Conducting Research: The
Scientific Methods
Hyde, A. (2007). Adapted from Henlsin, J. (2005) Sociology:
A Down to Earth Approach 7/e. New York: Allyn & Bacon and
by Ozan Akkus, Ph.D., Fordham University, August 2005
Definitions of Science
► The
observation, identification, description,
experimental investigation, and theoretical
explanation of phenomena.
► The systematic and organized inquiry into
the natural world and its phenomena.
► The systematic observation of natural
events and conditions in order to discover
facts about them and to formulate laws and
principles based on these facts.
The Goals of Science
Understand (philosophical inquiry;
social and natural sciences)

Predict (social and natural sciences)
Control (social and natural sciences)
The Natural Sciences & The Social Sciences

The Natural Sciences—Explain and Predict Events in Natural
Environment

The Social Sciences—Examine Human Relationships
 Political Science—Studies How People Govern Themselves/Use Power
 Economics—Studies the Production and Distribution of Goods and Services
 Anthropology—The Study of Culture
 Psychology—The Study of Processes Within Individuals
 Sociology – The Study of Groups, Individuals and Environments
What Makes a Method Scientific?
►A
scientific method is any process by which
researchers, collectively and over time,
endeavor to construct an accurate (that is,
reliable, consistent and non-arbitrary)
representation of some phenomenon.
► The
Scientific Method usually refers to of
the testing of an hypothesis via
experimental design to generate
quantifiable data.
The Scientific Method: Scope
 Can be applied to anything within the
range of our experiences
 Can offer useful explanations and
predictions (technological advances;
medical cures)
 Aims to falsify more than to prove
 Does not aim to give an ultimate answer.
iterative and recursive nature  always
tentative
 Does not establish GOODNESS, BEAUTY,
or TRUTH
Levels of Analysis & Types of Research
Macro—Broad Matters
 Micro—Individualistic Matters
Basic-Constructing Theory
Applied-Implementing Solutions
Steps in the Research Process
1.
Selecting a Topic
5.
Choosing a Research Method
2.
Defining a Problem
6.
Collecting Data
3.
Reviewing the Literature
7.
Analyzing Results
4.
Formulating a
8.
Sharing Results
Hypothesis
Steps in the Research Process
Source: Modification of Fig. 2.2 of Schaefer 1989
Deciding Which Method to Use

Available Resources

Access to Subjects

Purpose of Research

Researcher’s Background and Training
Deciding Which Method to Use

Quantitative Research Methods
Emphasis on Precise Measurement
Uses Statistics and Numbers

Qualitative Research Methods
Emphasis on Observing, Describing, and
Interpreting Behavior
Ethics in Social Research

Openness, Honesty, and Truthfulness
Forbids Falsifying Results
Condemns Plagiarism
Subjects’

Informed Consent
Subjects’ Anonymity
Protecting

Subjects: The Brajuha Research
Misleading Subjects: The Humphreys Research
Research Methods: Survey

Choose Population

Select a Sample
 Random Sample
 Stratified Random Sample

Choose Neutral Questions
Two Types of Surveys

Questionnaires

Self-Administered

Allow the Largest
Sample


Low Cost
Loss of Researcher
Control

Interviews
 More Researcher Control
 Time Consuming
 Interviewer Bias
 Structured Interviews
 Open-Ended Questions
 Establish Rapport
Research Methods: Participant Observation
“Fieldwork”
Researcher Participates
Exploratory Work or Ethnography
Generates Hypotheses
Problems with Generalizability
Research Methods: Secondary Analysis
 Analyze Data Collected by Others

Researcher Cannot Be Sure of Data Quality
Research Methods: Document Analysis
 Examine
Books, Newspapers, Diaries, etc.
 Limited
Scope
 Cannot
Study Topic Unless Access is Granted
Research Methods: Unobtrusive Measures
 Observe
 Question
People Without Them Knowing
of Ethics
Research Methods: Experiments
Experimental Group – Random Assignment
Control Group – Random Assignment
Dependent Variables
Independent Variables
Control of Outside Variables
Dependent vs. Independent
Variables
► Dependent
Variable = what you are
measuring (Test Scores)
► Independent Variable = what are in control
of or what you manipulate (Big Bird)
► Measure the Dependent Variable Twice
(Pre- and Post – Test)
► How does the Independent Variable affect
the Dependent Variable?
Figure 5.2 The Experiment
Scientific Theory Building/Testing