The Philosophes and Their Ideas
• France was the capital of the Enlightenment.
• Leaders of the Enlightenment were called
“Philosophes”.
• Writers, professors, journalists, statesmen
economists and social reformers.
• Came from both the nobility and middle class.
• Reason was to be used as a tool.
• Apply facts to experience to find the best way
for society to operate.
• Secular movement; focus was not on an
afterlife, but on this world and how it could be
improved and enjoyed.
• Everything should be questioned to determine
whether it made logical sense and served
society.
The Philosophes
• Intellectuals who
discussed ideas
• Used reason to explain
their world
• Believed that reason
could improve society
• Not satisfied with old
ideas
• Believed in tolerance for
all religions
The Philosophes
• Search for universal laws in
human affairs
• Scorned superstition,
Christianity: Voltaire
• Encyclopedia--All human
knowledge: Diderot
• Deism: God created
universe to operate
rationally
• Loosely united group who
shared attitudes towards
society
• Saw themselves as critics
and reformers
• Opposed supposed ‘truths’
of Christianity
– Some atheist, but others saw
truth in Godliness and
spirituality
• Attempted to find truth in
God with an explanation to
the natural world
• Believed in divine
governance
– God transcended
Christianity, found in all
world religions
The “Enlightened” Individual
The Philosophe
►
Not really original thinkers as a whole, but were great publicists of the new thinking  CHANGE &
PROGRESS!
►
They were students of society who analyzed its evils and advanced reforms.
What did the Philosophers Despise?
• Absolute Monarchs
• Land-Owning Nobles
• The Catholic Church’s Abusesf power
Thomas Hobbes
People cannot be
trusted. Kings
should rule!
Thomas Hobbes - English
• Hobbes believed humans are
naturally violent & disorderly;
citizens need kings to protect
them from themselves (like a
father protects his children)
• Hobbes believed that people form
a social contract with the king &
agree to give up their freedoms in
exchange for the king’s protection
John Locke
People are good!
They have rights &
should overthrow
the gov’t when
kings abuse their
power
John Locke - English
• Locke believed that all people
have natural rights (rights to life,
liberty, & ownership of property)
• He added to Hobbes’ Social
Contract Theory saying that
people can break the “contract”
when a king become corrupt
• The best government has limited
powers & listens to the people
Who’s ideas are right?
Hobbes
•
• People are
selfish, selfserving, & brutal
• Without
•
government
control, society
would be chaotic
Locke
People are
reasonable &
able to make
decisions
People should
be able to rule
themselves
Voltaire
Don’t be a
hater! People
should be
allowed to say
anything they
want, even if
you don’t like it
Voltaire - French
• Voltaire demanded that kings
offer their people freedoms of
thought, speech, & religion
• He fought against prejudice &
pushed for the French king to be
more tolerant
Questions for discussion:
• Voltaire said:
“I may disapprove of what
you say, but I will defend to
the death your right to say it.”
• What does this statement
indicate about Voltaire’s views
on free speech?
Baron de Montesquieu French
Giving one
person all the
power is a bad
idea.
Baron de Montesquieu
• Montesquieu wanted separation
of powers & checks and balances
Like
Like a king
Like a
to keeporkings
from gainingcourt
too
Parliament
or president
Congress
system
much power in the government:
–Legislative branch makes laws
–Executive branch enforces laws
–Judicial branch interprets laws
Jean-Jacques Rousseau French
Let’s make a
government that
benefits the
majority of people
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
What
thenaturally
majority
• Believed people
are
wants, the majority
good, but power corrupts
gets them
• The best form of government is
a direct
democracy
Like
their choice
if they that
disagree
with the
promotes
themajority
common good of
opinion
the majority
• People give up some of their
individual rights to be ruled by
the general will of the majority
Centers of the Enlightenment
How did Enlightenment writers
and thinkers set the stage for
revolutionary movements?
• Philosophes encouraged people
to judge for themselves what they
thought was right or wrong
• People began to rely on reason
to solve their social problems
• These ideas led to violent
revolutions in America & France
to overthrow “corrupt kings”
The American “Philosophes”
John Adams
(1745-1826)
Ben Franklin
(1706-1790)
…...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness…
Thomas
Jefferson
(1743-1826)
Philosophers in America
•
•
•
•
•
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Paine
Benjamin Franklin
Patrick Henry
George Washington
Putting Theory into Practice:
The American Revolution
• “Great upheavals in history occur when
circumstances are ripe.”
