Alan Brinkley’s American History – 14th Edition
Chapter 4 Notes – Empire in Transition
1. Loosening Ties
A. A Tradition of Neglect
i.
After Glorious Revolution Parliamentary leaders less inclined to tighten
imperial control b/c depended on support of merchants + landholders who
feared taxes, diminished profits
Colonial administration inefficient split btwn Board of Trade and Plantations,
Privy Council, admiralty, treasury. Many Royal officials in America apptd b/c
of bribery or favoritism
Resistance centered in colonial legislatures, claimed right to tax, approve
appts, pass laws. Saw themselves as little parliaments, checked governor
power
ii.
iii.
B. The Colonies Divided
Colonists often felt stronger ties to England than to one another. Yet cnxns
still forged, Atlantic settlement created roads, trade, colonial postal service
i.
ii.
Loath to cooperate even against French and Indian threat. Still, delegation in
Albany to Iroquois proposed establishing a general govt with power to
govern relationships with Indians, but colony retaining constitution but
power. This Albany Plan was rejected by all the colonies
2. The Struggle for the Continent
A. New France and the Iroquois Nation
i.
ii.
iii.
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By 1750s growing English and French settlements produced religious and
commercial tensions. Louis XIV sought greater empire, French explorers had
traveled down Mississippi R. and looked Westward, held continental interior
To secure holdings founded communities, fortresses, missions, trading posts.
Seigneuries (lords) held large estates, Creoles in S had plantation economy
“Middle ground” of interior occupied by French, British, Indians. English
offered Indians more and better goods, French offered tolerance + adjusted
behavior to Indian patterns- French developed closer relationships
Iroquois Confederacy a defensive alliance, most powerful tribal presence in
NE. Forged commercial relationship w/ Dutch and English, played French
against English to maintain independence. Ohio valley became battleground
B. Anglo-French Conflicts
i.
ii.
iii.
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v.
Glorious Revolution led to William III and later Queen Anne to oppose
French
King William’s War (1689-1687), Queen Anne’s War began 1701 brought
border fighting w/ Spanish, French and Indian allies. Treaty of Utrech 1713
ended conflicts, gave much land to English
Conflict over trade btwn Spanish and English merged w/ conflict btwn French
and English over Prussia + Austria. Resulted in King George’s War 17441748
After, relations in America btwn English, French, Iroquois deteriorated.
Iroquois granted concessions to British, French built new fortresses in Ohio
valley, British did the same. Iroquois balance of power disintegrated
1754 VA sent militia under George Washington to challenge French,
assaulted Fort Duquesne. France counter-assaulted on his Fort Necessity
resulted in its surrender
C. The Great War for the Empire- The French and Indian War
i.
ii.
iii.
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v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Colonists most on own w/ only moderate British assistance- navy prevented
landing of larger French reinforcements, but failed Ohio R. attack.
Local colony forces occupied with defending themselves against W. Indian
tribes’ (except Iroquois) raids who allied themselves with French after Fort
Necessity defeat. Iroquois hesitant to molest French but allied with English
Second phase began 1756 when French and English opened official hostilities in
Seven Years’ War. Realignment of allies. Beginning 1757 British Sec. of State
William Pitt began to bring most impt war effort in America under British
control: forcibly enlisted colonists (impressments), seized supplies and forced
shelter from colonists w/o compensation. By 1758 much friction
Third phase Pitt relaxed policies, reimbursed control, returned military control to
assemblies, additional troops to America. Finally tide in England’s favor, after
poor French harvests 1756 suffered many defeats at hands of generals Jeffrey
Amherst and James Wolfe thru 1758. Fall of Quebec 1759 by Wolfe resulted in
surrender of French 1760
Pitt didn’t pursue peace, but George III ascended throne and signed Peace of
Paris 1763. F ceded Canada and land east of Miss. River.
War expanded England’s New World territory, enlarged English debt. English
officials angry at American ineptitude and few financial contributions
Colonists had been forced to act in concert, return of authority to assemblies
1758 seemed to confirm illegitimacy of English interference in local affairs
Disaster for Indians in Ohio Valley allied with French, Iroquois passivity
resulted in deteriorated English relationship, Confed began to crumble
3. The New Imperialism
A. Burdens of Empire
i.
After 1763 empire management more difficult. In past viewed colonies in terms
of trade, now ppl argued land and population’s support and taxes were valuable
ii.
iii.
iv.
Territorial annexations of 1763 doubled size of British Emp in NA. Conflict over
whether west should be settled or not, colonial govts competed for jurisdiction,
other wanted English to control or make new colonies
English govt had vast war debt, English landlords + merchants objecting to tax
increase, troops in India added expense, England couldn’t rely on cooperation of
colonial govts. Argued tax administered by London only effective way
New king George III 1760 determined to be active monarch, created unstable
majority in Parliament, suffered mental illness, immature, insecure
a. Apptd PM George Grenville 1763, unlike brother-in-law Pitt didn’t
sympathize w/ American view, believed colonists indulged too long and
should obey laws and pay cost of defending and administering empire
B. The British and the Tribes
i.
ii.
iii.
