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Attach a tilde (~) to the front of a word to omit results containing that word. More search tips >> Home > Read > RPM > Open article in new window Share RPM MAGAZINE o Recent Articles o Issue Archives o Topical Archive s o Hall of Frame o Subscribe to R PM o About RPM o Submit an Articl e The Thought of Cornelius Van Til Lecture Outline John M. Frame I. Why Study Van Til? A. Fra me: "the most imp orta nt Chri stian thin ker sinc e Calv in." Beca use he coge ntly argu es the bibli cal teac hing that God is Lord of all hum an thou ght as well as hum an life. 1. C o m p a r e K a n t , w h o m a d e a l l r e a l i t y c o n f o r m t o t h e h u m a n m i n d ( i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e i n t e l l i g e n t j e l l y j a r s ) . 2. V a n T i l , j u s t a s c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y , i n s i s t s t h a t r e a l i t y m u s t c o n f o r m t o t h e m i n d o f G o d . B. Muc h theol ogic al insig ht. C. A pow erful apol ogeti c meth od. D. Van Til's thou ght requ ires com preh ensi ve criti cal anal ysis. 1. " A n a l y s i s " a . I n t e r p r e t i n g . b . U n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w i t f i t s t o g e t h e r . 2. " C r i t i c i s m " a . R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t V a n T i l i s a f a l l i b l e h u m a n b e i n g . b . S o r t i n g o u t t h e g o o d f r o m t h e b a d , s o t h a t w e c a n b u i l d o n t h e g o o d . 3. " C o m p r e h e n s i v e : " t r y i n g t o d i s c u s s a n d t i e t o g e t h e r a l l t h e m a j o r e l e m e n t s o f V a n T i l' s t h o u g h t . 4. O f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o r e a d a n d i n t e r p r e t . a . H o m e y i l l u s t r a t i o n s , v i v i d l a n g u a g e — b u t t h e s e c a n l e a d r e a d e r s p r e m a t u r e l y t o t h i n k t h e y h a v e u n d e r s t o o d V a n T i l . b . M u c h o f V a n T i l p r e s u p p o s e s s o m e k n o w l e d g e o f p h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e o l o g y . 5. M a n y p u b l i s h e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e n o t a d e q u a t e . a . M a n y s t u d i e s s y m p a t h e t i c a n d u s e f u l , b u t n o t a n a l y t i c a l : R u s h d o o n y , P r a t t , M a r s t o n . b . S o m e a n a l y s e s u s e f u l , b u t n o t c r i t i c a l : N o t a r o , N o r t h ' s F o u n d a t i o n s ( f o r t h e m o s t p a r t ) . c . M a n y s t u d i e s s e e k t o d e b u n k , b u t d o n ' t g e t i t r i g h t : B u s w e l l , D a a n e , M o n t g o m e r y , P i n n o c k , R o b b i n s , C r a m p t o n , S p r o u l , B e r k o u w e r , M c G r a t h . d . S o m e s t u d i e s a r e s y m p a t h e t i c , a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y c r i t i c a l , b u t n o t c o m p r e h e n s i v e : i . W e a v e r a n d L e w i s i n J e r u s a l e m a n d A t h e n s . ( K n u d s e n ' s a r t i c l e s h o u l d p e r h a p s b e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s l i s t , b u t I d o n ' t f i n d i t v e r y u s e f u l . ) i i . N o r t h , D o m i n i o n a n d C o m m o n G r a c e . i i i . B a h n s e n , V a n T i l ' s A p o l o g e t i c . T h i s b o o k i s q u i t e t h o r o u g h i n i t s a n a l y s i s ( n o t c r i t i c a l , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t ) o f V a n T i l ' s a p o l o g e t i c , b u t i t i s s k e t c h y i n d e a l i n g w i t h o t h e r a r e a s o f V a n T i l ' s t h o u g h t . e . M o v e m e n t t h i n k e r s : H a l s e y , H o r n e r , K a r l b e r g , W h i t e , B a h n s e n ( t o s o m e e x t e n t ) , r e f l e c t i n g a d u a l i t y i n V a n T i l ' s o w n w o r k . i . V a n T i l w a s b o t h a c r e a t i v e s c h o l a r a n d a m o v e m e n t l e a d e r . i i . H e o f t e n s a w t h e R e f o r m e d F a i t h a s a n t i t h e t i c a l t o o t h e r f o r m s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y : R o m a n C a t h o l i c i s m , L u t h e r a n i s m , A r m i n i a n i s m . 6. S p i r i t u a l B e n e f i t ( M y T e s t i m o n y ) a . M y g u i d e t h r o u g h p h i l o s o p h y s t u d i e s i n c o l l e g e a n d g r a d s c h o o l : V a n T i l s h o w e d m e t h a t S c r i p t u r e , w h i c h p r e s e n t s t h e g o s p e l o f s a l v a t i o n , a l s o p r e s e n t s m e t a p h y s i c s , e p i s t e m o l o g y , a n d e t h i c s . b . A t s e m i n a r y : s o m e p r o b l e m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d w i t h m o v e m e n t m e n t a l i t y . II. Major Themes of Van Til's Thought A. All hum an thou ght and life gove rned by pres uppo sitio ns. 1. U l t i m a t e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s s e r v e a s c r i t e r i a o f t r u t h a n d r i g h t . 2. T h e C h r i s t i a n p r e s u p p o s e s t h e t r u t h o f t h e W o r d o f G o d . 3. T h e n o n C h r i s t i a n p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t G o d ' s W o r d i s n o t t r u e ; b u t h e c a n n o t p r e s u p p o s e t h a t c o n s i s t e n t l y , s o h e r e g u l a r l y d e p e n d s o n C h r i s t i a n p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s i n p r a c t i c a l l i f e ( " b o r r o w e d c a p i t a l " ) . 4. H u m a n t h o u g h t i s p a r t o f l i f e : e p i s t e m o l o g y i s p a r t o f e t h i c s . S o t h o u g h t t o o i s g o v e r n e d b y p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s . B. Onl y Chri stian pres uppo sitio ns yield an intel ligib le, mea ning ful, acco unt of reali ty. ("Th e Met aphy sics of Kno wled ge") 1. G o d i s t h e c r e a t o r o f t h e w o r l d a n d o f t h e h u m a n m i n d , s o a l l i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y i s d u e t o h i m . H e i s t h e a u t h o r o f a l l t r u t h , w i s d o m , a n d k n o w l e d g e . 2. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h i n g a b o u t a n y f a c t i s i t s r e l a t i o n t o G o d . T o d e n y t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p i n e v i t a b l y i n t r o d u c e s d i s t o r t i o n . 3. W i t h o u t G o d n o p r e d i c a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e : t h e r e i s n o w a y t o a t t a c h a p r e d i c a t e t o a s u b j e c t . a . F o r p r e d i c a t i o n , y o u n e e d r e a l s u b j e c t s ( p a r t i c u l a r s , f a c t s ) , i n t e l l i g i b l y r e l a t e d t o o n e a n o t h e r . b . R e a l p r e d i c a t e s ( u n i v e r s a l s , c o n c e p t s , l a w s , l o g i c ) u n i v e r s a l l y a p p l i c a b l e . N o c h a n c e . c . I n t e l l i g i b l e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e m . d . A h u m a n m i n d c a p a b l e o f m a k i n g t h e s e c o n n e c t i o n s . e . E l s e , y o u c a n n o t a t t a c h p a r t i c u l a r s t o u n i v e r s a l s , f a c t s t o l o g i c . i . " T r y i n g t o p u t b e a d s o n a s t r i n g w i t h n o h o l e s i n t h e b e a d s . " i i . A " t u r n p i k e i n t h e s k y . " " S w o r d i n t h e s k y . " A n " e n g i n e w i t h o u t a n a i r p l a n e . " A " r e v o l v i n g d o o r i n a v o i d , m o v i n g f r o m n o w h e r e t o n o w h e r e . " " A r o c k i n a n e n d l e s s o c e a n . " i i i . A r i s t o t l e ' s i n f i m a s p e c i e s : h o w d o y o u c h a r a c t e r i z e w h a t i s m o s t p a r t i c u l a r , a n d t h e r e f o r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m a n y t h i n g e l s e ? N o u n i v e r s a l c a n a p p l y t o i t e n t i r e l y , l e t i t l o s e i t s i n d i v i d u a l i t y . B u t t h e n t h e p a r t i c u l a r i s u n r e l a t e d t o a n y t h i n g e l s e , u n k n o w a b l e , a n d t h e r e f o r e , i n e f f e c t , n o t h i n g . P u r e u n i t y c a n n o t b e r e l a t e d t o p u r e d i v e r s i t y . e . " T h e o n e a n d t h e m a n y . " 4. U n b e l i e f r e s u l t s f r o m i g n o r i n g a n d s u p p r e s s i n g c l e a r r e v e l a t i o n , a n i r r a t i o n a l s t a n c e ( R o m . 1 : 1 8 2 1 ) . 5. D e n y i n g G o d l e a d s t o d i s t o r t i o n s i n e v e r y a r e a o f t h o u g h t a n d l i f e . 6. C h r i s t i a n i t y p r o v i d e s a s t r u c t u r e f o r i n t e l l i g i b l e p r e d i c a t i o n : a . T h e T r i n i t y a s t h e g r o u n d f o r u n i t y b e t w e e n p a r t i c u l a r s a n d u n i v e r s a l s . b . G o d ' s e t e r n a l p l a n , b y w h i c h n a t u r e a n d h i s t o r y f o r m a n i n t e l l i g i b l e w h o l e . c . R e v e l a t i o n a s a r e l i a b l e m e a n s o f k n o w l e d g e . d . M y s t e r i e s : a c c e p t a b l e , s i n c e w e d o n ' t n e e d t o r e s o l v e a l l o f t h e m t o h a v e t r u e k n o w l e d g e . C. The Noet ic Effe cts of Sin ("Th e Ethi cs of Kno wled ge") 1. T h e u n b e l i e v e r k n o w s G o d , b u t s u p p r e s s e s t h i s t r u t h ( R o m . 1 : 1 8 3 2 ) . 2. I n t e r m s o f h i s s y s t e m , h e s e e s e v e r y t h i n g w r o n g l y : y e l l o w g l a s s e s c e m e n t e d t o h i s f a c e . " A l l i s y e l l o w t o t h e j a u n d i c e d e y e . " " T h e m a n m a d e o f w a t e r t r y i n g t o c l i m b o u t o f t h e w a t e r o n a l a d d e r o f w a t e r . " 3. B u t h e s o m e t i m e s u s e s a n d s p e a k s t r u t h b y b o r r o w e d c a p i t a l . 4. B e t w e e n a c o n s i s t e n t n o n C h r i s t i a n w o r l d v i e w a n d a c o n s i s t e n t l y C h r i s t i a n w o r l d v i e w , t h e r e i s a n t i t h e s i s . T h e w i s d o m o f t h e w o r l d , v e r s u s t h e w i s d o m o f G o d . L i k e a b u z z s a w s e t i n t h e w r o n g d i r e c t i o n . 5. B u t o f c o u r s e n e i t h e r C h r i s t i a n s n o r n o n C h r i s t i a n s a r e f u l l y c o n s i s t e n t i n t h i s l i f e . D. Apo loget ics 1. T h e " t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d " a . P a r t s ( i ) t h e i s t i c p r o o f s ( i i ) e v i d e n c e s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y b . A s s u m p t i o n : t h a t e v i d e n c e i s i n t e l l i g i b l e a p a r t f r o m G o d , a n d t h u s m a y b e u s e d t o p r o v e G o d w i t h o u t a s s u m i n g h i m . 2. V a n T i l' s m e t h o d a . E v e n t h e e v i d e n c e w e u s e i n p r o v i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y i s u n i n t e l l i g i b l e a p a r t f r o m t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n t h e i s m . N o " b r u t e f a c t s . " b . S i n c e t h e C h r i s t i a n r e v e l a t i o n i s a p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , i t c a n n o t b e p r o v e d a s w e p r o v e o t h e r t h i n g s . c . T h e a r g u m e n t m u s t b e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l : i . S h o w t h e " i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e c o n t r a r y : " t h a t t h e d e n i a l o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i s u n i n t e l l i g i b l e a n d l e a d s t o m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s a n d c h a o s i n a l l o f l i f e . i i . S h o w t h a t t h e C h r i s t i a n p r e s u p p o s i t i o n l e a d s t o a n i n t e l l g i b l e , m e a n i n g f u l v i e w o f r e a l i t y . i i i . I l l u s t r a t i o n : I c a n ' t s e e t h e b e a m s u n d e r t h e f l o o r ; b u t u n l e s s t h e b e a m s w e r e t h e r e , I c o u l d n ' t w a l k o n i t . S o a d e q u a t e f l o o r i n g p r e s u p p o s e s b e a m s . d . U s e o f e v i d e n c e : u s e f u l , b u t g o v e r n e d b y t h e C h r i s t i a n p r e s u p p o s i t i o n . e . C i r c u l a r i t y ? Y e s , i n a s e n s e . i . B u t a l l s y s t e m s o f t h o u g h t a r e c i r c u l a r w h e n t h e y t r y t o e s t a b l i s h t h e t r u t h o f t h e i r f u n d a m e n t a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s . ( A ) T h e r a t i o n a l i s t m u s t e s t a b l i s h t h e a u t h o r i t y o f r e a s o n b y a n a r g u m e n t t h a t i s r a t i o n a l . ( B ) T h e e m p i r i c i s t m u s t e s t a b l i s h t h e a u t h o r i t y o f s e n s e e x p e r i e n c e u l t i m a t e l y t h r o u g h s e n s e e x p e r i e n c e . ( C ) W e d e f e n d t h e u s e o f l o g i c b y r e a s o n i n g l o g i c a l l y . i i . O n l y t h e C h r i s t i a n c i r c l e i s i n t e l l i g i b l e o n i t s o w n t e r m s . 3. V a n T i l' s C r i t i c a l U s e o f H i s M e t h o d a . H i s t o r y o f p h i l o s o p h y b . M o d e r n s e c u l a r i s m c . P h i l o s o p h y o f s c i e n c e d . R o m a n C a t h o l i c T h e o l o g y e . L i b e r a l T h e o l o g y ( P r o t e s t a n t , C a t h o l i c , J e w i s h ) f . B a r t h a n d B r u n n e r g . E v a n g e l i c a l i s m ( i ) I n a d e q u a t e a p o l o g e t i c m e t h o d s ( i i ) A r m i n i a n t h e o l o g y III. Van Til's Life (18951987) A. Pare nts dair y farm ers in Gro oteg ast, Holl and. B. Fam ily emig rated to High land, IN, 1905 . C. Join ed Chri stian Refo rme d Chur ch, went to CR C prep scho ol, colle ge, and one year at Calv in The olog ical Sem inar y. D. Tran sferr ed to Prin ceto n The olog ical Sem inar y and simu ltane ousl y took doct oral studi es in phil osop hy at Prin ceto n Univ ersit y. 1. E a r n e d T h . M . i n 1 9 2 5 , u n d e r s u p e r v i s i o n o f C a s p a r W i s t a r H o d g e . 2. E a r n e d h i s P h . D . i n 1 9 2 7 w i t h d i s s e r t a t i o n , " G o d a n d t h e A b s o l u t e " u n d e r s u p e r v i s i o n o f A r c h i b a l d A l l a n B o w m a n . E. Mar ried Ren a Kloo ster, 1925 . The y had one son, Earl. F. Past or, Chri stian Refo rme d Chur ch at Spri ng Lake , MI, 1927 -29. G. Too k leav e of abse nce to teac h apol ogeti cs at Prin ceto n Sem inar y, 1928 -29. H. Decl ines chair of apol ogeti cs. 1. W a n t e d t o r e t u r n t o t h e p a s t o r a t e . 2. D i d n o t w a n t t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f P T S t o r e f l e c t " a l l p o i n t s o f v i e w w i t h i n t h e c h u r c h " i n c l u d i n g A u b u r n A f f i r m a t i o n i s t s . a . 1 9 2 4 : 1 , 3 0 0 m i n i s t e r s s i g n A u b u r n A f f i r m a t i o n . b . A f f i r m a t i o n s t a t e s t h a t b i b l i c a l i n s p i r a t i o n , t h e v i r g i n b i r t h o f C h r i s t , h i s s u b s t i t u t i o n a r y a t o n e m e n t , h i s b o d i l y r e s u r r e c t i o n , a n d h i s l i t e r a l s e c o n d c o m i n g a r e a l l h u m a n " t h e o r i e s " a n d n e e d n o t b e b e l i e v e d b y c a n d i d a t e s s e e k i n g t h e m i n i s t e r i a l o f f i c e . I. We stmi nster The olog ical Sem inar y 1. F o u n d e d b y J . G r e s h a m M a c h e n ( C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d L i b e r a l i s m ) a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o r e o r g a n i z e d P r i n c e t o n . 2. A f t e r r e p e a t e d u r g i n g s , V a n T i l j o i n e d t h e n e w f a c u l t y i n 1 9 2 9 . 3. V a n T i l r e m a i n e d a s P r o f e s s o r o f A p o l o g e t i c s u n t i l h i s r e t i r e m e n t i n 1 9 7 2 , c o n t i n u e d t e a c h i n g o c c a s i o n a l l y u n t i l 1 9 7 9 . J. The Orth odox Pres byte rian Chur ch 1. M a c h e n w a s s u s p e n d e d f r o m t h e m i n i s t r y f o r d i s o b e y i n g a G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y m a n d a t e t o r e s i g n f r o m a n i n d e p e n d e n t m i s s i o n b o a r d h e h a d f o u n d e d t o s e n d o r t h o d o x m i s s i o n a r i e s a b r o a d . 