• French & Indian War (1754-1763)
• Stamp Act of 1765
– Needed to raise revenues in colonies to pay war debt
– Taxed 54 ordinary items
– Colonial reaction was bitter, Stamp Act repealed
• Townshend Acts of 1767
– Taxed paper, paint, glass, lead, and tea
– Colonists organized boycott; British dissolved the
Massachusetts legislature and sent troops to Boston
• Boston Massacre (1770)—5 dead
Putting Theory into Practice:
The American Revolution
• Tea Act of 1773
– Led to Boston Tea Party
• Coercive or Intolerable Acts of 1774
–
–
–
–
–
Shut down port of Boston
Forbade meetings
British troops could be housed in colonists’ homes
No British officials could be tried in colonies
Annulled charter of colonies, put British Governor in charge
of all
• First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia
• “The Shot Heard Round the World”
– Lexington & Concord
Thomas Jefferson
The American Revolution &
Declaration
of the
Independence
• Jefferson
wrote
Declaration of
inspired
people
around
the
world
to
Independence
(1776)
&
based
it
overthrow their gov’t & form
heavily on John
Locke’s ideas
democracy
• The Declaration explained the
reasons for the American
Revolution & the that the US gov’t
would be based on human liberty
& democracy
Progression Timeline
Five Key Ideas of the
Enlightenment
The five important philosophical concepts
are
1. Reason
2. Nature
3. Happiness
4. Progress
5. Liberty
Five Key Ideas of the Enlightenment
• EnlUrged the use of:
– Reason: absence of intolerance, bigotry or prejudice in
one’s thinking; beliefs should be rational and free of biases
– Nature: natural laws exist w/out man’s creation; what was
natural was good and reasonable; God is found in nature
– Happiness: a person who lives by nature’s law finds
happiness; argued against medieval notion that people
should accept misery as part of life’s circle; Philosophes
believed in well-being on earth
– Progress: Philosophes believed individuals could seek
perfection and in return, society seek perfection; looked at
human being as capable of progress, making something
better
– Liberty: freedoms should not be merely granted, but
expected; beliefs that we are born with liberties in nature
Philosophes were social critics who
believed reason could be applied to all
aspects of life.
They think about
Reason: The belief that through
reason society could be
set free.
Nature: Believed that nature was
good and reasonable.
Happiness: Believed that everyone
who lived by the laws
of nature would be
happy.
Progress: Believed that reason
would lead people to
improve themselves.
Liberty: Believed that only
through liberty or
freedom can people be
happy.
Reason
*Belief in logic and science.
*Supported the application of the scientific method to all
aspects of society.
*Government should be based on reason.
*It was a period of questioning---led to the development
of Political Science.
*Importance of education and knowledge:
a)an understanding of human nature and how to
apply that knowledge
b)knowledge would conquer fear, superstition, and
prejudice
c)knowledge was key to improving society
Reason
• Truth can be discovered
through reason (logical
thinking).
• Reason= unbiased
thinking – open to new
ideas
Reason
• Enlightenment philosophers combined logic
and reason
• Logic: formal logic is the process(es) by
which an argument can be determined as
valid or not. An argument is valid if the
premises are all true, then the conclusion
must also be true.
– Example: All humans have heart. Tom is a
human. Therefore, Tom has a heart.
• Reason: Enlightenment thinkers stated that it
consisted of common sense, observation,
and their own unacknowledged prejudices in
favor of skepticism and freedom.
Reason Cont.
*The greatest crimes are
perpetuated in the name
of religion and God.
*A fair, just, and productive
society absolutely
depends on religious
tolerance.
*This means religious
tolerance for all forms of
Christianity and nonChristian faiths.
What is “Enlightenment?”
Reason
& Logic
rationalism
 empiricism
 tolerance
 skepticism
 Deism
Traditions
and
Superstitions
 nostalgia for the
past
 organized religions
 irrationalism
 emotionalism
Immanuel Kant –-- DARE TO KNOW!
