MODULES
33-40
AP Psychology
MOTIVATION
 Motivation
 a need or desire that energizes and
directs behavior
 Instinct
 complex behavior that is rigidly
patterned throughout a species and is
unlearned
MOTIVATION
 Drive-Reduction Theory
 the idea that a physiological need creates an
aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an
organism to satisfy the need
Need
(e.g., for
food, water)
Drive
(hunger, thirst)
Drive-reducing
behaviors
(eating, drinking)
MOTIVATION
 Homeostasis
 tendency to maintain a balanced or constant
internal state
 regulation of any aspect of body chemistry
around a particular level
 Incentive
 a positive or negative environmental
stimulus that motivates behavior
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY
OF NEEDS
Self-actualization needs
Need to live up to one’s
fullest and unique potential
Esteem needs
Need for self-esteem,
achievement, competence,
and independence; need for
recognition and respect from others
Belongingness and love needs
Need to love and be loved, to belong
and be accepted; need to avoid
loneliness and alienation
Safety needs
Need to feel that the world is organized and
predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable
Physiological needs
Need to satisfy hunger and thirst
 begins at the base
with physiological
needs that must
first be satisfied
 then higher-level
safety needs
become active
 then psychological
needs become
active
MOTIVATION:
HUNGER
 Glucose
 the form of sugar that circulates in the
blood
 provides the major source of energy
for body tissues
 when its level is low, we feel hunger
MOTIVATION:
HUNGER
 Set Point
 the point at which an individual’s “weight
thermostat” is supposedly set
 when the body falls below this weight, an
increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic
rate may act to restore the lost weight
 Basal Metabolic Rate
 body’s base rate of energy expenditure
MOTIVATION:
HUNGER
 The
hypothalamus
controls eating
and other body
maintenance
functions
MOTIVATION:
HUNGER
SEXUAL MOTIVATION
 Sex
 a physiologically based motive, like hunger,
but it is more affected by learning and values
 Sexual Response Cycle
 the four stages of sexual responding
described by Masters and Johnson
 excitement
 plateau
 orgasm
 resolution
FORCES AFFECTING
SEXUAL MOTIVATION
SEXUAL MOTIVATION
 Sexual Orientation
 an enduring sexual attraction toward
members of either one’s own sex
(homosexual orientation) or the other sex
(heterosexual orientation)
MOTIVATION:
AT WORK
 Flow
 a completely, involved, focused state of
consciousness, with diminished awareness of self
and time, resulting from optimal engagement of
one’s skills
 Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology
 the application of psychological concepts and
methods to optimizing human behavior in
workplaces
What Motivates Us
MOTIVATION:
AT WORK
 Personnel Psychology
 sub-field of I-O psychology that focuses on
employee recruitment, selection, placement,
training, appraisal, and development
 Organizational Psychology
 sub-field of I-O psychology that examines
organizational influences on worker satisfaction
and productivity and facilitates organizational
change
MOTIVATION:
AT WORK
 360-degree feedback
MOTIVATION:
AT WORK
Achievement Motivation
 a desire for significant
accomplishment
 for mastery of things, people, or ideas
 for attaining a high standard
MOTIVATION:
AT WORK
 Task Leadership
 goal-oriented leadership that sets standards,
organizes work, and focuses attention on
goals
 Social Leadership
 group-oriented leadership that builds
teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers
support
MOTIVATION:
AT WORK
 Theory X
 assumes that workers are basically lazy, errorprone, and extrinsically motivated by money
 workers should be directed from above
 Theory Y
 assumes that, given challenge and freedom,
workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem
and to demonstrate their competence and
creativity
EMOTION
Emotion
 a response of the whole
organism
 physiological arousal
 expressive behaviors
 conscious experience
JAMES-LANGE
THEORY OF EMOTION
 Experience of emotion is awareness of physiological
responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
Sight of
oncoming
car
(perception of
stimulus)
Pounding
heart
(arousal)
Fear
(emotion)
CANNON-BARD
THEORY OF EMOTION
Sight of
oncoming
car
(perception of
stimulus)
Pounding
heart
(arousal)
Fear
(emotion)
 Emotion-arousing stimuli
simultaneously trigger:
 physiological responses
 subjective experience of
emotion
SCHACHTER’S TWO-FACTOR
THEORY OF EMOTION
Pounding
heart
(arousal)
Sight of
oncoming
car
(perception of
stimulus)
Cognitive
label
“I’m afraid”
 To experience
emotion one must:
Fear
(emotion)
 be physically
aroused
 cognitively label
the arousal
COGNITION AND
EMOTION
 The brain’s shortcut for emotions
TWO DIMENSIONS OF
EMOTION
Positive
valence
pleasant
relaxation
joy
Low
arousal
High
arousal
fear
anger
sadness
Negative
valence
EMOTION:
LIE DETECTORS
 Polygraph
 machine commonly used in attempts to
detect lies
 measures several of the physiological
responses accompanying emotion
 perspiration
 cardiovascular
 breathing changes
EMOTION-LIE DETECTORS
 Is 70% accuracy good?