2. H e a n d o t h e r s f o u n d e d a n e w d e n o m i n a t i o n , o r i g i n a l l y c a l l e d " T h e P r e s b y t e r i a n C h u r c h o f A m e r i c a , " l a t e r " T h e O r t h o d o x P r e s b y t e r i a n C h u r c h . " 3. O u t o f s y m p a t h y w i t h M a c h e n , V a n T i l l e f t t h e C R C t o j o i n t h e O P C , a n d r e m a i n e d t h e r e i n u n t i l h i s d e a t h . K. The Clar k Cont rove rsy (to be disc usse d later ). IV. Influen ces A. Dut ch theol ogy 1. A t C a l v i n : S a m u e l V o l b e d a , L o u i s B e r k h o f . 2. A b r a h a m K u y p e r a . R e n a i s s a n c e m a n , h u m b l e b e l i e v e r . b . C h r i s t i s L o r d o v e r a l l a r e a s o f h u m a n l i f e . " T h i s i s m i n e . " c . L e c t u r e s o n C a l v i n i s m d . " T w o k i n d s o f s c i e n c e ; " " t w o k i n d s o f p e o p l e " e . D i s p a r a g e d a p o l o g e t i c s t o s o m e e x t e n t , b e c a u s e i t w a s u s u a l l y t h o u g h t o f a s a r e l i g i o u s l y n e u t r a l d i s c i p l i n e . f . C o m m o n G r a c e 3. H e r m a n B a v i n c k , g r e a t d o g m a t i c a n . 4. G e e r h a r d u s V o s , b i b l i c a l t h e o l o g y . B. Am erica n Pres byte rian The olog y 1. B . B . W a r f i e l d : e m p h a s i z e d t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y w a s r a t i o n a l l y d e f e n s i b l e , b u t f o l l o w e d i n s o m e m e a s u r e t h e " t r a d i t i o n a l " a p o l o g e t i c . 2. W i l l i a m B r e n t o n G r e e n e : o n e o f V a n T i l' s c h i e f e x a m p l e s o f " t r a d i t i o n a l " a p o l o g e t i c s . 3. J . G r e s h a m M a c h e n a . O f t e n f o l l o w e d t h e a p o l o g e t i c t r a d i t i o n , w i t h o u t m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a n x i e t y . b . B u t h i g h l y a n t i t h e t i c a l : i . C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d L i b e r a l i s m . i i . T h e o l o g i c a l o r t h o d o x y n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e o l o g i c a l c o h e r e n c e . C. Phil osop hical 1. W . H e n r y J e l l e m a , C a l v i n C o l l e g e , w h o l a t e r t a u g h t A l v i n P l a n t i n g a a n d N i c h o l a s W o l t e r s t o r f f . 2. A . A . B o w m a n , P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y ( p e r s o n a l i s t , l i k e B o r d e n B o w n e , E . S . B r i g h t m a n ) . 3. I d e a l i s m a . B e r n a r d B o s a n q u e t : E n g l i s h I d e a l i s t w h o e m p h a s i z e d t h a t a l l h u m a n t h o u g h t d e p e n d s o n p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s . b . J a m e s O r r : S c o t t i s h t h e o l o g i a n a p o l o g i s t w h o u s e s i d e a l i s t t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a p p r o a c h i n T h e C h r i s t i a n V i e w o f G o d a n d t h e W o r l d . 4. V a n T i l k n e w m u c h a b o u t c o n t i n e n t a l p h e n o m e n o l o g y a n d e x i s t e n t i a l i s m , l i t t l e a b o u t A n g l o A m e r i c a n p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n a l y s i s . V. Publica tions (not exhausti ve) A. Tex ts on Apol ogeti cs 1. C h r i s t i a n A p o l o g e t i c s , " u n p u b l i s h e d " s y l l a b u s . H e u s e d t h i s s y l l a b u s t o i n t r o d u c e h i s a p o l o g e t i c t o f i r s t y e a r s e m i n a r i a n s . S t i l l p e r h a p s t h e b e s t i n t r o d u c t i o n . 2. T h e D e f e n s e o f t h e F a i t h , 1 9 5 5 , 1 9 6 3 , 1 9 6 8 . V a n T i l' s p u b l i s h e d e x p o s i t i o n o f h i s m e t h o d . I n c l u d e s m u c h o f # 1 , w i t h a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l t h a t i s s o m e t i m e s d i s t r a c t i n g . 3. A C h r i s t i a n T h e o r y o f K n o w l e d g e , 1 9 6 9 , t h e s e c o n d s y l l a b u s V a n T i l u s e d i n t h e f i r s t y e a r c o u r s e . 4. C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d C o n f l i c t , s y l l a b u s ( 1 9 6 2 6 9 ) , o n h i s t o r y o f a p o l o g e t i c s . U s e d i n h i s T h . M . l e v e l c o u r s e s . 5. T h e D e f e n s e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d M y C r e d o ( 1 9 7 1 ) , a c o n c i s e s u m m a r y o f h i s p o s i t i o n ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e " C r e d o " ) 6. I n t r o d u c t i o n t o W a r f i e l d , T h e I n s p i r a t i o n a n d A u t h o r i t y o f t h e B i b l e ( 1 9 4 8 ) . O n e o f h i s b e s t s u m m a r i e s o f h i s a p p r o a c h . 7. J e r u s a l e m a n d A t h e n s ( 1 9 7 1 ) . F e s t s c h r i f t . S o m e a r t i c l e s a r e c r i t i q u e s o f V a n T i l , a n d t o s o m e o f t h e m V a n T i l r e p l i e s . 8. A S u r v e y o f C h r i s t i a n E p i s t e m o l o g y ( 1 9 6 9 ) . H i s o l d M e t a p h y s i c s o f A p o l o g e t i c s s y l l a b u s . I n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e h i s t o r y o f p h i l o s o p h y , e s p e c i a l l y e p i s t e m o l o g y . 9. W h y I B e l i e v e i n G o d , b r i e f p a m p h l e t . V a n T i l s h o w s h o w h e w o u l d i n t e r a c t i n d i a l o g u e w i t h a m o d e r n s e c u l a r i s t . 10. T h e C a s e f o r C a l v i n i s m ( 1 9 6 4 ) : c r i t i q u e o f t h e W e s t m i n s t e r P r e s s " c a s e " b o o k s o f H o r d e r n , d e W o l f , a n d C a r n e l l . M o s t l y C a r n e l l . 11. C h r i s t i a n T h e i s t i c E v i d e n c e s ( 1 9 7 6 ) , h i s m o s t e x t e n s i v e c r i t i q u e o f D a v i d H u m e a n d J o s e p h B u t l e r , a l s o s o m e m o d e r n p h i l o s o p h e r s o f s c i e n c e . T h e s y l l a b u s f o r h i s s e c o n d y e a r " e v i d e n c e s " c o u r s e . 12. H e r m a n D o o y e w e e r d a n d R e f o r m e d A p o l o g e t i c s ( 1 9 7 2 , 7 4 ) . 13. W h o D o Y o u S a y T h a t I A m ? ( 1 9 7 5 ) . H i s t o r y o f p h i l o s o p h y , s c h o l a s t i c t h e o l o g y , m o d e r n t h o u g h t . B. The olog ical Subj ects 1. C o m m o n G r a c e a n d t h e G o s p e l ( 1 9 7 2 ) . 2. A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o S y s t e m a t i c T h e o l o g y ( 1 9 7 4 ) . V a n T i l t a u g h t t h e f i r s t c o u r s e i n s y s t e m a t i c s , D o c t r i n e o f S c r i p t u r e a n d D o c t r i n e o f G o d , u s i n g t h i s s y l l a b u s . 3. " N a t u r e a n d S c r i p t u r e " i n S t o n e h o u s e a n d W o o l l e y , T h e I n f a l l i b l e W o r d . M a i n t a i n s t h a t b o t h n a t u r a l a n d s p e c i a l r e v e l a t i o n a r e n e c e s s a r y , a u t h o r i t a t i v e , c l e a r , a n d s u f f i c i e n t . 4. T h e P r o t e s t a n t D o c t r i n e o f S c r i p t u r e ( 1 9 6 7 ) . C. Mod ern The olog y 1. C h r i s t a n d t h e J e w s ( 1 9 6 8 ) . M a r t i n B u b e r o n t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f P h i l o J u d a e u s . 2. C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d B a r t h i a n i s m ( 1 9 6 2 ) . V a n T i l' s s e c o n d b o o k o n B a r t h . T i t l e d e r i v a t i v e o f M a c h e n ' s C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d B a r t h i a n i s m . 3. C h r i s t i a n i t y i n M o d e r n T h e o l o g y ( 1 9 5 5 ) , e s s a y s a n d r e v i e w s . 4. T h e C o n f e s s i o n o f 1 9 6 7 ( 1 9 6 7 ) . E x p o s e s t h e B a r t h i a n i s m o f t h e n e w c o n f e s s i o n a d o p t e d b y t h e P r e s b y t e r i a n C h u r c h , U . S . A . 5. T h e G r e a t D e b a t e T o d a y ( 1 9 7 1 ) . P a n n e n b e r g , M o l t m a n n , o t h e r t h e o l o g i a n s . 6. I s G o d D e a d ? ( 1 9 6 6 ) . V s . t h e " G o d i s d e a d " f a d ( A l t i z e r , H a m i l t o n , V a n B u r e n ) . 7. T h e N e w E v a n g e l i c a l i s m ( 1 9 6 0 ) . R a m m , G r a h a m , H e n r y . 8. T h e N e w H e r m e n e u t i c ( 1 9 7 4 ) . E b e l i n g , F u c h s . 9. T h e N e w M o d e r n i s m ( 1 9 4 6 ) . V a n T i l' s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d b o o k . A t t a c k e d B a r t h a n d B r u n n e r . 10. T h e N e w S y n t h e s i s T h e o l o g y o f t h e N e t h e r l a n d s . 11. N o t e s o n R o m a n C a t h o l i c i s m ( N . D . ) . K u n g , V o n B a l t h a s a r , M a r i t a i n . 12. T h e R e f o r m e d P a s t o r a n d M o d e r n T h o u g h t ( 1 9 7 1 ) . K a n t , T i l l i c h , o t h e r s . 13. T h e T h e o l o g y o f J a m e s D a a n e ( 1 9 5 9 ) . 14. T h e T r i u m p h o f G r a c e ( 1 9 5 8 ) . S c h l e i e r m a c h e r , R i t c h l , B a r t h . D. Othe r Subj ects 1. C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d I d e a l i s m ( 1 9 5 5 ) . E s s a y s a n d r e v i e w s . 2. C h r i s t i a n T h e i s t i c E t h i c s ( 1 9 7 1 ) . S y l l a b u s f o r V a n T i l' s e t h i c s c o u r s e . 3. E s s a y s o n C h r i s t i a n E d u c a t i o n ( 1 9 7 4 ) . V a n T i l s t r o n g l y a d v o c a t e d C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s . 4. T h e G o d o f H o p e ( 1 9 7 8 ) . H i s l a s t b o o k . S e r m o n s a n d a d d r e s s e s . 5. P s y c h o l o g y o f R e l i g i o n ( 1 9 7 1 ) . S u r p r i s i n g a g r e e m e n t w i t h s e c u l a r p s y c h o l o g i s t s , b u t c r i t i c a l . V. The Metaphysic s of Knowledge A. Met aphy sics, Epis temo logy and Ethi cs 1. C l o s e r e l a t i o n s : e a c h p r e s u p p o s e s t h e o t h e r s . a . E p i s t e m o l o g y p r e s u p p o s e s a " m e t a p h y s i c s o f k n o w l e d g e . " b . E p i s t e m o l o g y i s e t h i c a l : f o l l o w i n g d i v i n e n o r m s . 2. B u t w e s h o u l d d i s t i n g u i s h e t h i c s f r o m m e t a p h y s i c s ( s i n f r o m f i n i t u d e ) . a . S i n p r e s u p p o s e s m e t a p h y s i c s , a n d i t i s a n e l e m e n t o f m e t a p h y s i c s . b . B u t s i n i s n o t m e r e f i n i t u d e , a n d t h e r e m e d y i s n o t i n f i n i t u d e . 3. T h e c r e a t o r c r e a t u r e d i s t i n c t i o n i s f u n d a m e n t a l t o a s o u n d m e t a p h y s i c s . B. Doc trine of God 1. S e l f c o n t a i n e d : a s e , s e l f e x i s t e n t , s e l f s u f f i c i e n t , a b s o l u t e , e t e r n a l . 2. F u l l n e s s . a . H i s n a t u r e n o t d e r i v e d f r o m m e r e e m i n e n c e ( a s c r i b i n g t o G o d m o r e t h a n t h e c r e a t i o n , i m p l y i n g t h a t h e i s a l a r g e r c r e a t i o n ) . b . N o r f r o m m e r e n e g a t i o n ( w h i c h l e a d s t o e m p t i n e s s ) . c . R a t h e r , w e m u s t b e g i n f r o m G o d ' s r e v e l a t i o n o f h i s n a t u r e . ( i ) S i m p l i c i t y : h i s a t t r i b u t e s a r e p e r s p e c t i v e s o n h i s w h o l e b e i n g . ( i i ) E m i n e n c e a n d n e g a t i o n h e l p u s a p p l y b i b l i c a l t e a c h i n g s : a s o u r k n o w l e d g e o f s p a c e a n d t i m e h e l p u s t o u n d e r s t a n d s o m e t h i n g o f G o d ' s t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f t h e m , w h i c h w e l e a r n i n S c r i p t u r e . d . A l l o f G o d ' s a t t r i b u t e s a r e s e l f e x i s t e n t , s e l f s u f f i c i e n t . 3. A b s o l u t e p e r s o n a l i t y a . " A b s o l u t e " — s e e a b o v e . b . I n t h e T r i n i t y a n d i n m a n , " c o m p l e t e l y p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h o u t r e s i d u e . " ( i ) S i n c e t h e a c t i o n s o f p e r s o n s a f f e c t o t h e r p e r s o n s , o u r a c t s a r e " r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l " o f o n e a n o t h e r . ( i i ) V s . t h e p r i m a c y o f t h e i m p e r s o n a l i n n o n C h r i s t i a n t h o u g h t . G o d s u b j e c t t o i m p e r s o n a l l a w , c h a n c e . c . O b s e r v a t i o n s ( J F ) ( i ) W e s h o u l d m a k e m o r e o f t h i s p e r s o n a l i s m t h a n V a n T i l h i m s e l f d i d . ( A ) O n l y b i b l i c a l r e l i g i o n p r e s e n t s a G o d w h o i s b o t h a b s o l u t e a n d p e r s o n a l . ( B ) A n o n a b s o l u t e p e r s o n c a n n o t a c c o u n t f o r r e a l i t y . ( C ) A n i m p e r s o n a l a b s o l u t e c a n n o t b e s o v e r e i g n ( i . e . , i t c a n n o t m a k e c h o i c e s t o b r i n g t h i n g s a b o u t ) . ( D ) A n i m p e r s o n a l a b s o l u t e c a n n o t a c c o u n t f o r r a t i o n a l i t y , m o r a l v a l u e , c a u s a l i t y , l o g i c . 4. T h e T r i n i t y a . F o l l o w s t h e C a t h o l i c a n d R e f o r m e d c o n f e s s i o n s ( i ) T h r e e p e r s o n s , o n e s u b s t a n c e . ( i i ) T h e S o n ' s d e i t y i s n o t d e r i v e d f r o m t h e F a t h e r , b u t h e i s a u t o t h e o s ( C a l v i n ) . b . H e r e s i e s a b o u t t h e T r i n i t y s t e m f r o m c o r r e l a t i v i s m , t h e i d e a t h a t G o d a n d t h e w o r l d a r e m u t u a l l y d e p e n d e n t . ( i ) B o t h S a b e l l i a n i s m a n d A r i a n i s m s e e G o d a s a " b a r e u n i t y , " r e q u i r i n g t h e p l u r a l i t y o f t h e w o r l d t o s u p p l e m e n t i t . ( i i ) L i k e t h e c o n c e p t o f G o d a s " w h o l l y o t h e r , " r a t h e r t h a n a s a p e r s o n a l a b s o l u t e . T h o u g h t h i s c o n c e p t e m p h a s i z e s d i v i n e t r a n s c e n d e n c e , i t i n f a c t m a k e s h i m r e l a t i v e t o t h e w o r l d . ( A ) O u r o n l y k n o w l e d g e o f t h e w h o l l y o t h e r c a n c o m e t h r o u g h h u m a n l a n g u a g e w h i c h , o n t h i s v i e w , c a n o n l y r e f e r t o t h e w o r l d . B u t t h e n o u r w o r k i n g c o n c e p t o f G o d b e c o m e s a m e r e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e w o r l d . ( B ) I f G o d i s w h o l l y o t h e r , t h e n h e c a n n o t d e f i n e h i m s e l f , b u t c a n b e d e f i n e d o n l y r e l a t i v e t o t h e w o r l d . ( e . g . , l o v e ) ( C ) I f G o d i s w h o l l y o t h e r , h e c a n n o t p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r t h e r a t i o n a l a n d m o r a l o r d e r o f t h e w o r l d . c . T h r e e P e r s o n s a n d O n e P e r s o n ( i ) V T : t h e t r a d i t i o n a l d o c t r i n e ( t h r e e p e r s o n s i n o n e s u b s t a n c e ) i s " n o t t h e w h o l e t r u t h o f t h e m a t t e r . " I n a s e n s e , t h e w h o l e G o d h e a d i s a l s o o n e p e r s o n . ( i i ) G o r d o n C l a r k , J o h n R o b b i n s : " a r a d i c a l l y n e w h e r e s y . " ( i i i ) B u t V T a f f i r m s t h e c o n f e s s i o n a l s t a t e m e n t s . I s i t h e r e t i c a l t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s e a r e n o t t h e w h o l e t r u t h ? ( i v ) I f V T ' s f o r m u l a t i o n l o g i c a l l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y ? ( A ) C l a r k a n d R o b b i n s t h o u g h t t h a t V a n T i l e m b r a c e d c o n t r a d i c t i o n . B u t h e o n l y a d m i t s t o " a p p a r e n t " c o n t r a d i c t i o n . ( B ) C l a r k a n d R o b b i n s d o n o t c o n s i d e r V T ' s a r g u m e n t : ( 1 ) " E a c h o f t h e p e r s o n s o f t h e G o d h e a d i s c o t e r m i n o u s w i t h t h e b e i n g o f t h e G o d h e a d . " ( 2 ) G o d h a s o n e e s s e n c e , w h i c h m u s t b e p e r s o n a l , r a t h e r t h a n i m p e r s o n a l . ( ( ( C ) V a n T i l n e v e r s a y s t h a t G o d i s o n e a n d t h r e e i n t h e s a m e r e s p e c t ; i n f a c t h e d e n i e s i t . B u t o n l y i f h e a f f i r m e d t h i s w o u l d h i s f o r m u l a t i o n b e c o n t r a d i c t o r y . ( D ) S c r i p t u r e i t s e l f f a i l s t o g i v e a p r e c i s e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n e s s e n c e a n d p e r s o n i n G o d . C l a r k a d m i t s t h i s i n T h e T r i n i t y ( T r i n i t y F o u n d a t i o n , 1 9 8 5 ) , p p . 