Reason
• Issues of the 17th century scene that the idea
of Reason attacked: Dogma & Fanaticism
– Witch-hunts and Wars of Religion
– Protestants & Catholics denounced each other as
followers of Satan
– People imprisoned for attending wrong church
– All publications censored by church and state
– Slavery widely practiced, defended by religious
leaders
– Despotism of monarchs=“divine right of kings”
– Any opposition was imprisoned or executed
• Reason and Logic had no room for these
matters
Topics of the Age of Reason
Science
Government
Ethics
How are these subjects like the subjects of The
Age of Faith?
How are they different from the subjects of the
Age of Faith?
Nature
*The belief that there were natural laws that govern the
earth as well as man.
*Focused on the scientific discoveries and use of reason to
examine the world.
*Deism---a religious philosophy that developed around the
following concepts:
a)an impersonal deity (God)
b)God is found in nature. You do not have to attend
a formal church.
c)There is a common morality amongst humans that
is seen in the similarities between Judaism, Christianity,
and Islam.
d)It is a religion based upon REASON and not Faith.
Nature
• What is natural is good
and reasonable
• Natural laws affect
economics and politics
just as natural laws guide
science (ex: motion).
Nature Cont.
e)Goal was to humanize religion.
f)Rejected original sin.
g)Attacked Christianity for the
persecution of other
religions and abuses of power.
h)Believed society should exist without
religious supervision.
i)It was their job to discover how the
world God created worked.
j)Rejected traditions and superstitions.
Deism/Nature
• The word "Deism" is derived from the Latin word
for God: "Deus." Deism involves the belief in the
existence of God, on purely rational grounds,
without any reliance on revealed religion or
religious authority.
• Deists:
– Do not accept the belief of most religions that
God revealed himself to humanity through the
writings of the Bible, the Qur'an or other
religious texts.
– Disagree with strong Atheists who assert that
there is no evidence of the existence of God.
Deism/Nature
• Deists regard their faith as a natural religion,
as contrasted with one that is revealed by a
God or which is artificially created by humans.
• They reason that since everything that exists
has had a creator, then the universe itself
must have been created by God.
• Thomas Paine concluded a speech shortly
after the French Revolution with: "God is the
power of first cause, nature is the law, and
matter is the subject acted upon.”
Growth of Deism/Nature
• Intellectuals believe in God but see
him as a "watchmaker"
• Deists skeptical of organized religion
– Catholic Church was attacked
• Deists struggle with personal
standards
• Denial of providence (Voltaire)
disputed by others (Pope, Rousseau)
• Denial of evil
Example of Deism
• Natural Law – law
that applied to
everyone and could
be understood by
reason
• Thinkers tried to apply
reason and scientific
ideas to government
Happiness
*This was a time period of optimism.
*Believed every man had the right to
develop his full potential.
*Focus on secular issues to make life
better on earth.
Happiness
• Living by Nature’s
Laws brings
happiness.
• Happiness for all is
possible.
Liberty
*Guaranteed freedoms/rights that everyone should have
like press, speech, religion.
*Exploring the issues of equality amongst races and
gender.
*Exploring what is the best form of government and why.
*Create a government that will help overcome human
cruelty and violence by using its power to further social
improvements.
Liberty
• Envied liberties of
English (Glorious
Revolution; Bill of Rights)
• Society could be set free
through reason.
Progress
• A SCIENTIFIC
approach can lead to
perfect humanity and
science.
Progress
Progress
*The belief that man can
improve and perfect society
through education and scientific
advances.
*Attack existing institutions and
concepts of:
a)absolutism
b)Christianity
c)views on how the world
works
*Belief in the importance of
social reform
*By mastering both natural and
human sciences, man can
harness the natural world for its
own benefit and learn to live
peacefully with one another.
The Age of Reason
Ideas of Enlightenment
• Educated people throughout
Europe, beyond, inspired
• Held notion that world problems
could be solved
• New ideas debated in
coffeehouses, public spaces
• Writers published ideas in books,
magazines, pamphlets
Peak of Enlightenment
• Reached peak in 1700s
• Paris, center of intellectual activity
• Parisian women hosted social
gatherings, salons
• Philosophers, artists, scientists,
writers regularly discussed ideas
The Social Environment of the
Philosophes
• Salons---Marie-Therese de Geoffrin
• Coffee Houses
• Societies dedicated to thoughtful
discourse.