 Assume 5% of 1000 employees actually guilty
 test all employees
 285 will be wrongly accused
 What about 95% accuracy?
 Assume 1 in 1000 employees actually guilty
 test all employees (including 999 innocents)
 50 wrongly declared guilty
 1 of 51 testing positive are guilty (~2%)
EXPERIENCED
EMOTION
EXPERIENCED
EMOTION
 Infants’ naturally occurring emotions
EXPERIENCED
EMOTION
 Catharsis
 emotional release
 catharsis hypothesis
 “releasing” aggressive energy (through action
or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges
 Feel-good, do-good phenomenon
 people’s tendency to be helpful when
already in a good mood
EXPERIENCED
EMOTION
Subjective Well-Being
 self-perceived happiness or
satisfaction with life
 used along with measures of
objective well-being
physical and economic indicators to
evaluate people’s quality of life
EXPERIENCED
EMOTION
 Adaptation-Level Phenomenon
 tendency to form judgments relative to a
“neutral” level
 brightness of lights
 volume of sound
 level of income
 defined by our prior experience
 Relative Deprivation
 perception that one is worse off relative to those
with whom one compares oneself
HAPPINESS IS...
Researchers Have Found That
Happy People Tend to
However, Happiness Seems Not Much
Related to Other Factors, Such as
Have high self-esteem
(in individualistic countries)
Age
Be optimistic, outgoing, and agreeable
Gender (women are more often
depressed, but also more often joyful)
Have close friendships or a satisfying
marriage
Education levels
Have work and leisure that engage
their skills
Parenthood (having children or not)
Have a meaningful religious faith
Physical attractiveness
Sleep well and exercise
STRESS AND ILLNESS
 Stress
 the process by
which we perceive
and respond to
certain events,
called stressors,
that we appraise
as threatening or
challenging
STRESS APPRAISAL
Appraisal
Response
Threat
(“Yikes! This is
beyond me!”)
Panic, freeze up
Challenge
(“I’ve got to apply
all I know”)
Aroused, focused
Stressful event
(tough math test)
STRESS AND ILLNESS
The body’s resistance to stress can
last only so long before exhaustion sets in
Stress
resistance
Stressor
occurs
Phase 1
Alarm
reaction
(mobilize
resources)
Phase 2
Resistance
(cope with
stressor)
Phase 3
Exhaustion
(reserves
depleted)
 General Adaptation
Syndrome
 Selye’s concept
of the body’s
adaptive
response to
stress in three
stages
STRESS AND HEALTH
 Behavioral Medicine
 interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral
and medical knowledge and applies that
knowledge to health and disease
 Health Psychology
 subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s
contribution to behavioral medicine
STRESSFUL LIFE
EVENTS
 Catastrophic Events
 earthquakes, combat stress, floods
 Life Changes
 death of a loved one, divorce, loss of job,
promotion
 Daily Hassles
 rush hour traffic, long lines, job stress,
burnout
STRESS AND THE
HEART
Coronary Heart Disease
 clogging of the vessels that
nourish the heart muscle
 leading cause of death in many
developed countries
STRESS AND THE
HEART
 Type A
 Friedman and Rosenman’s term for
competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally
aggressive, and anger-prone people
 Type B
 Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing,
relaxed people
STRESS AND DISEASE
 Psychophysiological Illness
 “mind-body” illness
 any stress-related physical illness
 some forms of hypertension
 some headaches
 distinct from hypochondriasis-misinterpreting normal physical
sensations as symptoms of a disease
STRESS AND DISEASE
 Negative emotions and health-related consequences
Heart
disease
Persistent stressors
and negative
emotions
Unhealthy behaviors
(smoking, drinking,
poor nutrition and sleep)
Release of stress
hormones
Immune
suppression
Autonomic nervous
system effects
(headaches,
hypertension)
PROMOTING HEALTH
 Biofeedback
 system for
electronically
recording, amplifying,
and feeding back
information regarding
a subtle physiological
state
 blood pressure
 muscle tension
Life events
Personal appraisal
Challenge
Threat
Personality type
Hostile
Depressed
Pessimistic
Easy going
Nondepressed
Optimistic
Personal habits
Smoking
Sedentary
Poor nutrition
Nonsmoking
Regular exercise
Good nutrition
Level of social support
Close, enduring
Lacking
Tendency toward
Health
Illness
PROMOTING HEALTH
 The religion factor is mulitidimensional
Healthy
behaviors
(less smoking,
drinking)
Religious
involvement
Social support
(faith
communities,
marriage)
Positive
emotions
(less stress,
anxiety)
Better health
(less immune system
suppression, stress
hormones, and suicide)
PROMOTING HEALTH
 Complementary and Alternative
Medicine
 unproven health care treatments not
taught widely in medical schools, not used
in hospitals, and not usually reimbursed
by insurance companies