To prevent conflict w/ Indians from settlers moving to western lands issued
Proclamation of 1763 forbidding settlers to advance beyond Appalachian line
a. (1)Allowed London to control westward movement, limit depopulation of
coastal trade markets, land and fur speculation to British and not colonists
More land taken from natives but many tribes still supported it. John Stuart
(south) and Sir William Johnson (north) in charge of native affairs
Proc failure, settlers swarmed over boundary, new agreements failures as well
C. The Colonial Response
i.
ii.
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vii.
viii.
Grenville stationed British troops in America, Mutiny Act of 1765 required
colonists to assist in provisioning of army, British navy patrolled for smugglers,
customs service enlarged, no royal official substitutes, limited manufacturing
Sugar Act 1764 tried to eliminate illegal sugar trade btwn colonies, foreigners
Currency Act of 1764 disallowed use of paper currency by assemblies
Stamp Act of 1765 imposed tax on all printed documents
New imperial program effort to reapply mercantilism, increased revenues.
Colonists had trouble effectively resisting b/c on conflict amongst themselves,
tension over “backcountry” settlers
1771 small-scale civil war after Regulators in NC opposed high taxes sheriffs
apptd by governor collected + felt underrepresented. Suppressed by governor
After 1763 common grievances began to counterbalance internal divisions. N.
merchants opposed commercial + manufacturing restraint, backcountry resented
closing land speculation and fur trading, debted plantesr feared new taxes,
professionals depended on other colonists, small farmers feared taxes ad
abolition of paper money. Restriction came at beginning of economic depression,
policies affected cities greatest where resistance first arose. Boston suffering
worst economic problems
Great political consequences, Anglo-Americans accustomed to self-govt thru
provincial assemblies and right to appropriate money for colonial govt.
Circumvention of assemblies by taxing public directly and paying royal officials
unconditionally challenged basis of colonial power: public finance
a. Same time democratic, but also conservative- to conserve liberties
Americans believed already possessed
4. Stirrings of Revolt
A. The Stamp Act Crisis
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ii.
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v.
vi.
Stamp Act of 1765 affected all Americans. Economic burdens were light but
colonists disturbed by precedent set- past taxes to regulate commerce and not
raise money, stamps obvious attempt to tax w/o assemblies approval
Few colonists did more than grumble- until Patrick Henry 1765 in VA House
of Burgesses spoke against British authority. Introduced resolutions known as
“Virginia Resolves” declaring Americans possessed same rights as English,
right to be taxed only by their own reps
In MA James Otis called for intercolonial congress against tax, October 1765
Stamp Act Congress met in NY to petition king. Summer 1765 riots broke out
along coast led by new Sons of Liberty. Boston crowd attacked Lt. Gov.
Some opposition b/c of wealth/power disparity, mostly political + ideological
Stamp Act repealed b/c boycott of 1764 Sugar Act expanded to other colonies,
aided by Sons of Liberty. Centered in Boston b/c that is where customs
commissioners headquartered. English merchants begged for repeal b/c of lost
markets, Marquis of Rockingham succeeded Grenville + convinced king to
repeal it 1766.
However, Declaratory Act asserted Parl. control over all colonies
B. The Townshend Program
i.
ii.
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Negative reaction to appeasement in England. Landlords feared would lead to
increased taxes on them, king bowed and appt William Penn (Lord Chatham)
PM, but was incapacitated by illness to chairman of the exchequer Charles
Townshend held real power
1st problem Quartering Act, British believed reasonable since troops
protecting, colonists objected b/c made contribution were mandatory. NY and
MA refused
1767 disbanded NY assembly until colonists obeyed Mutiny Act, new tax
(Townshend Duties) on goods imported from England- tea, paper. Believed
“external” tax would be difft than Stamp Act’s “internal” tax
Colonists still objected b/c saw same purpose as to raise revenue w/o consent
MA Assembly lead opposition, urged all colonies stand up against every tax
by Parl. Sec of State for Colonies Lord Hillsborough said any assembly
endorsing MA would be dissolved. Other colonies railed to support MA
Townshend attempted stronger enforcement of commercial regulations + stop
smuggling thru new board of customs commissioners, based in Boston.
Boston merchants organized boycott against products with T. Duties, 1768
NY and Philadelphia joined nonimportation agreement
vii.
1767 Townsend died, Lord North repealed all Townsend Duties except that on
tea
C. The Boston Massacre
i.
Before news of repeal reached America impt event in MA. B/c of Boston
ii.
iii.
iv.
harassment of customs commissioners Brit govt placed regular troops in city.