– Select Society of Edinburgh and the American
Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.
– Secret societies like the Free Masons.
Zoology & Biology
A dissection at the Royal Academy, London
The “Republic of Letters”
A. URBAN –-- gathering of elites in the cities (salons)
B. URBANE --– cosmopolitan, worldly
- music, art, literature, politics
- read newspapers & the latest
books
C. POLITENESS –-- proper behavior
- self-governed
Reading During the Enlightenment
► Literacy:
- 80 % for men, 60 % women
► Books were expensive (one day’s wages)
► Many readers for each book
►- novels, plays & other literature
- journals, memoirs, “private lives”
- philosophy, history, theology
- newspapers, political pamphlets
► - often censored by governments
Chemistry Labs & Botany Gardens
A Brief Chance for Equality
• Women ran the Salons, these small
gathering places, and the sexes could
exchange ideas on an equal basis.
• People wanted to become “enlightened”
even monarchs wanted to be seen as
“enlightened monarchs,” ones who used
reason to govern their people.
Madame was not well
educated but in close contact
with philosophers & heads of
state
• Meetings held in large
rooms in wealthy
mansion of women in
France
• Artists, writers,
philosophers, & other
intellects met to discuss
and share ideas
• Started in the home of
Madame Geoffrin
A Parisian Salon
The Salonnieres
Madame Geoffrin
(1699-1777)
Mademoiselle
Julie de Lespinasse
(1732*-1776)
Madame
Suzanne Necker
(1739-1794)
Salons and Their Hostesses
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The salons were cultural institutions dating back to the early 17th century, extending from
the institutionalized court where royal women had entertained the city elite.
Parisian salons were distinguished from all-male literary circles and the society
of cabarets and cafes, for they were dominated by women.
Aristocratic and upper bourgeoisie women, called salonnieres organized and ran
the salons from their homes.
They set the tone and goals of the gatherings and helped bring writers, artists,
philosophers, and other various patrons together.
From 1770 to 1830, Paris went through a number of political, social, and cultural
changes.
The arrival of the Enlightenment, French Revolution and the Restoration each
left their mark on the Parisian salons.
Enlightenment salons brought a new element of “seriousness and regularity” to
the salon as they formed the social base of the Republic of Letters and thus
contributed to the social project of Enlightenment.
The Salon of Madame
Geoffrin
• Lacking in social status, attractiveness, and education,
the salon of Madame Geoffrin was “one of the wonders
of the social world.”
• She was orphaned at a young age and married the
wealthy director of the royal glassworks at Saint-Gobain.
• In her twenties she began apprenticing at the salon of
her neighbor, Madame de Tencin.
• Philosophes, artists, nobles, princes, ambassadors,
politicians, and reformers flocked to Mme. Geoffrin’s.
•
On Monday nights, her guests were mostly artists.
Wednesday night dinners were primarily literary themed.
• Mme. Geoffrin’s salon was characterized by interested
guests providing stimulating intellectual debate.
A Parisian Salon
Madame Geoffrin (cont.)
•
•
•
•
Mme. Geoffrin made two innovative changes in the way her salon was run. She
switched the traditional late night dinner to one-o’clock to allow for an entire
afternoon of discussion.
She created a regular weekly salon dinner schedule.
Mme. Geoffrin’s salon became popular because she was a sympathetic listener, a
generous woman, and could bring the best out of others.
On Sundays her salon wasn’t open, instead she distributed bags of money to the
poorer folk.
The Salon of Madame
Stäel
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mme. Stäel was the daughter of famous salonniere
Suzanne Necker and James Necker, the Swiss Director of
Finance under Louis XVI.
Mme. Stäel’s grew up in a setting rich in intelligence and
learning, and was surrounded by all the facilities of
affluence.
Mme. Stäel was a frequent guest at her mother’s salon
while growing up, giving her the opportunity to take
interest in a variety of subjects and to converse at a level
beyond her age.