5 2 5 3 . H e s a y s t h a t s o f a r a s t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e i s c o n c e r n e d , t h e c h u r c h c o u l d h a v e s a i d t h a t G o d h a d t h r e e o u s i a i a n d o n e h y p o s t a s i s , w i t h o u t d i f f e r e n c e i n m e a n i n g . T h e L a t i n s , i n e f f e c t d i d t h i s . d . T h e T r i n i t y a n d t h e O n e a n d M a n y ( i ) W e c a n n o t i d e n t i f y p a r t i c u l a r s a n d d i s t i n g u i s h t h e m f r o m o n e a n o t h e r , w i t h o u t u n i t i n g t h e m b y u n i v e r s a l t e r m s . ( i i ) B u t t h e u n i v e r s a l t e r m s e x c l u d e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s ( " d o g " a n d " F i d o " ) . S o t h e y c a n n o t e x p l a i n a l l p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s . ( i i i ) W e c a n n o t d e f i n e t h e u n i v e r s a l s , e i t h e r , e x c e p t b y m e a n s o f p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s . B u t p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s , i n d i v i d u a l s , a r e n o t u n i v e r s a l ; s o w h e n c e c o m e s u n i v e r s a l i t y ? ( i v ) S o t h e r e a r e n o p u r e p a r t i c u l a r s o r p u r e u n i v e r s a l s . ( A ) B u t i f e v e r y u n i v e r s a l i s r e l a t i v e t o p a r t i c u l a r s , h o w c a n i t s e r v e a s a n e x p l a n a t o r y p r i n c i p l e ? I n s o f a r a s i t i s p a r t i c u l a r , i t r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n . ( B ) A n d i f e v e r y p a r t i c u l a r i s d e f i n e d b y u n i v e r s a l s , h o w c a n i t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m t h e m s o a s t o b e e x p l a i n e d b y t h e m ? ( v ) V T : t h e T r i n i t y e x p l a i n s t h i s s i t u a t i o n . ( A ) G o d i s b o t h p e r f e c t l y p a r t i c u l a r a n d p e r f e c t l y u n i v e r s a l , m a n y a n d o n e . ( B ) T h e w o r l d i s m a d e i n h i s l i k e n e s s . ( C ) T h e c o r r e l a t i v i t y o f o n e a n d m a n y i n t h e w o r l d i s l i k e t h e c o r r e l a t i v i t y o f t h e s e i n G o d ; h e n c e t h e r e i s m y s t e r y . ( D ) V a n T i l ' s " s o l u t i o n " d o e s n o t g i v e u s p u r e u n i v e r s a l s o r p u r e p a r t i c u l a r s , o r t h e k i n d o f e x h a u s t i v e k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e s e w o u l d b r i n g u s . R a t h e r , i t c a l l s u s t o t r u s t t h a t h e h a s a p e r f e c t u n d e r s t a n d i n g , b o t h o f h i m s e l f , a n d o f h i s w o r l d . 5. D i v i n e S o v e r e i g n t y a . G o d h a s e x h a u s t i v e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e w o r l d , b e c a u s e h i s e t e r n a l p l a n i n c l u d e s a l l t h a t c o m e s t o p a s s . b . H u m a n f r e e d o m , n e v e r t h e l e s s , e x i s t s : ( i ) B e c a u s e G o d ' s s o v e r e i g n t y i s p e r s o n a l , r a t h e r t h a n i m p e r s o n a l . ( i i ) B e c a u s e , a l t h o u g h w e a r e n o t f r e e f r o m G o d ' s p l a n , w e a r e s o m e t i m e s f r e e f r o m c a u s a l s e q u e n c e s w i t h i n t h e f i n i t e w o r l d . ( I m p o r t a n c e o f V T ' s t w o l e v e l m e t a p h y s i c s . ) ( i i i ) B e c a u s e G o d w a n t s t h e h u m a n w i l l t o b e c o m e m o r e s p o n t a n e o u s , e v e n s e l f d e t e r m i n a t i v e i n i t s w i l l t o d o G o d ' s w i l l . ( i v ) B e c a u s e m a n i s m o r a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e ; b u t m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w o u l d b e m e a n i n g l e s s i f t h e w o r l d w e r e i n a n y m e a s u r e r u l e d b y c h a n c e . 6. E v i l a . T h e n o n C h r i s t i a n c a n n o t d i s t i n g u i s h g o o d f r o m e v i l . b . T h e n o n C h r i s t i a n c a n o f f e r n o h o p e t h a t g o o d w i l l t r i u m p h . c . G o d d o e s n o t r e v e a l t o u s a l l h i s r e a s o n s f o r b r i n g i n g e v e n t s t o p a s s . d . G o d i s t h e " r e m o t e " c a u s e , r a t h e r t h a n t h e " p r o x i m a t e " c a u s e o f e v i l ( C a l v i n ) . J F : I t h i n k t h i s a n s w e r i s i n a d e q u a t e . C a l v i n h i m s e l f d i d n o t p r o p o s e t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n a s a s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f e v i l , o n l y a s a h e l p t o d i s c u s s i n g i t . 7. E l e c t i o n a n d R e p r o b a t i o n a . G o d i s s o v e r e i g n i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h o w i l l , a n d w i l l n o t , b e s a v e d . I f a t a n y p o i n t s a l v a t i o n i s d e p e n d e n t o n m a n , r a t h e r t h a n G o d , t h e n w e h a v e m a d e G o d d e p e n d e n t o n m a n . b . V a n T i l a f f i r m s t h e " e q u a l u l t i m a c y o f e l e c t i o n a n d r e p r o b a t i o n , " c o n t r a B e r k o u w e r , b u t d o e s n o t d e n y t h e " a s y m m e t r y " o f t h e C a n o n s o f D o r d t . C. Chri stian Epis temo logy 1. A n a l o g i c a l K n o w l e d g e a . N o t t h e s a m e a s A q u i n a s ' u s e o f a n a l o g i c a l , w h i c h r e f e r s t o l a n g u a g e s o m e w h a t b e t w e e n u n i v o c a l ( l i t e r a l ) a n d e q u i v o c a l ( a m e r e p u n ) . b . F o r V a n T i l , a n a l o g i c a l k n o w l e d g e i s ( i ) K n o w l e d g e o f c r e a t u r e s , t h e r e f o r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m G o d ' s s e l f k n o w l e d g e . ( i i ) K n o w l e d g e s u b j e c t t o G o d ' s c o n t r o l a n d a u t h o r i t y . ( i i i ) K n o w l e d g e t h a t a g r e e s w i t h G o d ' s t h o u g h t s . c . V a n T i l d o e s n o t d e n y t h a t w e m a y u s e l a n g u a g e a b o u t G o d l i t e r a l l y , b u t h e d o e s h a v e a h i g h r e g a r d f o r " a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m s . " ( i ) H e t e l l s u s t o b e " f e a r l e s s l y a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c " a b o u t s t a t e m e n t s l i k e " G o d c h a n g e d h i s m i n d . " ( i i ) P e r h a p s h e m e a n s t h a t t h o u g h G o d i s c h a n g e l e s s i n h i s e s s e n c e , t h e a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s m c o n t a i n s s o m e l i t e r a l t r u t h . ( J F : G o d c h a n g e s i n h i s r e l a t i o n s t o c r e a t u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n h i s t e m p o r a l o m n i p r e s e n c e . ) 2. T h e C l a r k C o n t r o v e r s y a . I n c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y ( i ) I n t h e o l o g y g e n e r a l l y : t h e f a c t t h a t G o d c a n n o t b e e x h a u s t i v e l y k n o w n b y m a n . ( i i ) B u t i n t h e C l a r k c o n t r o v e r s y , t h e t e r m w a s u s e d ( o r m i s u s e d ) t o d e s c r i b e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n G o d ' s t h o u g h t s a n d m a n ' s t h o u g h t s . b . C l a r k ' s p o s i t i o n ( i ) G o d ' s t h o u g h t s a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m m a n ' s i n t h a t ( A ) H e k n o w s m o r e t r u t h s t h a n a n y c r e a t u r e . ( B ) H e k n o w s a l l t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e t r u t h s , w i t h a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f e a c h . ( C ) H e k n o w s b y a n e t e r n a l i n t u i t i o n , u n l i k e a n y c r e a t u r e . ( D ) M a n k n o w s o n l y b y r e v e l a t i o n , w h i l e G o d k n o w s b y k n o w i n g h i s o w n n a t u r e a n d p l a n . ( i i ) H o w e v e r , m e n c a n h a v e t h o u g h t s t h a t a r e i d e n t i c a l t o G o d ' s . E x a m p l e : w h e n G o d a n d a m a n a f f i r m t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s a m e r o s e , t h e m a n ' s t h o u g h t i s i d e n t i c a l t o G o d ' s . I t h a s t h e s a m e o b j e c t . c . V a n T i l ' s C r i t i q u e ( i ) C l a r k s e e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e o n l y i n " q u a n t i t a t i v e " t e r m s ; b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s " q u a l i t a t i v e . " ( C l a r k d e n i e d t h i s . ) ( i i ) B e c a u s e o f t h e c r e a t o r c r e a t u r e d i s t i n c t i o n , d i v i n e a n d h u m a n k n o w l e d g e d o n o t " c o i n c i d e a t a s i n g l e p o i n t . " d . T h e O P C R e p o r t ( i ) G o d a n d m a n c a n t h i n k o f i d e n t i c a l o b j e c t s , a s C l a r k i n s i s t e d . ( i i ) B u t C l a r k d o e s n o t s a y e n o u g h a b o u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e c o n t e n t o f G o d ' s t h o u g h t s a n d t h a t o f m a n ' s . A s a s y n o n y m f o r c o n t e n t , t h e y r e f e r t o " k n o w l e d g e i n t h e s u b j e c t i v e s e n s e . " ( i i i ) P o s i t i v e l y , G o d ' s k n o w l e d g e " p o s s e s s e s t h e d i v i n e q u a l i t i e s t h a t c a n n e v e r a t t a c h t o o u r s . " ( i v ) C l a r k ' s o r d i n a t i o n w a s n o t r e v o k e d ; h e r e m a i n e d a m i n i s t e r i n g o o d s t a n d i n g u n t i l h e l a t e r l e f t t h e d e n o m i n a t i o n . e . E v a l u a t i o n ( J F ) ( i ) B a s i c a l l y , I a g r e e w i t h t h e O P C R e p o r t . T h e p a r t i e s s h o u l d h a v e a g r e e d t h a t ( A ) G o d a n d m a n c a n t h i n k o f t h e s a m e o b j e c t s . T h i s w a s C l a r k ' s e m p h a s i s , b u t V a n T i l o f t e n s a i d t h e s a m e t h i n g ( s e e F r a m e , C V T , 1 1 1 , B a h n s e n , V T A , 1 6 9 n ) . ( B ) B u t G o d h a s a d i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e o f k n o w l e d g e t h a n c r e a t u r e s d o . ( C ) A n d G o d ' s t h o u g h t s , l i k e e v e r y t h i n g i n G o d , h a s d i v i n e a t t r i b u t e s , u n l i k e a n y h u m a n t h o u g h t . ( i i ) N e i t h e r V T m o r e C l a r k w a s a t h i s b e s t i n t h i s d i s p u t e . T h e r e w a s m u c h t a l k i n g p a s t o n e a n o t h e r . ( A ) N e i t h e r s t a t e d c l e a r l y t h e p o i n t s ( a b o v e , ( i ) ) t h a t c o u l d h a v e b r o u g h t a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e m , e v e n t h o u g h t h o s e p o i n t s s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a c c e p t a b l e t o b o t h p a r t i e s . ( B ) C l a r k d e m a n d e d t h a t t h e V a n T i l l i a n s " s t a t e c l e a r l y " t h e " q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e " t h e y w a n t e d C l a r k t o a f f i r m . T h e y r e f u s e d , s a y i n g t h a t i f y o u c o u l d s t a t e t h a t c l e a r l y , i t w o u l d e l i m i n a t e G o d ' s v e r y i n c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y . ( 1 ) J F : T h e V a n T i l l i a n r e s p o n s e i s n o t p e r s u a s i v e . ( ( ( 2 ) T h i s e x c h a n g e s h o w s l e s s t h a n a m a t u r e a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d o n e a n o t h e r s y m p a t h e t i c a l l y . ( C ) V a n T i l a n d C l a r k c o n t i n u e d t o c r i t i c i z e o n e a n o t h e r i n t h e i r w r i t i n g s , i n t e r p r e t i n g o n e a n o t h e r i n t h e w o r s t p o s s i b l e s e n s e . ( D ) T h e c o n t r o v e r s y i s i n t e r e s t i n g , m a i n l y a s a n e x a m p l e o f h o w n o t t o r e s o l v e t h e o l o g i c a l d i s p u t e s . 3. R e v e l a t i o n a . G e n e r a l a n d S p e c i a l R e v e l a t i o n ( i ) S t r o n g v i e w : i t i s n e c e s s a r y , a u t h o r i t a t i v e , p e r s p i c u o u s , s u f f i c i e n t . ( i i ) S i n c e G o d i s s o v e r e i g n , a l l r e a l i t y n e c e s s a r i l y r e v e a l s h i m , i n c l u d i n g o u r s e l v e s a s h i s i m a g e . ( i i i ) B u t e v e n i n P a r a d i s e , m a n n e e d e d v e r b a l r e v e l a t i o n t o r i g h t l y i n t e r p r e t g e n e r a l r e v e l a t i o n , a n d a f t e r t h e F a l l , m a n n e e d e d s p e c i a l r e v e l a t i o n ( A ) t o s e t f o r t h t h e w a y o f s a l v a t i o n , ( B ) t o c o r r e c t o u r s i n f u l m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f g e n e r a l r e v e l a t i o n . b . I n t e g r a t i o n o f r e v e l a t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e ( " p e r s p e c t i v a l i s m " ) ( i ) R e v e l a t i o n f r o m G o d , n a t u r e , a n d s e l f , a b o u t G o d , n a t u r e a n d s e l f . ( N i n e c a t e g o r i e s . ) ( i i ) A l l t h r e e s o u r c e s a r e i n v o l v e d i n o u r k n o w l e d g e o f a n y o b j e c t . ( i i i ) B u t t h e k n o w l e d g e o f G o d i s i n v o l v e d i n a l l o f t h e s e , a n d S c r i p t u r e m u s t s e r v e a s t h e h i g h e s t p r e s u p p o s i t i o n . ( i v ) S o l a s c r i p t u r a , b u t w e n e v e r k n o w S c r i p t u r e p u r e l y i n i t s e l f . c . S c r i p t u r e ( i ) G o d , b e c a u s e o f w h o h e i s , c a n o n l y s p e a k w i t h s u p r e m e a u t h o r i t y . ( i i ) I n S c r i p t u r e , h e a t t e s t s h i m s e l f . ( i i i ) A n a u t h o r i t a t i v e B i b l e i s n e c e s s a r y t o c h a l l e n g e m a n ' s c l a i m s t o a u t o n o m y . ( i v ) T h e h u m a n m i n d m u s t i n t e r p r e t S c r i p t u r e — b u t m u s t n o t , i n d o i n g s o , r e g a r d i t s e l f a s a u t o n o m o u s . ( v ) T r a d i t i o n a l s t a t e m e n t s o n t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f S c r i p t u r e , a u t o g r a p h a . ( v i ) S c o p e : " S c r i p t u r e s p e a k s o f e v e r y t h i n g " i n c l u d i n g s c i e n c e , p o l i t i c s , e c o n o m i c s , t h e a r t s , e t c . ( K u y p e r ) 4. P r e s u p p o s i t i o n s a . P r e s u p p o s i t i o n a s a p r i o r i ( i ) a p r i o r i : k n o w l e d g e n o t d e p e n d e n t o n e x p e r i e n c e ; b r o u g h t t o e x p e r i e n c e t o a n a l y z e i t . ( i i ) A p o s t e r i o r i : k n o w l e d g e b a s e d o n e x p e r i e n c e . ( i i i ) D e b a t e s t h r o u g h h i s t o r y o f p h i l o s o p h y a s t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e a n d t h e i r r o l e s i n k n o w l e d g e . ( i v ) V a n T i l n o t a n a p r i o r i s t . W a n t s t o c o o r d i n a t e f a c t s a n d l a w s , p a r t i c u l a r s a n d u n i v e r s a l s , s e n s a t i o n a n d r e a s o n , e t c . , u n d e r G o d ' s r e v e l a t i o n . b . P r e s u p p o s i t i o n a s m e r e s u p p o s i t i o n , a s s u m p t i o n , h y p o t h e s i s , p o s t u l a t e , c h o s e n w i t h o u t r a t i o n a l b a s i s ( f i d e i s m ) . V T ' s v i e w o f t e n c o n f u s e d w i t h t h i s , b u t i t i s d i f f e r e n t . ( i ) F o r V T , p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s d o h a v e a b a s i s , i n G o d ' s r e v e l a t i o n . ( i i ) T h e y a r e k n o w n b y o u r f a c u l t i e s , i l l u m i n e d b y t h e S p i r i t . c . P r e s u p p o s i t i o n a s k n