Illustrated Bible Survey
An Introduction
Ed Hindson and Elmer L. Towns
Uncorrected Galley
N a s h v i l l e , Te n n e s s e e
Illustrated Bible Survey
Copyright © 2013 by Ed Hindson and Knowing Jesus Ministries
All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-4336-8221-6
Published by B&H Publishing Group
Nashville, Tennessee
Dewey Decimal Classification: 200.07
Subject Heading: BIBLE—STUDY AND TEACHING
Unless noted otherwise, Scripture quotations are from the Holman Christian Standard
Bible ® Copyright © 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2009 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by
permission.
Scripture quotations marked GNT are taken from the Good News Translation® (Today’s
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reserved.
Scripture citations marked NASB are from the New American Standard Bible. ©The
Lockman Foundation, 1960, 1962, 1968, 1971, 1973, 1975, 1977. Used by permission.
Scripture quotations marked NIV are taken from THE HOLY BIBLE, NEW
INTERNATIONAL VERSION®, NIV® Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica,
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Scripture quotations marked NIV 1984 are taken from THE HOLY BIBLE, NEW
INTERNATIONAL VERSION®, NIV® Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by Biblica, Inc.™
Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide.
Scripture marked NKJV are taken from the New King James Version. Copyright © 1982
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Scripture marked NLT are taken from the Holy Bible, New Living Translation, copyright
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Dedication
To the more than 100,000 students
we have been privileged to teach
at Liberty University
over the past 40 years.
May God use you to change the
world in your generation.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii
Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
1.How We Got the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.How to Read the Bible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.Old Testament Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.Genesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.Exodus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.Leviticus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8.Deuteronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
9.Joshua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
10.Judges and Ruth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
11. 1 and 2 Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
12.Kings and Chronicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
13.Ezra and Nehemiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
14.Esther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
15.Job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
16.Psalms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
17.Proverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
18.Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
19.Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
20.Jeremiah and Lamentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
21.Ezekiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
22.Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
23.Minor Prophets, Part 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
24.Minor Prophets, Part 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
25.The History Between the Testaments. . . . . . . . . . . 331
Contributors
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26.New Testament Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
27.Matthew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
28.Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
29.Luke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
30.John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
31.The Book of Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
32.Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
33.1 and 2 Corinthians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
34.Galatians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
35.Ephesians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
36.Philippians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
37.Colossians and Philemon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
38.1 and 2 Thessalonians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
39.1 and 2 Timothy and Titus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
40.Hebrews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
41.James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
42.1 and 2 Peter and Jude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
43.1, 2, and 3 John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
44.Revelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Name Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Scripture Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
Image Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
List of Maps
The Migration of Abraham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
The Route of the Exodus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Egypt: Land of Bondage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
The Journey from Kadesh-barnea to the Plains of Moab . . 78
The Tribal Allotments of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Location of the Judges throughout Israel . . . . . . . . . 106
Kingdom of David and Solomon . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
The Return of Jewish Exiles to Judah . . . . . . . . . . 148
The Persian Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
The Rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire . . . . . . . . . 232
Jewish Exiles in Babylonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
World Powers of the Sixth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Prophets of the Eighth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
The Passion Week in Jerusalem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Expansion of the Early Church in Palestine . . . . . . . 401
The First Missionary Journey of Paul . . . . . . . . . . 403
The Second Missionary Journey of Paul . . . . . . . . . 405
The Third Missionary Journey of Paul . . . . . . . . . . 406
Galatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Paul’s Conversion and Early Ministry . . . . . . . . . . 445
Crete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
The Seven Churches of Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
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List of Abbreviations
AB
ANET
AUSS
BAR
BCOT
BECNT
BKC
BKCNT
CBC
DSB
EBC
FOTL
HNTC
ICC
ISBE
ITC
IVP
JSOT
JSOTSup
KJBC
NAC
NCBC
NT
NICNT
NICOT
NIGTC
NIVAC
NT
NTC
OT
OTL
OTSB
PNTC
SJT
TNTC
TOTC
TWOT
VT
WBC WEC
ZECNT
ZIBBC
Anchor Bible
Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament
Andrews University Seminary Studies
Biblical Archaeology Review
Baker Commentary on the Old Testament
Baker Evangelical Commentary on the New Testament
Bible Knowledge Commentary
Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament
Cambridge Bible Commentary
The Daily Study Bible
The Expositor’s Bible Commentary
Forms of the Old Testament Literature
Holman New Testament Commentary
International Critical Commentary
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
International Theological Commentary
InterVarsity Press
Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series
King James Bible Commentary
New American Commentary
New Century Bible Commentary
New Testament
New International Commentary on the New Testament
New International Commentary on the Old Testament
New International Greek Testament Commentary
New International Application Commentary
New Testament
New Testament Commentary (Baker Academic)
Old Testament
Old Testament Library
Old Testament Study Bible
Pelican New Testament Commentaries
Scottish Journal of Theology
Tyndale New Testament Commentary
Tyndale Old Testament Commentary
Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament
Vetus Testamentum
Word Biblical Commentary
Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary
Zondervan Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament
Zondervan Illustrated Background Commentary
viii
Contributors
Authors
Edward E. Hindson (Th.D., Trinity Graduate School; D.Min., Westminster
Theological Seminary; D.Litt et Phil., University of South Africa; F.I.B.A.,
Cambridge University) is the distinguished professor of religion and biblical
studies at Liberty University.