Tensions ran high, soldiers competed in labor market
March 5, 1770 dockworkers + “liberty boys” pelted customs house sentries w/
rocks, scuffle ensued and British fired into crowd and killed 5 ppl
Incident transformed by local resistance leaders into “Boston Massacre”, Paul
Revere’s engraving pictured it as an organized assault on a peaceful crowd
Samuel Adams leading figure in fomenting public outrage, viewed events in
moral terms- England sinful and corrupt. Organized committee of
correspondence 1772, other networks of dissent spread 1770s
D. The Philosophy of Revolt
i.
ii.
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v.
Three years of calm but 1760s aroused ideological challenge to England. Ideas
that would support revolution stemmed from religion (Puritans), politics,
“radical” opposed to GB govt (Scots, Whigs), used John Locke for arguments
New concept that govt was necessary to protect individuals from evils of ppl,
but govt made up of ppl and therefore safeguards needed against abuses of
power, ppl disturbed that king and ministers too powerful to be checked
English const an unwritten flexible changing set of principles, Americans
favored permanent inscription of govt powers
Basic principle was right of ppl to be taxed only with their consent, “no
taxation w/o representation” absurd to English who employed “virtual
representation” (all Parl members rep all interests of whole nation) vs
American “actual” representative elected and accountable to community
Difft opinion of sovereignty, Americans believed in division of sov btwn Parl
and assemblies, British believed must be a single, ultimate authority
E. The Tea Excitement
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Apparent calm disguised sense of resentment at enforcement of Navigation
Acts of 1770s. Dissent leaflets and literature, tavern conversation, not only
intellectuals but ordinary ppl heard, discussed, absorbed new ideas
1773 East India Company had large stock of tea could not sell in England, Tea
Act of 1773 passed by Parl. allowed company to export tea to America w/o
paying navigation taxes paid by colonial merchants, allowed company to sell
tea for less than colonists + monopolize colonial tea trade. Enraged merchants
Enraged merchants, revived taxation without rep. issue. Lord North colonists
would be happy with reduced tea prices but resistance leaders argued it was
another example of unconstitutional tax. Massive boycott of tea followed
Women role in resistance- plays of Mercy Otis Warren, Daughters of Liberty
Late 1773 w/ popular support leaders planned to prevent E. India Company
from landing its cargoes in colonial ports, NY, Philadelphia, Charleston
vi.
vii.
viii.
stopped shipment. December 16, 1773 Bostonians dressed as Mohawks
boarded ships, poured tea chests into harbor—“Boston tea party”
When Bostonians refused to pay for destroyed property George III and Lord
North passed four Coercion Acts (Intolerable Acts to Americans) in 1774closed port of Boston, reduced self-govt power, royal officers could be tried in
England or other colonies, quartering of troops in empty houses
Quebec Act provided civil govt for French Roman-Caths of Canada,
recognized legality of Rom Cath church. Americans inflamed b/c feared was a
plot to subject Americans to tyranny of pope, would hinder western expansion
Coercive Acts didn’t isolate MA, made it a martyr, sparked new resistance
5. Cooperation and War
A. New Sources of Authority
Passage of authority from royal govt to colonists began on local level where
history of autonomy strong. Example- 1768 Samuel Adams called convention of
delegates from towns to sit in place of dissolved General Court. Sons of Liberty
became source of power, enforced boycotts
Committees of correspondence began 1772 in MA, VA made first intercolonial
committee which enabled cooperation btwn colonies. VA 1774 governor
dissolved assembly, rump session issued call for Continental Congress
First Continental Congress met Sept 1774 in Philadelphia (no delegates from
Georgia), made 5 major decisions
a. Rejected plan for colonial union under British authority
b. Endorsed statement of grievances, called 4 repeal of oppressive
legislation
c. Recommended colonists make military preparations for defense of British
attack against Boston
d. Nonimporation, nonexportation, nonconsumption agreement to stop all
trade with Britain, formed “Colonial Association” to enforce agreements
e. Agreed to meet in spring, indicating making CC a continuing
organization
CC reaffirmed autonomous status within empire, declared economic war. In
Eland Lord Chatham (William Pitt) urged withdrawal of American troops,
Edmund Burke for repeal of Coercive Acts. 1775 Lord North passed
Conciliatory Propositions- no direct Parl tax, but colonists would tax themselves
at Parls demand. Didn’t reach America until after first shot fired
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
B. Lexington and Concord
i.
Farmers and townspeople of MA had been gathering arms and training
“minutemen”. IN Boston General Thomas Gage knoew of preparations,
received orders from England to arrest rebel leaders Sam Adams and John
Hancock in Lexington vicinity. Heard of minutemen stock in nearby Concord
and decided to act on April 18, 1775
ii.
iii.
William Dawes and Paul revere road from Boston to warn of impending
British attack. At Lexington town common shots fired and minutemen fell. On
march back from hidden farmers harassed British army
Rebels circulated their account of events, rallied thousands of colonists in
north + south to rebel cause. Some saw just another example of tension