o w l e d g e h e l d " b e f o r e " ( t e m p o r a l l y ) o t h e r k n o w l e d g e . ( i ) N o t V T ' s v i e w , t h o u g h h e o c c a s i o n a l l y s u g g e s t s i t . S e e B a h n s e n , 5 3 5 3 6 . ( i i ) T h i s i s a s s u m e d b y s o m e o f V T ' s c r i t i c s , e s p e c i a l l y S p r o u l , G e r s t n e r , L i n d s l e y . d . P r e s u p p o s i t i o n a s b a s i c c o m m i t m e n t o f t h e h e a r t t o G o d o r t o a n i d o l : V T ' s b a s i c v i e w . ( i ) T h e r e f o r e , c r i t e r i o n o f t r u t h a n d r i g h t . ( i i ) A p r i o r i i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t t a k e s p r e c e d e n c e o v e r a l l o t h e r k n o w l e d g e . ( i i i ) B u t k n o w n t h r o u g h a l l o u r f a c u l t i e s o f k n o w l e d g e , i n c l u d i n g s e n s a t i o n , u n d e r t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n o f t h e S p i r i t . e . P r e s u p p o s i t i o n a s t h e c o m m i t m e n t t h e u n b e l i e v e r w a n t s t o s u p p r e s s . B o r r o w e d c a p i t a l , p r e s u p p o s i t i o n " i n s p i t e o f h i m s e l f . " f . P r o x i m a t e v s . u l t i m a t e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s ( i ) T h e b a s i c c o m m i t m e n t o f t h e h e a r t i s m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l ; b u t w e a l s o m a k e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s a t l e s s f u n d a m e n t a l l e v e l s ( t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a p r i o r i ) . ( i i ) H u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s " p r o x i m a t e s t a r t i n g p o i n t . " ( A ) O b v i o u s l y , i n a n i n q u i r y w e m u s t b e g i n w h e r e w e a r e . ( B ) B u t t h e w h o l e p o i n t o f i n q u i r y i s t o c o r r e c t o u r p r e s e n t k n o w l e d g e b y a d d i t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e f r o m o u t s i d e o u r p r e s e n t t h o u g h t . ( C ) S o a l t h o u g h w e " s t a r t w h e r e w e a r e , " i t d o e s n o t f o l l o w t h a t o u r p r e s e n t i d e a s s h o u l d c o n s t i t u t e o u r u l t i m a t e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s . R a t h e r , r e v e l a t i o n a l p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s o u g h t t o g o v e r n o u r i n q u i r y . 5. R a t i o n a l F a c u l t i e s a . R e a s o n , I n t e l l e c t ( i ) T o V a n T i l , a h u m a n c a p a c i t y f o r t h i n k i n g o r a c t i n g a c c o r d i n g t o l o g i c a l n o r m s . ( i i ) I n c l u d e s t h e c a p a c i t y t o f o r m b e l i e f s , d r a w i n f e r e n c e s , f o r m u l a t e a r g u m e n t s . ( i i i ) R a t i o n a l ( A ) D e s c r i p t i v e : a n y u s e o f r a t i o n a l f a c u l t i e s . I n t h i s s e n s e , a l l t h o u g h t a n d a c t i o n a r e r a t i o n a l . ( B ) N o r m a t i v e : p r o p e r u s e o f r a t i o n a l f a c u l t i e s . I n t h i s s e n s e , o n l y s o m e o f o u r t h i n k i n g i s r a t i o n a l . ( i v ) F o r V T , t h e n o r m s o f r e a s o n a r e i n G o d ' s r e v e l a t i o n : " t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l i t s e l f i s e t h i c a l . " ( v ) F u n c t i o n s o f r e a s o n ( i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h H o d g e ) ( A ) r e c e i v e r e v e l a t i o n : s e e " p r i m a c y o f t h e i n t e l l e c t " b e l o w . ( B ) j u d g e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s ( p o s s i b i l i t i e s a n d i m p o s s i b i l i t i e s ) : s e e " l o g i c , " b e l o w . ( C ) j u d g e e v i d e n c e f o r a r e v e l a t i o n : s e e " e v i d e n c e , " b e l o w . b . P r i m a c y o f t h e I n t e l l e c t ( i ) H e l d b y s o m e R e f o r m e d t h e o l o g i a n s : H o d g e , M a c h e n , C l a r k . ( A ) I n t h e C l a r k c o n t r o v e r s y , C l a r k d e n i e d t h a t G o d h a d e m o t i o n s , b e c a u s e h e d e f i n e e m o t i o n a s a m o n g t h e " p a s s i o n s " d e n i e d t o G o d i n t h e W e s t m i n s t e r C o n f e s s i o n . H i s m a i n p o i n t , h o w e v e r , i s t h a t e m o t i o n s n e v e r c l o u d G o d ' s j u d g m e n t . ( B ) A n d C l a r k d i s p a r a g e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f e m o t i o n s , o v e r a g a i n s t t h e i n t e l l e c t . H i s i l l u s t r a t i o n : w e s h o u l d n o t f o l l o w o u r m o m e n t a r y a n g e r , b u t r a t h e r o u r s o b e r j u d g m e n t s o f t r u t h . ( i i ) V a n T i l ' s V i e w ( A ) D o e s n o t a d d r e s s t h e q u e s t i o n o f e m o t i o n s i n G o d . I f h e h a d , I t h i n k h e w o u l d h a v e u r g e d u s t o b e " f e a r l e s s l y a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c . " ( B ) A C h r i s t i a n v i e w o f t h e p r i m a c y o f t h e i n t e l l e c t w i l l b e b a s e d o n t h e C r e a t o r c r e a t u r e d i s t i n c t i o n . T h e i n t e l l e c t m a y b e p r i o r t o o t h e r f a c u l t i e s o f t h e m i n d , b u t n e v e r t o G o d ' s r e v e l a t i o n . ( C ) O n t o l o g i c a l v s . e c o n o m i c p r i m a c y ( c o m p a r e t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e T r i n i t y ) ( 1 ) I n t e l l e c t , w i l l , e m o t i o n s o n t o l o g i c a l l y e q u a l . ( ( 2 ) B u t t h e i n t e l l e c t h a s a n " e c o n o m i c " p r i m a c y , s i n c e t h e w i l l d o e s n ' t k n o w w h a t t o d o u n l e s s i n f o r m e d b y t h e i n t e l l e c t . ( i i i ) E v a l u a t i o n ( J F ) ( A ) V a n T i l a n d C l a r k a t t h i s p o i n t d i f f e r s o m e w h a t i n e m p h a s i s , b u t t h e i r v i e w s a r e c o m p a t i b l e . ( B ) V a n T i l ' s e m p h a s i s o n t h e o n t o l o g i c a l e q u a l i t y o f t h e f a c u l t i e s i s a g o o d i n s i g h t . ( C ) T h o u g h b o t h V a n T i l a n d C l a r k w a n t t o s t r e s s t h e u n i t y o f t h e m i n d , t h e y s t i l l w r i t e s o m e w h a t a s i f i n t e l l e c t , w i l l , a n d e m o t i o n s w e r e i n d e p e n d e n t e n t i t i e s , r e l a t i n g t o o n e a n o t h e r i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s , c o m p e t i n g w i t h o n e a n o t h e r f o r s u p r e m a c y . I p r e f e r t o r e g a r d t h e s e a s i n t e r d e p e n d e n t . ( 1 ) I n t e l l e c t u a l j u d g m e n t s i n f l u e n c e o u r f e e l i n g s a n d c h o i c e s . ( 2 ) W e c h o o s e , t o s o m e e x t e n t , w h a t w e w i l l b e l i e v e a n d f e e l . ( 3 ) F e e l i n g s i n f l u e n c e w i l l a n d i n t e l l e c t ; f r o m o n e p o i n t o f v i e w , i n t e l l e c t u a l s a t i s f a c t i o n i s a f e e l i n g ( " c o g n i t i v e r e s t . " ( 4 ) E m o t i o n s c a n b e d e s c r i b e d a s b e l i e f s ( a " f e e l i n g o f a n g e r " i s a b e l i e f t h a t I h a v e t h e r i g h t t o r e l a t e t o a n o t h e r p e r s o n i n a c e r t a i n w a y ) , a n d v i c e v e r s a ( b e l i e f t h a t 2 + 2 = 4 i s a f e e l i n g o f c o g n i t i v e r e s t a b o u t t h a t p r o p o s i t i o n ) . ( 5 ) S o p e r h a p s e m o t i o n s , w i l l , i n t e l l e c t , s h o u l d b e s e e n a s p e r s p e c t i v e s o n t h e w h o l e p e r s o n a l i t y . ( 6 ) R e f o r m e d t h e o l o g y s h o u l d b e m u c h m o r e p o s i t i v e a b o u t t h e e m o t i o n s a n d w i l l . " P r i m a c y o f t h e i n t e l l e c t " i s a c o n f u s i n g a n d u n h e l p f u l p h r a s e . 6. L o g i c ( r e a s o n a s " j u d g e o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s " ) a . B a s e d o n t h e n a t u r e o f G o d ( i ) G o d ' s n a t u r e i s r a t i o n a l . ( i i ) O u r r a t i o n a l i t y i s c r e a t e d , b u t i t i s " t h e e x p r e s s i o n o n a c r e a t e d l e v e l o f t h e i n t e r n a l c o h e r e n c e o f G o d ' s n a t u r e . " ( i i i ) T h e s c i e n c e o f l o g i c s e e k s t o d i s c o v e r t h e p r i n c i p l e s ( s u c h a s t h e l a w o f n o n c o n t r a d i c t i o n ) f o r c o r r e c t i n f e r e n c e s a n d c o r r e c t j u d g m e n t s o f c o n s i s t e n c y . b . N o n C h r i s t i a n s ( i ) c a n a n d d o t h i n k l o g i c a l l y , a s b o r r o w e d c a p i t a l , ( i i ) b u t u s e t h e i r l o g i c a l g i f t s t o r e p r e s s t h e t r u t h . ( i i i ) C h r i s t i a n s a n d n o n C h r i s t i a n s d o n o t u s e d i f f e r e n t l a w s o f l o g i c . ( i v ) B u t n o n - C h r i s t i a n s h a v e n o b a s i s f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e l a w s o f l o g i c a p p l y t o r e a l i t y . c . A p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s ( i ) V a n T i l d e n i e s t h a t t h e r e a r e a n y r e a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n G o d ' s r e v e l a t i o n . ( i i ) B u t h e s a y s t h a t t h e r e a r e a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , w h i c h w e m a y n e v e r b e a b l e t o r e s o l v e . ( A ) T h e T r i n i t y . ( B ) G o d ' s n a t u r e a n d a t t r i b u t e s . ( C ) N e c e s s i t y a n d f r e e d o m i n G o d . ( D ) G o d ' s s o v e r e i g n t y a n d h u m a n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . ( E ) T h e p r o b l e m o f e v i l . ( F ) G o d ' s s e c r e t a n d r e v e a l e d w i l l s . ( G ) T h e " f u l l b u c k e t d i f f i c u l t y " ( 1 ) G o d i s a l l g l o r i o u s ; n o c r e a t u r e c a n a d d a n y t h i n g t o h i m . ( 2 ) B u t h e c a l l s u s t o a d d t o h i s g l o r y . H o w c a n y o u a d d t o a f u l l b u c k e t ? ( 3 ) I n V a n T i l ' s v i e w , t h i s i s a f u n d a m e n t a l p a r a d o x , t h a t i n j e c t s p a r a d o x i n t o a l l o f G o d ' ' r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e w o r l d . S o h e s a y s t h a t " " A l l t e a c h i n g o f S c r i p t u r e i s a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y . " ( H ) F o r o t h e r s , s e e F r a m e , C V T , 1 5 6 . ( i i i ) B u t h e a l s o i n s i s t s t h a t s o m e b i b l i c a l t e a c h i n g s l o g i c a l l y e x c l u d e o t h e r s : " G o d c o n t r o l s w h a t c o m e s t o p a s s " e x c l u d e s " G o d d o e s n o t c o n t r o l w h a t c o m e s t o p a s s . " ( A ) H e f r e q u e n t l y i n s i s t s t h a t o n e d o c t r i n e f o l l o w s f r o m a n o t h e r o r l o g i c a l l y e x c l u d e s a n o t h e r . ( B ) T h e t r u t h i s a " s y s t e m . " ( i v ) J F : b u t " a p p a r e n t " c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e y p e r v a d e r e v e l a t i o n , c r e a t e a s m a n y p r o b l e m s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a s r e a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . H o w c a n w e r e c o n c i l e V a n T i l ' s a f f i r m a t i o n s o f l o g i c a l s y s t e m w i t h h i s e m b r a c e o f a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n ? d . C h r i s t i a n l i m i t i n g c o n c e p t s ( i ) I n K a n t , l i m i t i n g c o n c e p t s d e s c r i b e t h i n g s t h a t d o n o t a c t u a l l y e x i s t , b u t w h i c h g u i d e o u r t h i n k i n g o r o u r l i v e s i n s o m e w a y . W e a r e t o l i v e " a s i f " t h e y w e r e t r u e . ( A ) T h e n o u m e n a l w o r l d . ( B ) G o d , f r e e d o m , i m m o r t a l i t y . ( i i ) I n o t h e r w r i t e r s , e x a m p l e s s u c h a s m a t h e m a t i c a l i n f i n i t y ( i i i ) V a n T i l ( A ) W e s h o u l d s p e a k a s i f s i n w o u l d h a v e d e s t r o y e d t h e w o r k o f G o d , a l t h o u g h w e k n o w i t c o u l d n o t h a v e d o n e s o . ( B ) P r i n c i p l e : e v e r y b i b l i c a l c o n c e p t w e u s e i s l i m i t e d b y e v e r y o t h e r . ( C ) S o r e a d i n g e a c h b i b l i c a l d o c t r i n e i n t h e l i g h t o f o t h e r s m a y s o m e t i m e s r e s t r a i n t h e d e d u c t i o n s w e m a k e . ( D ) J F : E v i d e n t l y , t h e n , t h e p r o c e s s o f d e v e l o p i n g a t h e o l o g y r e q u i r e s s p i r i t u a l m a t u r i t y a n d s e n s i t i v i t y ( t h o u g h V a n T i l d o e s n ' t s a y t h i s ) . ( E ) J F : L o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e i s s u e i s m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s a m e m e a n i n g s o f t e r m s t h r o u g h o u t y o u r s y l l o g i s m . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s p r i o r t o i n f e r e n c e i n o n e s e n s e . e . M u l t i p e r s p e c t i v a l i s m ( i ) S e e e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n o f r e v e l a t i o n . ( i i ) T h e n a t u r e o f t h e t h e o l o g i c a l s y s t e m i s t o s e e e a c h d o c t r i n e i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e w h o l e , " l i m i t e d b y e v e r y o t h e r . " ( i i i ) S o t h a t i n e v e r y d o c t r i n a l d i s c u s s i o n , w e r e t h i n k t h e w h o l e . E a c h d o c t r i n e b e c o m e s a p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e w h o l e . S e e P o y t h r e s s ' s " R e t h i n k i n g O n t o l o g y a n d L o g i c i n t h e L i g h t o f t h e T r i n i t y . " ( i v ) R e l a t i v e i n d i f f e r e n c e t o " e n c y c l o p e d i a " a n d " l o g i c a l o r d e r . " " C h r i s t i a n t h e i s m i s a u n i t . " 7. E v i d e n c e ( " r e a s o n a s j u d g e o f t h e e v i d e n c e s o f a r e v e l a t i o n " ) a . D e f i n i t i o n : t h e f a c t s a d d u c e d i n s u p p o r t o f a c o n c l u s i o n , o r t h e f o r m u l a t i o n s o f t h o s e f a c t s . b . V a n T i l d o e s n o t d i s p a r a g e e v i d e n c e , b u t r e g a r d s i t v e r y h i g h l y . c . V s . n o n C h r i s t i a n p h i l o s o p h y o f e v i d e n c e : " B r u t e f a c t s " i n d e p e n d e n t o f G o d , a s u l t i m a t e d e t e r m i n e r s o f t r u t h . ( i ) V a n T i l e m p h a s i z e s t h a t f a c t s a r e n e v e r i n d e p e n d e n t o f G o d , o f l a w s , o r o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . ( i i ) " W e a p p e a l t o G o d i n t e r p r e t e d f a c t s . " d . V s . n o n C h r i s t i a n u s e o f f a c t s . ( i ) S t r e s s p h i l o s o p h y o f f a c t , r a t h e r t h a n " t a l k i n g e n d l e s s l y a b o u t f a c t s . " ( J F : I h a v e s o m e q u e s t i o n s h e r e . ) ( i i ) D o n ' t s e p a r a t e f a c t a n d m e a n i n g ( a s i n d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e R e s u r r e c t i o n ) . ( A ) A t o n e l e v e l , s u c h a s e p a r a t i o n i s i m p o s s i b l e . ( B ) B u t y o u c a n ' t s a y e v e r y t h i n g a t o n c e . ( C ) S o " t h a t " a n d " w h a t " a r e m a t t e r s o f d e g r e e . VI. The Ethics of Knowle dge A. Bibl ical Data 1. R o m . 1 a . G o d c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d ( 1 8 2 0 ) t o a l l h u m a n b e i n g s . ( i ) h i s e t e r n a l p o w e r a n d d i v i n e n a t u r e ( 2 0 ) ( i i ) h i s m o r a l s t a n d a r d s ( 3 2 ) b . S o t h e y " k n o w " h i m , v e r s e 2 1 . c . T h e i r r e s p o n s e ( i ) s u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e t r u t h ( 1 8 ) ( i i ) r e f u s a l o f t r u e w o r s h i p , w o r s h i p o f f a l s e g o d s ( 2 1 2 3 , 2 5 ) ( i i i ) e x c h a n g e t h e t r u t h f o r a l i e ( 2 5 , 2 8 ) ( i v ) m o r a l d e g r a d a t i o n ( 2 4 3 1 ) d . G o d ' s r e s p o n s e ( i ) w r a t h ( 1 8 ) ( i i ) j u d g m e n t ( " w i t h o u t e x c u s e " ) ( 2 0 ) . 