Elmer L. Towns (Th.M., Dallas Theological Seminary; D.Min., Fuller Theological
Seminary) is the distinguished professor of systematic theology and dean of
the School of Religion at Liberty University and dean of the Liberty Baptist
Theological Seminary.
Associate Editors
John Cartwright (M.Div., Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary; Ed.D. student at
The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary) is department chair, School of
Religion, LU Online at Liberty University.
Gabriel Etzel (D.Min., Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary, Ph.D. student at The
Southern Baptist Theological Seminary) is associate dean, School of Religion at
Liberty University.
Ben Gutierrez (Ph.D., Regent University) is professor of religion and administrative
dean for undergraduate programs at Liberty University.
Wayne Patton (M.Div., Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary; D.Min. student at
Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary) is associate dean, College of General
Studies at Liberty University.
Editorial Advisors
James A. Borland (Th.D., Grace Theological Seminary)
Professor of New Testament and Theology
Wayne A. Brindle (Th.D., Dallas Theological Seminary)
Professor of Biblical Studies and Greek
David A. Croteau (Ph.D., Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary)
Professor of New Testament and Greek
Alan Fuhr, Jr. (Ph.D., Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary)
Assistant Professor of Biblical Studies
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Harvey Hartman (Th.D., Grace Theological Seminary)
Professor of Biblical Studies
Gaylen P. Leverett (Ph.D., Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary)
Associate Professor of Theology
Donald R. Love (Th.M., Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary)
Assistant Professor of Biblical Studies
Randall Price (Ph.D., University of Texas at Austin)
Distinguished Research Professor and Executive Director,
Center for Judaic Studies
Michael J. Smith (Ph.D., Dallas Theological Seminary)
Associate Professor of Biblical Studies
Gary Yates (Ph.D., Dallas Theological Seminary)
Associate Professor of Old Testament and Hebrew
Preface
T
he Bible is the most important book ever written. It contains sixty-six
individual books from Genesis to Revelation. These were collected over
1,500 years into one grand volume that we call the Word of God. Christians
accept the Bible as uniquely inspired of God and, therefore, authoritative
for our beliefs and practices. The Bible itself proclaims that its authors were
“moved by the Holy Spirit” so that “men spoke from God” (2 Pet 1:21).
We have taught Bible survey courses for a combined total of nearly one
hundred years at various institutions but mostly at Liberty University where
we have been privileged to serve together for over 30 years. We have taught
thousands of students from every walk of life, majoring in everything from
accounting to zoology—business, history, journalism, philosophy, psychology, nursing, premed, prelaw, religion, you name it. Our goal has always
been to challenge them academically, inspire them spiritually, and motivate
them effectively to discover and apply the great truths and practical wisdom of the Bible in providing them with a biblical basis for the Christian
worldview.
Introducing the basic content of the books of the Bible generally includes
the examination of their authorship, background, message, and application.
Our purpose is to provide a college-level textbook that is accessible to students and laymen alike. Therefore, we have left the more technical discussions of authorship and genre to seminary- and graduate-level introductions
such as B&H’s The World and the Word by Merrill, Rooker, and Grisanti and
also The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown by Köstenberger, Kellum, and
Quarles, which we highly recommend.
For us the Bible is not merely a combination of ancient documents, historical details, and religious information. It is the living Word of God that
still speaks to the minds, hearts, and souls of men and women today. It confronts our sin, exposes our selfishness, examines our motives, challenges
our presuppositions, calls us to repentance, asks us to believe its incredible
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claims, stretches our faith, heals our hurts, blesses our hearts, and soothes
our souls.