At the age of twenty she married the Baron von Stäel
Holstein, the Swedish ambassador to France, and due to
this marriage, she gained an influential position in the
social world of Paris
Mme. Stäel became a talented stateswoman, novelist,
playwright, actress, metaphysician, and musician. Her
kindness, generosity, animated writing, and clever tact
earned her the respect and admiration of many
The Salon that she came to run became considered as
“the most brilliant in Paris…at the height of its vogue.”
Madame Stäel (cont.)
•
•
•
•
•
•
She was in the good graces of Marie Antoinette, but
commented that the court was so lavish and the
members so spoiled that it demoralized life
She was present when the king was violently dethroned on
October 6, 1790, and often offered shelter at her home to
popular leaders who needed protection and a place to
hide
Became close with Charles Maurice de Tallyrand and Louis
de Norbonne, which caused many to question her intentions
– she and Norbonne would often speak of democracy, even
though they would support the monarchy until it fell
When it did fall, however Mme Stäel was forced to escape
to Switzerland, after saving so many other lives from the
wrath of the lower classes
She bravely returned to Paris in April of 1795 with a new
lover in tow and began to host a dinner every ten days
inviting people of all varying opinions and on particular
days she “entertained separately the leaders of the various
cliques.”
Her book De la Littérature was considered the first
serious effort to introduce France to the underlying
characteristics of German and English literature
A Quick Sum Up of why
Women did not Benefit:
• #1 Lack of Opportunities
• #2 Views of Society
• #3 Especially the views of men:
Remember Rosseau, the ANTI-FEMINIST
guy.
• Along with educational setbacks, women
still did not have many political rights
during this time such as property owning,
or voting like the men.
Impact of the Enlightenment: Religion And
The Churches
• Religion continued to go strong through the 17th and
18th centuries.
• Both the Protestant churches or the Catholic churches
were instruments of the establishment, supporting
government and catering to the interests of the privileged
class.
• Churches themselves were still an integral part of the
power structure.
• Toleration and Religious Minorities
– Enlightenment religious tolerance, but only successful in limited
areas.
– Germany and France had reached a degree of religious
toleration after their religious wars.
– France reverted when Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes.
– Throughout most of Europe devote rulers either outlawed or
restricted the right of those of the “wrong” religion.
Impact of the Enlightenment: Popular
Religion in the 18th Century
• Despite Deism and new rationalism, most
average people remained devout
• Religious turmoil of the reformation and counterreformation calmed down.
• Protestant churches settled down into more
institutionalized, often state-supported and more
bureaucratic institutions.
• This led some Protestants to seek a more
spiritual church
Religion and the Churches
• 18th cent., Protestant churches flourished throughout Europe
– Lutheranism (Germany & Scandinavia), Anglicanism (England),
& Calvinism (Scotland, United Provinces, Swiss cantons,
German states)
– Catholicism still strong in Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, &
Habsburg Empire
• 18th cent. – Catholic states started to push for more control
over churches in their countries.
– “Nationalization” meant controlling the papacy & Jesuit Order
– Jesuits had a great deal of political power based on influence in
colonial holdings, made many political enemies
– 1773: Spain & France demanded Pope Clement XIV dissolve
the Jesuit Order
– end of the Jesuits paralleled by decline in Papal power
Popular Religion in 18th Century
• no records on regular attendance, but 90-95% Catholics went to
mass on Easter
– people focused on veneration of saints, pilgrimages, worship of relics
– seen by clergy as “more superstitious than devout”
• In areas of Europe where rationalism & deism became more
influential, pietism developed
– Pietism : movement to foster a personal experience w/ God as focus
of true religious experience
– spread by teachings of Count Nikolaus Zinzendorf (1700-1760)
– opposed rationalizing Christian faiths, said “He who wishes to
comprehend God with his mind becomes an atheist.”
• desire for deep spiritual experience in England unmet until the
advent of John Wesley (1703-1791) & Methodism
– sought to bring “glad tidings” of salvation to all people
– appealed more to lower classes of society, ignored by Anglican
Church
– “Methodists” proved that spiritual experience had not been totally
drowned out by the search for reason
Impact of the Enlightenment: Development
of Methodism
• Founded by John Wesley, an Englishman. Complaint
with Anglican Church?
• Wesley preached to the masses in open fields where
people underwent conversion experiences.
• He was a very fiery preacher.
• Converts were organized into Methodist societies in
each area so that people could work together to do good
works and spread the gospel.