2. T h e u n b e l i e v e r ' s i g n o r a n c e : 1 C o r . 2 : 8 , 1 2 1 4 , 1 T h e s s . 4 : 5 8 , A c t s 3 : 7 , 1 7 : 2 3 , 3 0 , R o m . 1 0 : 3 , E p h . 4 : 1 8 , 1 P e t . 1 : 4 , 3 : 5 , 1 T i m . 6 : 2 0 . a . H i s t h o u g h t s a r e f o o l i s h ( M a t t . 7 : 2 6 2 7 ) , v a i n ( R o m . 1 : 2 1 ) , s i n f u l ( E p h . 2 : 3 ) , f u t i l e ( 1 C o r . 3 : 2 0 ) . H e i s b l i n d ( 2 C o r . 4 : 4 , c f . M a t t . 1 5 : 1 4 , 2 3 : 1 6 2 6 , J o h n 9 : 4 0 4 1 , 1 2 : 4 0 , R o m . 1 1 : 7 , 2 5 , 2 C o r . 3 : 1 4 , E p h . 4 : 1 8 , 1 J o h n 2 : 1 1 ) . b . S i n c e h e h a s n o f e a r o f G o d ( R o m . 3 : 1 8 ) , h e h a s n o w i s d o m o r k n o w l e d g e ( P s m . 1 1 1 : 1 0 , P r o v . 1 : 7 , 1 C o r . 3 : 1 8 2 0 ) . c . S i n c e h e i s o f t h e w o r l d , h e s p e a k s o f t h e w o r l d , n o t o f G o d ( 1 J o h n 4 : 4 5 ) . d . H e c a n n o t r e c e i v e t h e S p i r i t o f T r u t h ( J o h n 1 4 : 1 7 ) , s o h e c a n n o t d i s c e r n s p i r i t u a l t h i n g s ( 1 C o r . 2 : 1 4 ) . H e c a n n o t s e e t h e k i n g d o m o f G o d ( J o h n 3 : 3 ) . e . T h e r e i s a n a n t i t h e s i s b e t w e e n u n b e l i e v i n g a n d b e l i e v i n g t h o u g h t ( A c t s 2 6 : 1 8 , 1 C o r . 1 2 , e s p . 2 : 1 4 , 3 : 1 8 2 3 , 2 C o r . 5 : 7 , 6 : 1 4 1 5 , E p h . 5 : 6 1 1 , C o l . 2 : 8 ; c o m p a r e P r o v e r b s ) , a s b e t w e e n t h e o l d a n d n e w l i f e ( E p h . 2 : 1 1 0 , C o l . 3 : 1 1 7 ) . f . S o G o d ' s g r a c e i n C h r i s t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e n e w u s u n t o k n o w l e d g e ( J o h n 3 : 3 8 , R o m . 1 2 : 2 , 1 C o r . 2 : 1 2 , E p h . 4 : 2 0 2 4 , C o l . 3 : 1 0 ) . B. Anti thesi s 1. V a n T i l n o t e s t h a t a l t h o u g h b e l i e f a n d u n b e l i e f a r e a b s o l u t e l y o p p o s e d " i n p r i n c i p l e , " n e v e r t h e l e s s u n b e l i e v e r s s o m e t i m e s a f f i r m t r u t h , j u s t a s b e l i e v e r s s o m e t i m e s d e n y i t . T h e u n b e l i e v e r ' s c o m m i t m e n t t o f a l s e h o o d i s r e s t r a i n e d b y G o d ' s " c o m m o n g r a c e . " 2. S o V a n T i l a f f i r m s t h a t t h e u n b e l i e v e r ' s t h o u g h t i s , i n f a c t , a " m i x t u r e " o f t r u t h a n d f a l s i t y , t h o u g h s o m e t i m e s h e d o e s n 't t a k e f u l l a c c o u n t o f b o t h e l e m e n t s . 3. V a n T i l a d m i t s t o s o m e d i f f i c u l t y i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e u n b e l i e v e r ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s : h o w i t c a n c o n t a i n t r u t h , y e t b e a b s o l u t e l y o p p o s e d t o t h e t r u t h . S o m e o f h i s a t t e m p t s : a . E x t r e m e a n t i t h e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n s : a s " t h e u n b e l i e v e r i n t e r p r e t s a l l t h e f a c t s a n d a l l t h e l a w s t h a t a r e p r e s e n t e d t o h i m i n t e r m s o f h i s [ u n b e l i e v i n g ] a s s u m p t i o n s . " J F : t h e s e f o r m u l a t i o n s d o n o t d o j u s t i c e t o S c r i p t u r e ' s a s s e r t i o n ( a n d V a n T i l ' s ! ) t h a t t h e u n b e l i e v e r k n o w s t r u t h . ( i ) T h e u n b e l i e v e r o u g h t t o k n o w t h e t r u t h , b u t d o e s n ' t . ( i i ) D i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n g i v e n t o t h e u n b e l i e v e r , b u t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s e n t i r e l y w r o n g . ( i i i ) U n b e l i e v e r s h a v e t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l c a p a c i t y t o k n o w , b u t h e a l w a y s m a k e s f a u l t y u s e o f t h e s e r a t i o n a l f a c u l t i e s . ( i v ) T h e u n b e l i e v e r ' s k n o w l e d g e i s o n l y " f o r m a l " : w h a t h e s a y s s o u n d s t r u e , b u t i t h a s o n l y w o r d s i n c o m m o n w i t h t h e t r u t h . ( v ) T h e y k n o w t h e t r u t h , b u t c a n n o t g i v e a n " a c c o u n t " o f i t ( c f . B a h n s e n , 5 1 4 ) . ( A ) B u t k n o w l e d g e a s s u m e s j u s t i f i c a t i o n . ( B ) I m a g i n e a b r i l l i a n t p r e s u p p o s i t i o n a l a p o l o g i s t , w h o i s n o t s a v e d . b . N o r m a t i v e f o r m u l a t i o n s : t h e u n b e l i e v e r o p p o s e s t h e t r u t h " i n p r i n c i p l e , " t h o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n d e t a i l . ( i ) J F : m o r e b i b l i c a l a n d a d e q u a t e . ( i i ) B u t i t d o e s n ' t a l l o w u s t o p r e d i c t h o w a n u n b e l i e v e r w i l l r e s p o n d t o a s t a t e m e n t o f t r u t h . c . S i t u a t i o n a l f o r m u l a t i o n s : t h e u n b e l i e v e r l i v e s i n G o d ' s w o r l d a n d s o c a n n o t b e s a t i s f i e d w i t h a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a t h e i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e a l i t y . H e c a n n o t e v e n d e n y G o d w i t h o u t a f f i r m i n g h i m . ( i ) T h e s e f o r m u l a t i o n s a r e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h , a n d a d d t o , t h e n o r m a t i v e f o r m u l a t i o n s , b u t t h e y a r e i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e e x t r e m e a n t i t h e t i c a l o n e s . ( i i ) H e r e i t i s n o t e a s y t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e t r u t h f r o m t h e e r r o r , t h e d e p r a v i t y f r o m t h e c o m m o n g r a c e . F o r t h e u n b e l i e v e r a f f i r m s t r u t h e v e n i n d e n y i n g i t . ( i i i ) " H e c a n ' t b e s a t i s f i e d , " t h o u g h h e c a n a d o p t v a r i o u s a d h o c m e a s u r e s f o r s a l v a g i n g h i s t h e o r y , e v e n b y m o v i n g t o i r r a t i o n a l i s m w h e n h i s r a t i o n a l i s m d o e s n ' t w o r k . T h e " s a t i s f a c t i o n " i s t r a n s r a t i o n a l , i n v o l v i n g a l l o u r f a c u l t i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e e m o t i o n s . d . E x i s t e n t i a l f o r m u l a t i o n s : t h e u n b e l i e v e r m a y h a v e " t h e o r e t i c a l l y c o r r e c t k n o w l e d g e a b o u t G o d " b u t d o e s n o t l o v e G o d . ( i ) S o d e p r a v i t y i s l o c a t e d i n t h e u n b e l i e v e r ' s m o t i v e . ( i i ) " N o t i n t e l l e c t u a l b u t m o r a l ? " ( S p r o u l ) B u t V a n T i l i n s i s t s t h a t t h e m o r a l i n f l u e n c e s t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l . ( i i i ) T h e t r u t h i s p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y r e p r e s s e d ( a s i n F r e u d ) ? N o t a l w a y s . e . P r a c t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n s ( i ) " a m i x t u r e " ( i i ) T h e u n b e l i e v e r ' s j u d g m e n t s n e v e r " b a s i c a l l y p r o p e r , " n e v e r " e s s e n t i a l l y c o r r e c t . " W e c a n a g r e e o n " d e t a i l s . " ( i i i ) T h e s e s u g g e s t a d i f f e r e n c e i n d e g r e e . B u t t h a t i s i n e v i t a b l e . 4. V a n T i l s o m e t i m e s e x t e n d e d h i s " a n t i t h e s i s " l a n g u a g e t o n o n R e f o r m e d b e l i e v e r s : i l l e g i t i m a t e l y i n m y o p i n i o n . a . R e f o r m e d b e l i e v e r s h a v e " n o f u n d a m e n t a l s i n c o m m o n " w i t h S t u a r t H a c k e t t . b . E . J . C a r n e l l ' s a p o l o g e t i c m e t h o d " r e q u i r e s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y " a n d l e a d s t o " t h e r e j e c t i o n o f t h e w h o l e b o d y o f h i s C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f s . " c . S i m i l a r s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t R o m a n C a t h o l i c s , A r m i n i a n a p o l o g i s t s , t h o u g h o c c a s i o n a l l y h e g i v e s t h e m s o m e a m o u n t o f c r e d i t ( c f . B a h n s e n , 5 3 5 3 6 ) . C. Com mon Grac e 1. T a u g h t b y C a l v i n a n d K u y p e r , c h a l l e n g e d b y H e r m a n H o e k s e m a . V a n T i l s o u g h t t o f o r m u l a t e t h e d o c t r i n e i n a w a y t h a t e s c a p e d H o e k s e m a ' s o b j e c t i o n s . 2. S u m m a r y o f C R C S t a t e m e n t ( 1 9 2 4 ) a . T h e r e i s a " c e r t a i n f a v o r o r g r a c e " o f G o d w h i c h h e s h o w s t o h i s c r e a t u r e s i n g e n e r a l . b . G o d r e s t r a i n s s i n i n i n d i v i d u a l s a n d s o c i e t y . c . G o d e n a b l e s t h e u n r e g e n e r a t e t o p e r f o r m " c i v i c g o o d , " d e e d s t h a t p r o m o t e t h e w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s . 3. Van Til's main poin t is that the doct rine of com mon grac e shou ld be cont rolle d mor e by the idea of the earli er and less by the idea of the later . a . C o m m o n g r a c e i s e a r l i e r g r a c e : t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e g e n u i n e l o v e G o d h a d f o r t h e w h o l e h u m a n r a c e a t t h e i r c r e a t i o n . b . H o e k s e m a ' s v i e w f o c u s e s e x c l u s i v e l y o n t h e l a t t e r : G o d c a n h a v e n o f a v o r t o t h e r e p r o b a t e , b e c a u s e t h e i r d e s t i n y i s d a m n a t i o n . c . V a n T i l ' s i n s i g h t : t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d m i d d l e o f h i s t o r y r e f l e c t G o d ' s g e n u i n e p u r p o s e , n o t o n l y t h e e n d . 4.Th e Free Offe r of the Gos pel: Van Til argu es that it is legit imat e to prea ch to repr obat e as well as elect , beca use the gosp el is addr esse d to a "gen erali ty," "und iffer entia ted" until their actu al acce ptan ce or rejec tion of the gosp el. The y beco me mor e and mor e diffe renti ated as histo ry prog resse s, and in that proc ess, com mon grac e dimi nish es. JF: I disa gree. a . T h e g o s p e l i s n o t a d d r e s s e d t o a g e n e r a l i t y , b u t t o a c t u a l p e o p l e . b . U n b e l i e v e r s a r e n o t " u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d , " b u t u n d e r G o d ' s w r a t h . c . I d o n ' t t h i n k i t c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d f r o m S c r i p t u r e t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n c r e a s e o f w i c k e d n e s s t h r o u g h h i s t o r y a n d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e c l i n e o f G o d ' s f a v o r t o t h e r e p r o b a t e . 5. C r i t i c i s m s o f D a a n e , N o r t h : s e e F r a m e , C V T . D. Rati onali sm and Irrati onali sm in Unb eliev ing Tho ught 1. R a t i o n a l i s m : c l a i m t h a t a u t o n o m o u s h u m a n i s t h e c r i t e r i o n o f t r u t h . S o C h r i s t i a n i t y c a n n o t b e t r u e . 2. I r r a t i o n a l i s m : c l a i m t h a t s i n c e t h e b i b l i c a l G o d d o e s n 't e x i s t , t h e r e c a n b e n o a b s o l u t e t r u t h . 3. E v e i n t h e g a r d e n . 4. C o m p a r e e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h i n k e r s w h o h a v e t r i e d t o f i n d a b s o l u t e s i n u n i v e r s a l s o r p a r t i c u l a r s , l a w s o r f a c t s . 5. E x a m p l e s f r o m t h e h i s t o r y o f p h i l o s o p h y : A . M i l e s i a n n a t u r e p h i l o s o p h e r s : " a l l i s … " 1 . R a t i o n a l i s m : m a k i n g a u n i v e r s a l s t a t e m e n t a n d p r e s u m i n g t o d e n y t h e c r e a t o r c r e a t u r e d i s t i n c t i o n . 2 . I r r a t i o n a l i s m : r e d u c i n g t h e m i n d t o m a t e r i a l p r o c e s s . B . H e r a c l i t u s C . P a r m e n i d e s D . T h e S o p h i s t s . E . P l a t o : r a t i o n a l i s t i c i n o n e w o r l d , i r r a t i o n a l i s t i c i n t h e o t h e r . F . A r i s t o t l e : s i m i l a r l y . G . N e o p l a t o n i s m . H . A q u i n a s I . R a t i o n a l i s t s a n d e m p i r i c i s t s J . K a n t K . S a r t r e , E x i s t e n t i a l i s m L . L a n g u a g e A n a l y s i s M . M o d e r n i s m a n d p o s t m o d e r n i s m 6. N o t e t h e s i m i l a r i t y o f a l l h i s t o r i c a l m o v e m e n t s . V s . r h e t o r i c a b o u t t h e r a d i c a l l y n e w . VII. The Argume nt for Christia nity A. The "Tra ditio nal Met hod" 1. V a n T i l b e l i e v e s t h a t m o s t o f t h e h i s t o r y o f a p o l o g e t i c s i s a s t o r y o f c o m p r o m i s e . A p o l o g i s t s h a v e t r i e d i n s o m e m e a s u r e t o r e a s o n w i t h u n b e l i e v e r s o n a n e u t r a l b a s i s . 2. J F : H i s c r i t i q u e u n c o v e r s w e a k n e s s e s i n t h e a p o l o g e t i c t r a d i t i o n . a . B u t h i s a n a l y s i s d o e s n o t e s t a b l i s h t h e c r u c i a l p o i n t o f h i s c r i t i q u e : t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a s s u m e s r e a l i t y t o b e i n t e l l i g i b l e a p a r t f r o m G o d . b . H e i g n o r e s w a y s o f i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e s e t r a d i t i o n a l a r g u m e n t s a s a s p e c t s o f h i s o w n t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a p o l o g e t i c . 3. T h e S e c o n d C e n t u r y A p o l o g i s t s ( C l e m e n t , J u s t i n , A t h e n a g o r a s ) a . C o n f u s e b i b l i c a l t e a c h i n g w i t h G r e e k p h i l o s o p h y . ( G o d a s " t h e n a m e l e s s o n e " i n J u s t i n ) b . C l e m e n t c o m p a r e s t h e R e s u r r e c t i o n o f C h r i s t w i t h t h e r e t u r n o f s p r i n g a n d t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e m y t h i c a l P h o e n i x . ( i ) V T : d e s t r o y s t h e u n i q u e n e s s o f t h e R e s u r r e c t i o n o f C h r i s t . ( i i ) J F ( A ) B u t a r e n ' t t h e r e l e g i t i m a t e a n a l o g i e s b e t w e e n t h e R e s u r r e c t i o n o f C h r i s t a n d t h e c o m i n g o f n e w l i f e t o t h e e a r t h ? ( B ) A n d c o u l d n ' t w e u n d e r s t a n d C l e m e n t ' s p o i n t a b o u t t h e P h o e n i x a s a d h o m i n e m ? I . e . , " Y o u u n b e l i e v e r s g i v e c r e d e n c e t o t h e P h o e n i x m y t h , s o y o u h a v e n o r i g h t t o d e c l a r e t h a t t h e R e s u r r e c t i o n o f J e s u s i s i m p o s s i b l e . ( i i i ) V T : C l e m e n t i s i n f l u e n c e d b y S t o i c m o r a l i s m . ( i v ) J F : m o s t l i k e l y h e w a s . B u t t o s a y t h a t t h a t i n f l u e n c e i n v a l i d a t e s h i s a r g u m e n t s i s a g e n e t i c f a l l a c y : l i k e s a y i n g I d e a l i s m ' s i n f l u e n c e o n V T i n v a l i d a t e s V T ' s a r g u m e n t s . c . A t h e n a g o r a s : s i n c e G o d h a s c r e a t e d a l l t h i n g s , i t s h o u l d n o t b e t h o u g h t i m p o s s i b l e t h a t G o d s h o u l d r a i s e t h e d e a d . ( i ) V T : b u t t h e G r e e k p h i l o s o p h e r s d i d n o t g r a n t t h a t G o d c r e a t e d a l l t h i n g s . ( i i ) J F : ( A ) W h y s h o u l d w e b e i n t i m i d a t e d b y t h e u n b e l i e v e r ' s d e n i a l o f o u r p r e m i s e s ? V T h i m s e l f i s n o t i n t i m i d a t e d b y t h a t . ( B ) W h y s h o u l d n ' t w e r e a d A t h e n a g o r a s a s g i v i n g t h e f i r s t s t e p i n t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a r g u m e n t , n a m e l y s h o w i n g t h a t t h e r e s u r r e c t i o n i s c r e d i b l e g i v e n a C h r i s t i a n w o r l d v i e w ? ( C ) S h o u l d h e h a v e b e e n m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d ? P e r h a p s , b u t w e d o n ' t k n o w m u c h a b o u t h i s i n i t i a l a u d i e n c e . I n a n y c a s e , l a c k o f s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i s n o t c o m p r o m i s e . ( D ) S h o u l d h e h a v e s p o k e n o f t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n a l a n t i t h e s i s b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n a n d n o n C h r i s t i a n f o r m s o f r e a s o n i n g ? I d o n ' t b e l i e v e t h a t m u s t b e d o n e i n e v e r y a p o l o g e t i c e n c o u n t e r , a n d V T h a s n ' t p r o v e n t o m e t h a t i t w a s n e c e s s a r y i n A t h e n a g o r a s ' s b o o k . 