality in
Peking Opera, and the talent he had as a performer. Every movement Mei does,
whether it is a head tilt, eye glance, sweeping of his arm, or spinning of the sword, is
extremely precise. The way in which he articulates his body is so complete and
dynamic, yet not forced. He moves with such grace and beauty, even during the most
challenging of parts, such as when he picks up-tempo and turns his body, while
simultaneously spinning the swords. After the premiere of Mei’s 1930 tour to the
United States The New York Post exclaimed, “He is the most graceful man seen on the
New York stage since Nijinsky. His skill, tempo, and agility are incomparable”
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(Cosdon 182). Theatre critics also commented on the expressiveness of his hands,
eyes, and his timing: “His hands are used in a fashion altogether marvelous. His eyes,
his smile, his every perfectly timed movement contribute to the total effect”(183).
Mei perfectly embodies the aestheticism of Peking Opera and how it “is directed
towards felicity and truth with the ultimate aim a beautiful style of acting”(Raban,
M. Estelle “Peking Opera: The Persistence of Tradition in the People's Republic of
China” 59). From these comments it is easy to see why Brecht praised Mei Lanfang.
Ultimately, Bertolt Brecht in his essay, “Alienation Effect in Chinese Acting”
exoticized Chinese acting and Mei Lanfang through his lack of knowledge of Chinese
theatre and by assuming that Eastern theatre used the same theatrical conventions
as Western theatre. Brecht, like other Western and Eastern audience members,
praised Mei Lanfang for his talent. Mei was a brilliant performer who inspired and
influenced numerous people through his art, including Brecht. Finally, it is
necessary to eradicate exoticism from society. Exoticism is harmful because it keeps
hegemonic structures of white privilege and Western dominance in place. Even
using the term “exotic” when referring to groups of individuals or cultures labels
those people or cultures as “Other” or different, which perpetuates social hegemony.
As a means to stop the larger issue at hand, Othering, it is necessary to stop using
the term exotic all together and to mention to others the harmful implications of it.
From this we will be one step closer to eradicating racism, sexism, able-ism, and
homophobia.
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WORKS CITED
"Double-sword (dance) from Peking Opera, Mei Lanfang (as Concubine)." YouTube.
YouTube, 23 Nov. 2012. Web. 2 Dec. 2013.
Aravamudan, Srinivas. "Response: Exoticism beyond Cosmopolitanism?"
Eighteenth-Century Fiction 25.1 (2012): 227-42. Project MUSE. Web. 2 Dec. 2013.
Brecht, Bertolt, and John Willett. "Alienation Effect in Chinese Acting." Brecht on
Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic. New York: Hill and Wang, 1978. 91-103.
Print.
Mark, Cosdon. "Introducing Occidentals to an Exotic Art: Mei Lanfang in New York."
Asian Theatre Journal 12.1 (1995): 175-89. JSTOR. Web. 27 Nov. 2013.
Curran, Angela. "Brecht’s Criticisms of Aristotle’s Aesthetics of Tragedy." The
Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 59.2 (2001): 167-84. JSTOR. Web. 26 Nov.
2013.
Goldstein, Joshua. "Mei Lanfang and the Nationalization of Peking Opera, 19121930." Positions: East Asia Culture Critiques 7.2 (1999): 377-420. Project MUSE.
Web. 24 Nov. 2013.
Martin, Carol. "Brecht, Feminism, and Chinese Theatre." The Drama Review 43.4
(1999): 77-85. JSTOR. Web. 26 Nov. 2013.
Menil, Rene. "Concerning Colonial Exoticism." Refusal of the Shadow: Surrealism
and the Caribbean. By Michael Richardson. Trans. Krzysztof Fijałkowski. London:
Verso, 1996. 176-81. Print.
Raban, Estelle M. "Peking Opera: The Persistence of Tradition in the People's
Republic of China." The Journal of Popular Culture 25.4 (1992): 53-61. International
Bibliography of Theatre & Dance with Full Text. Web. 25 Nov. 2013.