• Wesley remained the head of all these societies.
• He tried to keep the movement within the Anglican
church, but after his death it broke off and became the
Methodist Church.
Impact of the Enlightenment: European Jews
• Jews remained the most persecuted group in Europe.
• Ashkenazic Jews. Largest group. Lived in Eastern Europe.
– They were restricted in their movements and in the
occupations they could engage in.
– Usually were prohibited from owning land and subject to
special taxes.
– Poland more tolerant
– Were often subject to outbursts of hatred and persecution—
Pogroms.
• Sephardic Jews—descendents of those Jews kicked out of
Spain in the 15th century.
– Some had migrated to Turkish lands
– many settled in cities in Western Europe often worked in
banking and commerce.
– Many found prominent positions in European courts.
• Generally they were discriminated against throughout Europe.
Toleration & Religious Minorities
• out of political necessity, toleration of certain creeds began by 17th cent.
• Louis XIV turned back the clock, persecuting Huguenots in the early 18th
cent.
• Austria - Toleration Patent of 1781 recognized Catholic public practice &
granted right to private worship for Lutherans, Calvinists, & Greek Orthodox
– in all other ways, Austrians were equal
Toleration of the Jews
• remained the despised religious minority of Europe
• largest # of Ashkenazic Jews lived in Eastern Europe
–
–
–
–
restricted in movement
forbidden to own land or hold jobs
pay special taxes
subject to periodic popular wrath
• Sephardic Jews - had been expelled from Spain in 15th cent.
– settled in Turkish lands, also cities such as Amsterdam, Venice, London,
& Frankfurt where they were free to work in banking & commercial
activities
– many philosophes denounced persecution, but still ridiculed Jewish
customs
– Austria: eased restrictions on Jews, but still own land or worship publicly
Religious Population in Eighteenth-Century Europe
©2003 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning ™ is a trademark used herein under license.
Impact of the Enlightenment
• Today the Enlightenment is
often viewed as a historical
anomaly – a brief moment
when a number of thinkers
infatuated with reason vainly
supposed that the perfect
society could be built on
common sense and tolerance,
a fantasy which collapsed amid
the Terror of the French
Revolution and the triumphal
sweep of Romanticism.
Impact/ Effects of the Enlightenment
• The Enlightenment birthed two revolutions
imperative to Western Civilization:
– American Revolution
– French Revolution
• The Enlightenment created an outlet for
intellectuals/educated to openly debate issues w/in
society
• This era allowed for a greater sense of
‘universalism’ where peoples did not live for their
own sake, but sought betterment for others
England v. France
• The English and French Enlightenments
exchanged influences through many
channels.
– Because England had gotten its
revolution out of the way early, it was
able to proceed more smoothly down
the road to democracy.
– But English liberty was dynamite
when transported to France, where
resistance by church and state was
fierce.
Why should we care?
• Because Thomas Jefferson
totally ripped off of these guys!
• You remember that little paper
he wrote? It was called The
Declaration of Independence
and signed on July 4, 1776.
• This paper summarized how
the Enlightenment ideas
influenced our American
forefathers (Thomas Jefferson,
Benjamin Franklin, John
Adams, James Madison).
Enlightenment in America
• Meanwhile, across the Atlantic, many
of the intellectual leaders of the
American colonies were drawn to the
Enlightenment.
– Jefferson, Washington, Franklin,
and Paine were powerfully
influenced by Enlightenment
thought.
– The God who underwrites the
concept of equality in the
Declaration of Independence is
the same Deist God Rousseau
worshipped.
American Revolution
• The language of natural law,
of inherent freedoms, of selfdetermination which seeped
so deeply into the American
grain was the language of the
Enlightenment.
• Separated geographically
from most of the aristocrats
against whom they were
rebelling, their revolution was
to be far less corrosive than
that in France.
Enlightenment Ideas in
America
• Natural Rights –life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness
• Separation of Power – legislative, judicial, & executive
branches
• Social Contract
• Freedom of speech, press, and religion
• Purpose of Gov’t to serve the people
• System of Checks and Balances
• Capitalism
• Importance of Education
• Belief that science and eventually technology will solve most
or all problems
• Idea of Human Rights
• Helping others---social services, etc….