4. I r e n a e u s ( d . a r o u n d 2 0 0 ) a . V s . G n o s t i c i s m : d o t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s , f r o m w h i c h t h e G n o s t i c s g e t t h e i r s p e c u l a t i o n s , k n o w t h e t r u t h a b o u t G o d ? ( i ) I f s o , t h e y d o n ' t n e e d C h r i s t . ( i i ) I f n o t , t h e n w h y a p p e a l t o t h e m ? b . A n o t h e r a r g u m e n t v s . G n o s t i c i s m : A r e t h e e m a n a t i o n d e i t i e s o f o n e s u b s t a n c e w i t h t h e s u p r e m e b e i n g o r n o t ? ( i ) I f s o , h o w c a n t h e y b e i g n o r a n t o f t h e s u p r e m e b e i n g , a s t h e G n o s t i c s c l a i m ? ( i i ) I f n o t , h o w c a n t h e y c o n v e y t r u e k n o w l e d g e , s i n c e o n t h e G n o s t i c v i e w i d e n t i t y o f s u b s t a n c e i s n e c e s s a r y f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g ? c . v s . P l a t o , w h o t h o u g h t t h a t k n o w l e d g e i s r e c a l l i n g a p a s t e x i s t e n c e i n t h e w o r l d o f F o r m s : ( i ) S i n c e P l a t o i s i n t h e b o d y , " i n a s t a t e o f o b l i v i o n , " h o w c a n h e h a v e r e l i a b l e k n o w l e d g e o f a s t a t e p r i o r t o t h a t o b l i v i o n ? ( i i ) I f h e w e r e i n t h e W o r l d o f F o r m s , h o w c o u l d h e c o m m u n i c a t e h i s k n o w l e d g e t o p e o p l e l i k e u s w h o a r e s t u c k i n o b l i v i o n ? d . V T : I r e n a e u s b e l i e v e d t h a t P l a t o a n d o t h e r s h e l d t o a " g e n e r a l t h e i s m " t h a t r e q u i r e d C h r i s t i a n i t y o n l y a s a s u p p l e m e n t . e . J F : ( i ) T h i s j u d g m e n t d o e s n ' t a r i s e f r o m a n y o f t h e e x a m p l e s V T c i t e s . ( i i ) W h y s h o u l d n ' t w e g i v e I r e n a e u s c r e d i t f o r s e e i n g t h e r a t i o n a l i s t i r r a t i o n a l i s t d i a l e c t i c i n t h e G n o s t i c s a n d P l a t o ? ( i i i ) A s f o r t h e n o t i o n o f " s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n , " s e e m y e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n o f e v i d e n c e . I f w e g r a n t t h a t n o n C h r i s t i a n s h a v e s o m e t r u e k n o w l e d g e ( h o w e v e r c o n s t r u e d ) ( s e e d i s c u s s i o n o f a n t i t h e s i s ) t h e n w e m u s t g r a n t t h a t t h e t r u t h t h e a p o l o g i s t c o m m u n i c a t e s d o e s i n d e e d " s u p p l e m e n t " t h e t r u t h h e a l r e a d y h a s , t h o u g h o f c o u r s e i t m u s t d o m o r e t h a n t h a t . B u t t o p r e s e n t C h r i s t i a n t r u t h a s s u p p l e m e n t a r y i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y w r o n g i n i t s e l f . V T d o e s t h e s a m e , e . g . i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f r e l i g i o n . 5. T e r t u l l i a n ( c . 1 6 0 2 2 0 ) a . O n t h e P r e s c r i p t i o n o f H e r e t i c s : " W h a t i n d e e d h a s A t h e n s t o d o w i t h J e r u s a l e m ? " b . A p o l o g y : C h r i s t i a n s g e t t h e i r e t h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s f r o m d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n , n o t m e r e h u m a n a u t h o r i t y . c . V T : B u t T e r t u l l i a n s e e s d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n C h r i s t i a n a n d h e a t h e n t h o u g h t a s o n e o f " g r a d a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n o f c o n t r a s t . " d . J F : ( i ) D o e s t h i s m e a n t h a t e v e r y t h i n g t h e u n b e l i e v e r s a y s m u s t b e c o n t e s t e d ( " e x t r e m e a n t i t h e s i s " ) ? ( i i ) O r i s i t a n o t h e r p o l e m i c a g a i n s t t h e n o t i o n o f " s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n " ( s e e a b o v e ) ? 6. A u g u s t i n e ( 3 5 4 4 3 0 ) a . V T : E v i d e n c e o f r a t i o n a l i s m a n d i r r a t i o n a l i s m , f r o m h i s P l a t o n i c r o o t s . ( i ) S c e p t i c i s m a b o u t s e n s e e x p e r i e n c e ( i r r a t i o n a l i s m ) . ( i i ) R e l i a n c e o n i n n a t e k n o w l e d g e ( r a t i o n a l i s m ) . ( i i i ) R e l i a n c e o n " e x p e r t " a u t h o r i t y ( i r r a t i o n a l i s m a n d r a t i o n a l i s m ) . ( i v ) J F : a g r e e w i t h V T . b . H i s t h e i s t i c p r o o f : I f t r u t h p e r i s h e s , i t i s s t i l l t r u e t h a t t r u t h p e r i s h e s , a n d s o t r u t h h a s n ' t p e r i s h e d . U l t i m a t e t r u t h , w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r a l l k n o w l e d g e , m u s t r e s i d e i n a n u l t i m a t e m i n d ; t h e r e f o r e G o d e x i s t s . ( i ) V T : t h i s c o m e s f r o m P l a t o . ( J F : i n i t s e l f , t h a t f a c t d o e s n o t i n v a l i d a t e A u g u s t i n e ' s r e a s o n i n g . T o s a y t h a t i t d o e s i s a g e n e t i c f a l l a c y . ) ( i i ) H i s p r e m i s e s a r e b i b l i c a l , a n d h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s a s w e l l . 7. T h o m a s A q u i n a s ( 1 2 2 5 1 2 7 4 ) a . N e o p l a t o n i c a n d A r i s t o t e l i a n b a c k g r o u n d s . ( i ) N e o p l a t o n i c " c h a i n o f b e i n g . " ( i i ) A r i s t o t e l i a n p r i m e m o v e r . b . F a i t h a n d R e a s o n ( i ) N a t u r a l r e a s o n : o p e r a t e s w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f b i b l i c a l r e v e l a t i o n . I n t h i s a r e a , w e c a n t r u s t n o n C h r i s t i a n t h i n k e r s . ( i i ) F a i t h : d e a l s w i t h m a t t e r s o f s a l v a t i o n . I n t h i s a r e a , S c r i p t u r e m u s t s u p p l e m e n t ( a n d s o m e t i m e s c o n t r a d i c t ) w h a t w e l e a r n f r o m n a t u r a l r e a s o n . ( i i i ) V T : t h e i d e a o f s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n a m o u n t s t o c o m p r o m i s e . J F : s e e a b o v e . ( i v ) J F : B u t V a n T i l i s r i g h t t o c r i t i c i z e t h e n e u t r a l i s m o f A q u i n a s ' s v i e w o f n a t u r a l r e a s o n . c . A r g u m e n t s f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f G o d : c h i e f l y c a u s a l . ( i ) V T : ( A ) A q u i n a s ' s d e p e n d e n c e o n A r i s t o t l e " v i t i a t e s t h e e n t i r e a r g u m e n t f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e o f G o d t h a t h e o f f e r s , a n d i n f a c t v i t i a t e s h i s a p p r o a c h t o e v e r y o t h e r p r o b l e m i n p h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e o l o g y . " ( B ) A q u i n a s ' s p r o o f s l e a d o n l y t o a f i n i t e g o d , s i n c e t h e y b e g i n w i t h n o t i o n s o f c a u s e a n d p u r p o s e t h o u g h t t o b e i n t e l l i g i b l e a p a r t f r o m t h e G o d o f S c r i p t u r e . ( i i ) J F : d o e s h e r e a l l y a s s u m e t h a t c a u s e a n d p u r p o s e a r e i n t e l l i g i b l e a p a r t f r o m G o d ? ( A ) H e a s s u m e s t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e o f h i s p r o o f i s s u i t a b l e f o r i n t e l l i g i b l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h u n b e l i e v e r s . B u t V T a l s o a s s u m e s t h a t t h e u n b e l i e v e r c a n " u n d e r s t a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l l y " h i s a r g u m e n t . ( B ) V a n T i l w o u l d r e v i s e t h e c o s m o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t t o r e a d t h a t " m e n o u g h t t o r e a l i z e t h a t n a t u r e c o u l d n o t e x i s t a s s o m e t h i n g i n d e p e n d e n t [ o f G o d ] . " B u t i s t h a t n o t A q u i n a s ' s w h o l e p o i n t ? ( C ) V a n T i l w o u l d i n s i s t t h a t " i f a n y t h i n g i n t e l l i g i b l e i s t o b e s a i d a b o u t n a t u r e , i t m u s t b e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e a b s o l u t e s y s t e m o f t r u t h , w h i c h i s G o d . " B u t i f A q u i n a s i s r i g h t t h a t c a u s a l i t y i m p l i e s G o d ' s e x i s t e n c e , d o e s n o t t h e d e n i a l o f G o d l e a d t o a n u n i n t e l l i g i b l e a c c o u n t o f t h e w o r l d ? I f p i m p l i e s q , t h e n " p a n d n o t q " i s u n i n t e l l i g i b l e . ( D ) D o e s A q u i n a s ' s a r g u m e n t l e a d o n l y t o a f i n i t e g o d ? ( 1 ) H i s c a u s a l a r g u m e n t d o e s n ' t i m m e d i a t e l y r a i s e t h e q u e s t i o n o f i n f i n i t y , b u t A q u i n a s c e r t a i n l y b e l i e v e d h i s a r g u m e n t i m p l i e d a n i n f i n i t e G o d , a n d h e t r i e d t o s h o w t h a t f a c t b y s u p p l e m e n t a r y a r g u m e n t s . ( 2 ) D o e s e v e r y a r g u m e n t h a v e t o p r o v e t h e w h o l e o f C h r i s t i a n t h e i s m ? I t h i n k n o t . S e e e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n s . I t d o e s h a v e t o p r o v e a G o d c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e B i b l e ' s d e s c r i p t i o n , b u t t h a t i s d i f f e r e n t . d . A n a l o g y ( i ) A q u i n a s i n s i s t s t h a t o u r l a n g u a g e a b o u t G o d i s a n a l o g i c a l i n t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g n o n l i t e r a l . ( i i ) B u t h o w d o t h e a n a l o g i e s g a i n t h e i r m e a n i n g w i t h o u t s o m e l i t e r a l r e f e r e n c e p o i n t ? S o m e i r r a t i o n a l i s m h e r e . 8. J o s e p h B u t l e r ( 1 6 9 2 1 7 5 2 ) a . H e s e e k s p r i m a r i l y t o r e f u t e d e i s m , w h i c h g r a n t e d a f o r m o f g e n e r a l r e v e l a t i o n , b u t r e j e c t e d s p e c i a l r e v e l a t i o n . b . H i s c h i e f m e t h o d : t o s h o w a n a l o g i e s b e t w e e n g e n e r a l a n d s p e c i a l r e v e l a t i o n . ( i ) R e a s o n s f o r b e l i e f i n C h r i s t i a n i t y a r e t h e s a m e s o r t s o f r e a s o n s t h a t w e u s e t o p r o v e c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d ( " p r i n c i p l e o f c o n t i n u i t y " ) . ( i i ) T h e p r o b l e m s i n S c r i p t u r e a r e s i m i l a r t o p r o b l e m s i n n a t u r a l r e v e l a t i o n . ( i i i ) B u t t h e r e a r e a l s o d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e a l m s , a n d w e m u s t t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h o s e a s w e l l ( " p r i n c i p l e o f d i s c o n t i n u i t y " ) . c . H e a s s u m e s , w i t h t h e d e i s t s , t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n " a u t h o r o f t h e c o u r s e a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n o f n a t u r e . " d . E m p i r i c i s t , p r o b a b i l i s t ; " p r o b a b i l i t y i s t h e v e r y g u i d e t o l i f e . " e . " R e a s o n a b l e u s e o f r e a s o n : " " L e t r e a s o n b e k e p t t o ; a n d i f a n y p a r t o f t h e S c r i p t u r e a c c o u n t o f t h e r e d e m p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d b y C h r i s t c a n b e s h o w n t o b e r e a l l y c o n t r a r y t o i t , l e t t h e S c r i p t u r e , i n t h e n a m e o f G o d , b e g i v e n u p . " ( i ) V T : c l e a r s t a t e m e n t o f a u t o n o m y , n e u t r a l i t y . ( i i ) J F : o d d , b e c a u s e i t s t a r t s w i t h a h y p o t h e s i s t h a t B u t l e r h i m s e l f w o u l d c o n s i d e r c o n t r a r y t o f a c t . B u t o n e c o u l d a r g u e t h a t i f a d o c t r i n e w e r e r e a l l y c o n t r a r y t o r e a s o n ( a s d e f i n e d b y G o d ) , t h e n i n d e e d i t s h o u l d b e g i v e n u p . f . A r g u m e n t f o r i m m o r t a l i t y : ( i ) W e s u r v i v e m a n y o t h e r c h a n g e s i n l i f e ; a n a l o g o u s l y , w e m a y b e e x p e c t e d t o s u r v i v e d e a t h ( c o n t i n u i t y ) . ( i i ) W e d o n ' t k n o w e n o u g h a b o u t d e a t h t o s a y t h a t i t i n v o l v e s a l o s s o f o u r p o w e r s ( d i s c o n t i n u i t y ) . g . V T : B u t l e r p r e s u p p o s e s " b r u t e f a c t " ( u n i n t e r p r e t e d f a c t s : u n c r e a t e d , u n c o n t r o l l e d , u n k n o w n b y G o d , a n d t h e r e f o r e u n i n t e l l i g i b l e ) . ( i ) J F : V T g i v e s n o e v i d e n c e o f t h i s . B u t l e r i s A r m i n i a n , b u t e v e n t r a d i t i o n a l A r m i n i a n s b e l i e v e t h a t G o d f o r e k n o w s a n d p e r m i t s e v e r y t h i n g t h a t c o m e s t o p a s s . ( i i ) B u t l e r ' s e p i s t e m o l o g y i s p r a c t i c a l , n o t t h e o r e t i c a l . H i s p r i n c i p l e o f d i s c o n t i n u i t y a f f i r m s h u m a n i g n o r a n c e , n o t t h e b r u t i s h n e s s o f f a c t s a s s u c h . h . V T : B u t l e r ' s " p r o b a b i l i t y " d e n i e s t h e c l a r i t y o f r e v e l a t i o n . J F : W e n e e d t o m a k e a c l e a r e r d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n e v i d e n c e a n d a r g u m e n t . ( i ) T h e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e b i b l i c a l G o d i s c l e a r a n d w a r r a n t s c e r t a i n t y . ( i i ) O u r u s e o f t h a t e v i d e n c e i n a r g u m e n t i s f a l l i b l e a n d m a y d e s e r v e t o b e a c c e p t e d o n l y a s p r o b a b i l i t y . V T , i n d e e d , a d m i t t e d t h i s . ( i i i ) B u t l e r i s r i g h t t o s a y t h a t w e m u s t o f t e n m a k e d e c i s i o n s o n t h e b a s i s o f p r o b a b i l i t y . 9. E d w a r d J . C a r n e l l ( 1 9 1 9 1 9 6 7 ) . a . S p e a k s o f S c r i p t u r e a s a " p r e s u p p o s i t i o n , " b u t a l s o a s a h y p o t h e s i s t o b e t e s t e d b y l o g i c , f a c t , a n d p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e . " B r i n g o n y o u r r e v e l a t i o n s ! L e t t h e m m a k e p e a c e w i t h t h e l a w o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n a n d t h e f a c t s o f h i s t o r y , a n d t h e y w i l l d e s e r v e a r a t i o n a l m a n ' s a s s e n t . A c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e B i b l e r e v e a l s t h a t i t p a s s e s t h e s e s t r i n g e n t e x a m i n a t i o n s s u m m a c u m l a u d e . " ( i ) V T : n e u t r a l i s t . C a r n e l l ' s m e t h o d " r e q u i r e s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y " a n d l e a d s t o " t h e r e j e c t i o n o f t h e w h o l e b o d y o f h i s C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f s . " ( i i ) J F : ( A ) N o t w r o n g i n e v e r y s e n s e t o t e s t S c r i p t u r e b y r e a s o n . V T h i m s e l f s a y s t h a t S c r i p t u r e " m e e t s e v e r y l e g i t i m a t e d e m a n d o f r e a s o n . " H e a g r e e s w i t h H o d g e t h a t r e a s o n m a y l e g i t i m a t e l y j u d g e r e v e l a t i o n . B u t h e r e h e a c c u s e s C a r n e l l o f K a n t i a n i s m f o r m a k i n g t h e s a m e a s s e r t i o n . ( B ) B u t V T a d d s t h a t C h r i s t i a n s a n d n o n C h r i s t i a n s u s e r e a s o n i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s . C a r n e l l d o e s n o t m a k e t h a t d i s t i n c t i o n ( t h o u g h I t h i n k h e w o u l d g r a n t i t ) , a n d t h a t f a i l u r e w e a k e n s h i s a p p r o a c h . B u t m u s t w e a l w a y s b r i n g u p t h a t i s s u e t o i n q u i r e r s ? ( C ) " B r i n g o n y o u r r e v e l a t i o n s … " c a n b e e v a l u a t e d l i k e B u t l e r ' s " L e t r e a s o n b e k e p t t o . " ( D ) C a r n e l l ' s e r r o r i s , p e r h a p s , m o r e a n e r r o r o f p r e s e n t a t i o n t h a n o f s u b s t a n c e . ( E ) " R e q u i r e s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y … " o v e r t h e t o p . B a c k g r o u n d i n t h e i r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p , I s u p p o s e . 10. C o n c l u s i o n s o n t h e T r a d i t i o n a l M e t h o d 1. Through the history of apologetics, Christians have, with some inconsistency, honored Scripture as God's infallible word, and therefore as the ultimate standard of truth. 2. At the same time, Christians have appealed to logic, fact, and subjective adequacy in various ways to confirm the truth of scripture. 3. In Van Til's view, these appeals are not wrong, but they must be carried out in a scriptural way, in subordination to scripture itself. 4. Nevertheless, Van Til does sometimes refer to these appeals as if they were in themselves evidence of compromise. He should not have done this without also presenting evidence that these appeals were made on an unscriptural basis. 5. To show the illegitimacy of such an appeal, it is not sufficient to show that the apologist's language resembles, or is influenced by, a non-Christian thinker. For (a) non-Christians do sometimes speak truth, contrary to Van Til's "extreme antitheti cal formulations," and (b) Christians often legitimately use the language of non-Christian thinkers to make biblical points, as Van Til does with the language of idealism. 6. It is also important to communicate effectively with our age. The strongest criticism of the apologetic tradition is that in its zeal to persuade nonChristians, it has often failed to communicate to them the full antithesis between Christian and nonChristian presuppositions. 7. Van Til's observations often address most cogently the questions of communication. Unfortunately, he misleadingly insis ts on presenting these concerns as matters of theological subst ance, ignoring entirely the dimension of communication. Thus his own communication is hindered. 8. In our apologetic work today, we should not mislead inquirers by formulations, however literally true, which in the present cultural context suggest an autonomous use of reason. Aquinas' s distinction between faith and reason, Butler's "Let reason be held to...," and Carnell's "Bring on your revelations.. ." are examples of such misleading formulations. 9. Nevertheless, the history of apologetics furnishes us with many useful rational tools, including theistic proofs, evidential arguments, appeals to logic, probabilities, and human subjectivit y. Such appeals do not in themselves violate any biblical principle. 10. The history of apologetics does not reveal the existence of a "traditional method" which uniformly presupposes hu man rational autonomy and which we must today reject in toto. Rather, that history contains both good and bad, including bad in the best and good in the worst. 11.In judging our predecessors and contemporaries in the field of apologetics, we should not overestimate the importance of our own insights at the expense of others. Nor should we interpret other writers in the worst sense possible, as Van Til has sometimes done. Rather, we should give them the benefit of the doubt, as we would wish others to give that benefit to us. "Innocent until proven guilty" is a valid principle of theological debate, as it is of civil law. Review of some "basics" about Van Til's argument for Christianity: (1) There is an "absolutely certain proof" of Christian theism (Chapter Fourteen). Van Til renounces fideism, the view that faith must be blind or irrational. Fideism denies or ignores the clarity of revelation, revelation which provides a rational basis for faith. Indeed, Christian theism is the only rational position to hold. (2) All reasoning, including apologetic reasoning, must presuppose divine revelation. Reasoning is never religiously neutral (Chapters Seven, Nine and Ten). (3) Therefore, our reasoning must presuppose the selfcontained, tripersonal God, who exercises absolute and total rule over the world through exhaustive foreordination, cr eation, and providence (Chapters Four through Six). (4) Our reasoning must take account of the noetic effects of sin and common grace. We should reckon on the fact that the unbeliever's intent is to suppress the truth (Chapters Fifteen through Seventeen). He is not a neutral or unbiased inquirer. (5) He suppresses the truth by substituting for Christiantheism a dialectic of rationalism and irrationalism: the world is uncreated and therefore without meaning and structure, a chaos, made somehow intelligible by purely abstract logical principles based on the autonomous thought of man (Chapters Five, Twelve, Fourteen, and Seventeen). (6) We may freely use logical arguments and present evidence s for the truth of scripture. But we should not "endlessly" (CTK, p. 293) discuss facts and logic without challengi ng the unbeliever's "philosophy" of fact and logic (Chapters Five, Twelve, Fourteen). Certainly, we should never ourselves appeal, as the unbeliever does, to "abstract logic" or "brute fact" (Chapters Twenty, TwentyOne). (7) We should always seek to prove Christian theism "as a unit." This means, for example, that we should not separate the "that" from the "what--" trying to prove that God is without establishi ng what God we are talking about. Our argument should never conclude merely that a god exists (Chapter Ninetee n). (8) Our argument should claim absolute certainty for its conclusion, never mere "probability" (Chapter Twenty). (9) We should not produce arguments that purport merely to supplement the unbeliever's knowledge. Rather, we should seek to overturn the very foundations of his thinking (Chapters Eighte en through Twenty-One). Reviewing my own responses to these principles: (1) I have suggested that we distinguish between the certainty of the evidence for Christian theism, which is absolute, and our human arguments for Christian theism, which are fallible and often uncertain. Van Til makes this distinction but ignores some of its important implications. (2) and (3) I agree with enthusiasm. (4) I agree, but I resist the literal use of Van Til's more extreme formulations of the antithesis between Christians and unbelievers. His own account of the matter correctly requires us also to take account of true statements made by unbelievers. (5) Agreed. (6) Agreed, with the proviso that we be permitted to vary our approach depending on the nature of our audience and the specific questions being discussed. Not every apologetic confro ntation requires an explicit discussion of epistemology. (7) There is some truth in this principle, but it needs to be qualified. We should not reason as if the nature of God is indeterminate, or as if the nature of God is not clearly revealed. Nevertheless, we are not required by Scripture to prove the entire biblical doctrine of God in a single syllogism. To some extent it is legitimate to prove one fact about God at a time, with care not to distort the whole in expounding the parts. (8) See (1) above. It is legitimate in some cases, even unavoidabl e, to use arguments which claim only probability. (9) If we reject the idea of "extreme antithesis" (see (4)), then we must take account of elements of truth in unbelieving thought. On that assumption, it follows that one function of apologetics is to supplement that truth. This is not to deny the importance of "overturning the foundations of unbelieving thought;" for the elements of truth in unbelieving thou ght are at variance from its foundational commitment. B. Circ ulari ty, or Spir al Arg ume nt 1. V a n T i l' s a r g u m e n t i s c i r c u l a r i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t p r o v e s i t s c o n c l u s i o n u s i n g m e t h o d s t h a t d e p e n d o n t h e t r u t h o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n : p r o v i n g t h e B i b l e b y b i b l i c a l m e t h o d s . 2. I n t h i s s e n s e , a n y a r g u m e n t f o r a s y s t e m t h a t i n c l u d e s a n e p i s t e m o l o g y o r s t a n d a r d o f t r u t h w i l l b e c i r c u l a r i n t h i s s e n s e . 3. D o e s t h e a r g u m e n t e n a b l e u s t o l e a r n a n y t h i n g n e w ? a . I t s h o w s u s h o w t h e v a r i o u s e l e m e n t s o f b i b l i c a l t r u t h c o h e r e . b . T h e p r o c e s s o f l e a r n i n g p r e m i s e s f r o m S c r i p t u r e a n d n a t u r e t o u s e i n t h e s e a r g u m e n t s g i v e s u s n e w i n f o r m a t i o n . S o V T p r e f e r s t o c a l l t h e p r o c e s s " s p i r a l " r a t h e r t h a n " c i r c u l a r . " 4. D o e s t h i s c i r c u l a r i t y m a k e c o m m u n i c a t i o n i m p o s s i b l e b e t w e e n b e l i e v e r a n d u n b e l i e v e r ? a . M o n t g o m e r y ' s " S h a d o k s " a n d " G i b i s : " e a c h h a s h i s o w n B i b l e , e x p e r i e n c e , e l e c t i o n , H o l y S p i r i t , e t c . b . W e m a y a p p e a l t o f a c t s , a s M o n t g o m e r y s u g g e s t s , b u t n o t " b r u t e " o r " n e u t r a l " f a c t s . ( i ) B r o a d a n d n a r r o w c i r c l e s . ( i i ) S o o n e c o u l d e x p a n d t h e p a r a b l e t o i n c l u d e " S h a d o k f a c t s " a n d " G i b i f a c t s . " c . C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d u n b e l i e f a r e n o t p a r a l l e l i n t h e w a y M o n t g o m e r y ' s t w o p a r t i e s a r e p a r a l l e l . I f t h e y w e r e , t h e y w o u l d n o t b e o p p o s e d , b u t w o u l d m e r e l y b e d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s e x p r e s s i n g t h e s a m e t h i n g . d . T h e u n b e l i e v e r k n o w s t h e t r u t h , a n d G o d c a n r e a c h h i m . T h e p a r a n o i d a n a l o g y . C. Reas onin g by Pres uppo sitio n: Tran scen dent al Met hod 1. T r a n s c e n d e n t a l a r g u m e n t : a n a r g u m e n t e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f k n o w l e d g e , r a t i o n a l i t y , a n d / o r m e a n i n g . 2. T h e C o n c l u s i o n : t h a t i n t e l l i g i b l e p r e d i c a t i o n p r e s u p p o s e s t h e b i b l i c a l G o d . a . V a n T i l i s n o t i n t e r e s t e d i n p r o v i n g m e r e l y " a " g o d , b u t t h e G o d o f t h e B i b l e . B u t h o w m u c h d e t a i l d o e s t h i s r e q u i r e ? I p r e s u m e i t i n c l u d e s a t l e a s t G o d ' s a t t r i b u t e s , T r i n i t y , s o v e r e i g n t y , c r e a t i o n , p r o v i d e n c e . B u t t h i s i s a t a l l o r d e r . D o V a n T i l ' s a r g u m e n t s a c t u a l l y p r o v e t h i s m u c h ? b . D o e s V a n T i l ' s a r g u m e n t r u l e o u t a l l a l t e r n a t i v e s ? I d e a l i s m ? T h e i s t i c r o m a n t i c i s m ( l o v e w i t h o u t j u s t i c e ) ? I s l a m ? c . V a n T i l l i a n s h a v e s o m e t i m e s g i v e n t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a r g u m e n t r e p r e s e n t s a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f a p o l o g e t i c s : i n p l a c e o f t h e m a n y c o m p l i c a t e d a r g u m e n t s o f t r a d i t i o n a l a p o l o g e t i c s , w e n o w h a v e o n l y o n e . B u t a c t u a l l y t h i s o n e a r g u m e n t i s h i g h l y c o m p l e x . d . I s u s p e c t t h a t t o s h o w e v e r y t h i n g V T c l a i m s t o s h o w i n t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a r g u m e n t , o n e m u s t i n c l u d e s u b s i d i a r y a r g u m e n t s , i n d e e d s o m e t h a t l o o k l i k e t h e a r g u m e n t s o f t h e t r a d i t i o n , l i k e c a u s a l a n d t e l e o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t s . e . W e s a w e a r l i e r t h a t V T i s w r o n g t o d i s m i s s c a u s a l a n d t e l e o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t s . I w o u l d a r g u e f u r t h e r t h a t t h e s e c a n b e s e e n a s a s p e c t s o f a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a r g u m e n t , r a t h e r t h a n a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o i t . ( i ) A c a u s a l a r g u m e n t h a s a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l t h r u s t . I t s a y s t h a t i f G o d d o e s n ' t e x i s t , n o t h i n g e x i s t s . A n d i f t h a t i s t r u e , c e r t a i n l y i t a l s o s h o w s t h a t G o d i s t h e n e c e s s a r y g r o u n d o f i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y . I f G o d i s t h e s o u r c e o f a l l b e i n g , h e i s t h e s o u r c e o f i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y a s w e l l . ( i i ) S i m i l a r l y , t e l e o l o g i c a l a n d o n t o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t s . f . S o t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a r g u m e n t s a r e n o t a s d i s t i n c t a s V T b e l i e v e s f r o m c a u s a l , t e l e o l o g i c a l , a n d o t h e r s o r t s o f a r g u m e n t s . g . P e r h a p s i t i s b e s t t o s p e a k o f a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l d i r e c t i o n o r g o a l , r a t h e r t h a n a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a r g u m e n t . W e s e e k , b y m a n y k i n d s o f a r g u m e n t s , t o s h o w t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e b i b l i c a l G o d i s t h e g r o u n d o f i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y . 3. T h e L o g i c a l M o d e l a . V T i n s i s t s t h a t t h e a r g u m e n t s h o u l d b e " i n d i r e c t " r a t h e r t h a n " d i r e c t , " " n e g a t i v e " r a t h e r t h a n " p o s i t i v e , " a " r e d u c t i o " r a t h e r t h a n a s t r a i g h t p r o o f . A r e d u c t i o a i m s a t s h o w i n g t h e a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w i s a b s u r d . b . B u t h e n e v e r a c t u a l l y a r g u e s t h i s p o i n t . S o I a s k , w h y s h o u l d n ' t a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a r g u m e n t b e d i r e c t ? c . C e r t a i n l y a t l e a s t t h e " s e c o n d s t e p " o f V T ' s s t r a t e g y ( b e l o w ) i s p o s i t i v e , r a t h e r t h a n n e g a t i v e . d . V T : p o s i t i v e a r g u m e n t s a s s u m e t h a t r e a l i t y i s i n t e l l i g i b l e a p a r t f r o m G o d . ( i ) M y s u r v e y o f t h e h i s t o r y o f a p o l o g e t i c s s h o w s t h a t t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e . ( i i ) P o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e a r g u m e n t s a r e e q u a l l y s u b j e c t t o t h i s d a n g e r . ( i i i ) H o w c a n w e t e l l w h e n a n a r g u m e n t p r e s u p p o s e s t h e i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y o f r e a l i t y a p a r t f r o m G o d ? M a y b e n o t f r o m a n y t h i n g i n t h e a r g u m e n t i t s e l f , b u t i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e a r g u e r . V T s o m e t i m e s m i s t a k e s s p i r i t u a l i s s u e s f o r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l o n e s . 4. T h e P r a c t i c a l S t r a t e g y ( V T ' s " T w o S t e p s " ) a . A d o p t t h e u n b e l i e v e r ' s p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s f o r t h e s a k e o f a r g u m e n t , t o s h o w t h a t t h e y d e s t r o y a l l i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y . ( i ) Q u e s t i o n : d o e s t h i s i n v o l v e a d o p t i n g a l l h i s r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s , e t c . ? T h e n t h i s s t r a t e g y w o u l d b e c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e . ( i i ) S o V T e m p h a s i z e s t h a t i n t h i s s t e p w e a r e s t i l l r e a s o n i n g a n a l o g i c a l l y . ( i i i ) S o a t t h i s p o i n t w e a r e s h o w i n g t h e u n b e l i e v e r w h a t h i s s y s t e m l o o k s l i k e o n t h e b a s i s o f o u r s . b . S h o w h i m h o w t h e C h r i s t i a n p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s a c c o u n t f o r i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y — o n C h r i s t i a n p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s , o f c o u r s e ! N o t e t h a t t h i s i s a p o s i t i v e a r g u m e n t , n o t a r e d u c t i o . D. Prac tical Reso urce s: How do you actu ally argu e with som ebod y? (Fro m VT's "arg ume nt sam ples, " Cha pter 24 of Fra me's CVT .) 1. " E p i s t e m o l o g i c a l l o a f e r s , " s k e p t i c s u n w i l l i n g t o t r u s t r a t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n : w i t h t h e s e w e m a y h a v e t o b e c o n t e n t t o g i v e t e s t i m o n y . 2. A g n o s t i c s , w h o t h i n k t h e r e i s n o n e e d t o m a k e a d e c i s i o n a b o u t G o d . a . T h e y h a v e d e c i d e d a l r e a d y , m a k i n g a u n i v e r s a l n e g a t i v e s t a t e m e n t : f o r t h e m t h e C h r i s t i a n G o d d o e s n ' t e x i s t , f o r i f h e d i d , h e w o u l d g o v e r n t h e i r t h o u g h t a n d l i f e . b . S o a g n o s t i c i s m i s t r a p p e d i n t h e r a t i o n a l i s t i r r a t i o n a l i s t d i l e m m a . 3. M a t e r i a l i s t s , w h o b e l i e v e e v e r y t h i n g c a n b e e x p l a i n e d b y m a t t e r , m o t i o n , t i m e , a n d c h a n c e ( S c h a e f f e r ) . a . T h e y t a k e f o r g r a n t e d t h a t p r e d i c a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t G o d . b . S o t h e i r r a t i o n a l i t y i s b a s e d o n i r r a t i o n a l i t y . c . F a c t s , l a w s , s u b j e c t s a r e " j u s t t h e r e , " n o t t h e r e s u l t o f a n y p l a n o r r a t i o n a l o r d e r i n g . S o u n r e l i a b l e . d . N o w a y o f b r i n g i n g f a c t s a n d l a w s t o g e t h e r . 4. N o n t h e i s t i c ( i m p e r s o n a l ) s p i r i t u a l i s t s , t h e s a m e . 5. I d e a l i s m : s e e k s t o i n t e r p r e t e v e r y t h i n g b y e t e r n a l c a t e g o r i e s , b u t i t s c a t e g o r i e s a r e a b s t r a c t , r a t h e r t h a n c o n c r e t e . 6. " W h y I B e l i e v e i n G o d . " 7. I s l a m , o t h e r n o n C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n s : s e e B a h n s e n , 5 2 3 - 2 4 . 8. A r e t h e s e t h e o n l y r e s o u r c e s ? J F : I t h i n k w e m a y u s e t h e i s t i c a r g u m e n t s , t r a d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e s a s w e l l . VIII. Van Til as Critic A. Tra ditio nal Apol ogeti cs (abo ve) B. Hist ory of Phil osop hy (abo ve) C. Karl Bart h 1. C h r i s t a s G e s c h i c h t e . a . H i s t o r i e : t h e f a c t s o f t h e w o r l d a s t h e n e u t r a l h i s t o r i a n s e e s t h e m . ( i ) C h r i s t a p p e a r e d t o h i s d i s c i p l e s i n H i s t o r i e , f o l l o w i n g h i s d e a t h . ( i i ) B u t t h e t r u e , s a v i n g R e s u r r e c t i o n i s n o t t o b e f o u n d i n H i s t o r i e . b . G e s c h i c h t e : e v e n t s i n t h e i r t o t a l m e a n i n g , t h e r e a l e v e n t s . ( i ) G e s c h i c h t e h a s a h i s t o r i s c h a s p e c t , b u t i t i s f a r m o r e t h a n H i s t o r i e . ( i i ) R e v e l a t i o n i s G e s c h i c h t e . E v e n t s i n H i s t o r i e m e r e l y p o i n t t o r e v e l a t i o n . ( i i i ) S o G o d i s w h o l l y h i d d e n i n h i s r e v e l a t i o n , f r e e i n i t a n d f r o m i t . W e n e v e r p o s s e s s , c o n t r o l , m a n i p u l a t e r e v e l a t i o n . ( i v ) B u t i n C h r i s t a s G e s c h i c h t e , G o d i s w h o l l y r e v e a l e d ( n o s e c r e t d e c r e e b e h i n d C h r i s t ) . c . C h r i s t ' s b e i n g i s h i s w o r k o f s a v i n g a l l m e n , = G e s c h i c h t e . ( i ) S o h e i s b o t h t h e e l e c t i n g G o d a n d t h e e l e c t m a n . ( i i ) I n G e s c h i c h t e , h e i s f r e e d f r o m t i m e . ( A ) I n h i m , G o d ' s e t e r n a l p r e s e n c e e n t e r s t i m e , t o u c h e s i t e q u a l l y a t a l l p o i n t s . ( B ) H i s h u m i l i a t i o n i s e x a l t a t i o n a n d v i c e v e r s a . N o t e m p o r a l t r a n s i t i o n . ( i i i ) M a n i s w h a t h e t r u l y i s o n l y i n C h r i s t , s o h i s s a l v a t i o n i s a s s u r e d . ( = u n i v e r s a l i s m ? ) S i n a n " i m p o s s i b l e p o s s i b i l i t y . d . G o d i s i d e n t i c a l t o h i s w o r k i n J e s u s C h r i s t . e . R e v e l a t i o n i s a l w a y s i n t h e p r e s e n t . I t t o o i s G e s c h i c h t e . f . N o t e e q u a t i o n s : G e s c h i c h t e = C h r i s t = G o d = t h e e v e n t o f s a l v a t i o n = r e v e l a t i o n = h u m i l i a t i o n = e x a l t a t i o n = c r o s s a n d R e s u r r e c t i o n = r e t u r n = V i r g i n B i r t h , e t c . g . S o t h e g o s p e l b e c o m e s : Y o u a r e a l r e a d y i n C h r i s t . L i v e i n t h a n k f u l n e s s . 2. S u m m a r y o f V a n T i l' s C r i t i q u e 1. Barth's view of the "indirect identity" between revelati on and scripture permits human beings to disagree with the teachings of scripture, contrary to scripture itself. 2. Barth's doctrine of God is irrationalist (or "nominalistic" as Van Til sometimes says): God, for Barth, is "wholly other," able to change into the opposite of himself. It is also rationalistic: God is wholly revealed in Christ. 3. Barth's view of the "indirect identity of all men in and with God in Christ as Geschichte" has pantheistic overt ones, although Barth seeks to guard against them. Same for the doctrine of "participation," although Barth uses it to avoid the idea of a direct identity between man and God. 4. His identification of Christ with his work of saving all men has an inescapable universalistic implication, even though Barth seeks to avoid that by an (irrational) appeal to the freedom of God. 5. Salvation actually occurs, not in events of calendar time such as the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus, but in Geschichte, in which temporal distinctions do not exist. Calendartime history partakes of Geschichte as an aspect of it and a pointer to it; but events in that history do not themselves bring salvation. 6. To speak of God as both "hidden" and "revealed" in revelation is to deny to revelation any clear content to which human beings are unambiguously subject. 7. Contrary to Barth, Scripture does teach that God determines the final destinies of human beings through his eternal decrees. To say this is not to think of human destiny apart from Christ. Christ is both the savior of the elect and the ultimate judge of the wicked. One cannot state a priori that grace will save all people. 8. To speak of the "ontological impossibility of sin" and "sin as chaos" (Das Nichtige) turns ethics into metaphysics, the problem of reconciliation into the problem of overcoming finitu de. 9.Barth's gospel is essentially different from that of Scripture: Barth would announce to men (a "propositional" m essage, after all Barth's criticisms of propositional rev elation!) the fact that they are already in Christ, rather than urging them to repent and believe as God's grace removes them from the sphere of wrath to the sphere of grace. 3. A m o r e s y m p a t h e ti c r e a d i n g : a . N o r e v e l a t i o n u n t i l i t a c t u a l l y g r a s p s t h e h e a r e r ( = w h a t o r t h o d o x c a l l r e v e l a t i o n p l u s i l l u m i n a t i o n ) . L i k e K i e r k e g a a r d . b . S o t h e s a v i n g e v e n t s o c c u r i n H i s t o r i e , b u t t h e y d o n o t s a v e u n l e s s a c c o m p a n i e d b y a d i v i n e w o r k o f g r a c e ( G e s c h i c h t e ) . c . " W h o l l y h i d d e n " m e a n s t h a t G o d i s i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e ; " w h o l l y r e v e a l e d " m e a n s t h a t r e v e l a t i o n i n C h r i s t i s s u f f i c i e n t . d . " O n t o l o g i c a l i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f s i n " b e c a u s e t h e c r e a t o r o f a l l i s h o l y a n d g o o d , a n d t h a t h i s v i c t o r y o v e r e v i l i s e t e r n a l l y a s s u r e d . e . " G o d b e c o m i n g t h e o p p o s i t e o f h i m s e l f " s i m p l y m e a n s t h a t G o d e n t e r s h i s t o r y a n d s e e k s g l o r y t h e r e . L i k e V T ' s " f u l l b u c k e t d i f f i c u l t y . " f. R h e t o r i c a g a i n s t " p o s s e s s i n g " t h e W o r d o f G o d : v s . c o c k s u r e t h e o l o g y . B u t c a n y o u s o l v e t h a t s p i r i t u a l p r o b l e m b y a m e t a p h y s i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n ? g . R e s u l t i n g o r t h o d o x c r i t i q u e o f B a r t h : ( i ) D e n i e s t h e o r t h o d o x v i e w o f b i b l i c a l a u t h o r i t y . ( i i ) D e n i e s p r e t e m p o r a l e l e c t i o n a n d r e p r o b a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s . ( i i i ) D e n i e s t h a t t h e r e i s a t e m p o r a l m o v e m e n t f r o m G o d ' s w r a t h t o h i s g r a c e i n m a n ' s r e s p o n s e t o t h e p r e a c h e d W o r d . 4. B u t B a r t h o p p o s e s R e f o r m e d o r t h o d o x y , t h o u g h t h i s m o v e m e n t m a d e a m p l e p r o v i s i o n f o r t h e s u b j e c ti v e r e c e p ti o n o f t h e W o r d . T h a t c o n s i d e r a ti o n f a v o r s V a n T il ' s a p p r o a c h , r a t h e r t h a n t h e " m o r e s y m p a t h e ti c " o n e . 5. T h e r e i s a p o s s i b il it y t h a t B a r t h h i m s e lf w a s n o t e n ti r e l y c l e a r i n h i s o w n m i n d . V T r a r e l y c o n s i d e r s t h a t p o s s i b il it y i n t h e t h i n k e r s h e c ri ti c i z e s . 6. J F : S o m e a m b i g u it i e s i n B a r t h , b u t V a n T il ' s r e a d i n g o f h i m ( d e s p it e t h e s t r e n u o u s o b j e c ti o n s o f B e r k o u w e r a n d o t h e r s ) i s c e r t a i n l y r e s p o n s i b l e , a n d , m o s t li k e l y , ri g h t. C e r t a i n l y , B a r t h i s n o t a t e a c h e r t o b e t r u s t e d . D. Her man Doo yew eerd 1. S u m m a r y o f D o o y e w e e r d ' s P h il o s o p h y a . S h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n p r e t h e o r e t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h e o r e t i c a l t h o u g h t . b . I n t h e o r e t i c a l t h o u g h t , w e d i s t i g u i s h v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f t h e w o r l d , t o a n a l y z e t h e m a n d t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s . ( i ) n u m e r i c a l ( i i ) s p a t i a l ( i i i ) k i n e t i c ( i v ) e n e r g y ( v ) b i o t i c ( v i ) f e e l i n g ( v i i ) l o g i c ( v i i i ) h i s t o r y ( i x ) s y m b o l i s m l a n g u a g e ( x ) s o c i a l r u l e s ( x i ) e c o n o m i c ( x i i ) a e s t h e t i c ( x i i i ) j u d i c i a l ( x i v ) m o r a l ( x v ) f a i t h c . S t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e s e s p h e r e s : ( i ) P r o c e e d f r o m " l o w e r " t o " h i g h e r . " ( i i ) E v e r y o b j e c t " q u a l i f i e d b y " o n e o f t h e s e . ( i i i ) T h e h i g h e r p r e s u p p o s e t h e l o w e r . A l o g i c a l b e i n g m u s t a l s o h a v e a l l t h e c a p a c i t i e s o f t h e s p h e r e s b e l o w t h e l o g i c a l . ( i v ) B u t e v e r y t h i n g p a r t i c i p a t e s i n e v e r y s p h e r e a s s u b j e c t o r o b j e c t . ( v ) T h e r e a r e a n a l o g i e s a m o n g t h e s p h e r e s : l o w e r a n t i c i p a t e t h e h i g h e r , h i g h e r r e t r o c i p a t e t h e l o w e r . S o p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e b e e n t e m p t e d t o c h o o s e o n e s p h e r e a n d a b s o l u t i z e i t a s a c o m p l e t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d ( i d o l a t r y ) . d . G r o u n d m o t i v e s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f p h i l o s o p h y : ( i ) f o r m m a t t e r ( G r e e k s ) ( i i ) n a t u r e g r a c e ( S c h o l a s t i c s ) ( i i i ) n a t u r e f r e e d o m ( K a n t , m o d e r n p h i l o s o p h y ) ( i v ) c r e a t i o n f a l l r e d e m p t i o n ( C h r i s t i a n ) e . G o d , t h e W o r d i n i t s c e n t r a l m e a n i n g , a n d t h e h u m a n h e a r t , t r a n s c e n d t h e m o d a l o r d e r . f. S c r i p t u r e a s a c o n c e p t u a l l i n g u i s t i c o b j e c t , a d d r e s s e s o n l y t h e f a i t h a s p e c t o f r e a l i t y , t h o u g h i n i t s c e n t r a l m e a n i n g ( c r e a t i o n f a l l r e d e m p t i o n ) i t a d d r e s s e s a l l o f l i f e . I n i t s c e n t r a l m e a n i n g , i t h a s n o c o n c e p t u a l c o n t e n t . 2. T h e " m o v e m e n t m e n t a li t y " a m o n g D o o y e w e e r d i a n s . 3. J F : I n a d e q u a t e v i e w o f S c ri p t u r e a n d it s r e l a ti o n t o h u m a n li f e . 4. V a n T il ' s C ri ti q u e a . D o o y e w e e r d t h i n k s t h a t R o b b e r s , a R o m a n C a t h o l i c c r i t i c i n t e r p r e t e r , s e e s " s t a t e s o f a f f a i r s " a s t h e y r e a l l y a r e , d e s p i t e h i s d e n i a l o f D o o y e w e e r d ' s s t a r t i n g p o i n t . J F : a g a i n , t h e q u e s t i o n o f a n t i t h e s i s a n d c o m m o n g r o u n d . b . D o o y e w e e r d d e n i e s t h a t s p e c i f i c p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a s c a n b e " d e r i v e d f r o m " S c r i p t u r e , t h o u g h t h e w h o l e p h i l o s o p h i c a l e n t e r p r i s e s h o u l d b e " c o n t r o l l e d b y " S c r i p t u r e . V T : w h a t i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e , p r e c i s e l y ? IX. Van Til's Success ors A. Wes tmin ster Semi nary 1. R o b e r t D . K n u d s e n 2. W il li a m E d g a r 3. V e r n P o y t h r e s s 4. S c o tt O li p h i n t 5. M i c h a e l H o r t o n B. The Theo nomi sts 1. G r e g B a h n s e n 2. M i c h a e l B u tl e r 3. K e n n e t h G e n t r y C. Othe rs 1. H e n r y K r a b b e n d a m 2. W il li a m D e n n i s o n 3. R i c h a r d P r a tt 4. J o h n C . W h it c o m b 5. S t e p h e n S p e n c e r 6. J a y A d a m s a n d t h e N o u t h e ti c C o u n s e li n g M o v e m e n t 7. D o o y e w e e r d i a n s 8. H e r b e r t S c h l o s s b e r g 9. F r a n c i s S c h a e ff e r , O s G u i n n e s s , J e r r a m B a r r s , U d o M i d d e l m a n n , R a n a l d M a c a u l a y 10. A l v i n P l a n ti n g a , N i c h o l a s W o lt e r s t o r ff , K e ll y J a m e s C l a r k , " R e f o r m e d e p i s t e m o l o g y . 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