Jesus spoke often of His confidence in the Bible with such phrases as
“the Scripture must be fulfilled” (John 13:18); “the Scripture cannot be broken” (John 10:35); “you will know the truth, and the truth will set you free”
(John 8:32); “I did not come to destroy [the Law or the Prophets] but to fulfill” (Matt 5:17); “man must not live on bread alone but on every word that
comes from the mouth of God” (Matt 4:4); “today . . . this Scripture has been
fulfilled” (Luke 4:21). Jesus read and quoted the Old Testament Hebrew
Scriptures with assurance that they were the Word of God. He also promised
His disciples that the Holy Spirit of truth will “guide you into all truth” and
“declare to you what is to come” (John 16:13). This promise was realized
when the Holy Spirit came upon the apostles enabling them to remember all
that Jesus said and taught (John 14:26).
Teaching the Bible is one of the great privileges and blessings of the
Christian life. We believe it is our greatest calling to proclaim, clarify, and
explain the biblical message. It is not our story; it is God’s story. It is the
story of His love and grace that has pursued human beings down through the
tunnel of time, through the halls of history and into the vast canyon of eternity. The Bible is a story of an infinite, yet personal Being who loves us with
an inexhaustible love that is expressed in His amazing grace which reaches
out to us time and time again.
We want to thank the editorial team of biblical scholars from Liberty
University and the Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary for their advice,
assistance, and encouragement in this endeavor. We also want to thank
Dr. Gary Smith who served as the external editor for B&H and Michael
Herbert, B.S. of Liberty University, who served as the managing editor of
the electronic file. It is our prayer that this survey of the Bible will enlighten
your mind and open your soul to the One who dared to say, “Everything
written about Me . . . must be fulfilled. Then He opened their minds to
understand the Scriptures” (Luke 24:44–45).
Ed Hindson and Elmer Towns
Liberty University in Virginia
Chapter 1
How We Got
the Bible
T
he Bible is a collection of sixty-six books that are recognized as
divinely inspired by the Christian church. They are divided into the Old
Testament (39 books) and the New Testament (27 books). Collectively these
books included law, history, poetry, wisdom, prophecy, narratives, biographies, personal letters, and apocalyptic visions. They introduce us to some
of the most amazing people who have ever lived: shepherds, farmers, patriarchs, kings, queens, prophets, priests, evangelists, disciples, teachers, and
most of all—the most unique person who ever lived—Jesus of Nazareth.
How We Got the Old Testament
God revealed His Word to ancient Israel over a thousand-year period
(ca. 1400–400 BC), and then scribes copied the biblical scrolls and manuscripts for more than a millennium after that. The process by which the Old
Testament books came to be recognized as the Word of God, and the history of how these books were preserved and handed down through the generations enhances our confidence in the credibility of the Old Testament as
inspired Scripture (2 Tim 3:16).
What Books Belong in the Old Testament?
The canon of Scripture refers to the list of books recognized as divinely
inspired and authoritative for faith and practice. Our word canon is derived
from the Hebrew qaneh and the Greek kanon, meaning a “reed” or a “measuring stick.” The term came to mean the standard by which a written work
was measured for inclusion in a certain body of literature. The books of the
Bible are not inspired because humans gave them canonical status. Rather,
the books were recognized as canonical by humans because they were
inspired by God. As Wegner explains, the books of the Old Testament “did
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not receive their authority because they were placed in the canon; rather they
were recognized by the nation of Israel as having divine authority and were
therefore included in the canon.”1
The order and arrangement of the Hebrew canon is different from that
of our English Bibles. The Hebrew canon consists of three major sections,
the Law (Torah), the Prophets (Nevi’im), and the Writings (Kethuvim).
Collectively they are referred to as the Tanak (an acrostic built on the first
letters of these three divisions—TNK).
The Hebrew Canon
Law
Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Prophets
Former Prophets
Latter Prophets
Joshua
Judges
1 and 2 Samuel
1 and 2 Kings
Isaiah
Jeremiah
Ezekiel
Minor Prophets
(Book of the 12)
Writings
Psalms
Job
Proverbs
Ruth
Song of Songs
Ecclesiastes
Lamentations
Esther
Daniel
Ezra
Nehemiah
Chronicles
The Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Old Testament, first
employed the fourfold division of the Old Testament into Pentateuch,
Historical Books, Poetical Books, and
Prophetic Books that is used in the
English Bible. The inclusion of historical
books within the prophetic section of the
Hebrew canon reflects their authorship
by the prophets. Daniel appears in the
Writings rather than the Prophets because
Daniel was not called to the office of
prophet even though he functioned as a
prophet from time to time. Chronicles at Jewish rabbi copying Hebrew Scripture.
the end of the canon provides a summary
How We Got the Bible 3
of the entire Old Testament story from Adam to Israel’s return from exile
though it was written from a priestly perspective.2
How Were the Old Testament Books Selected?
When Moses came down from Mount Sinai with the Commandments
God gave him, the people of Israel immediately recognized their divine
authority and promised to obey them as the words of the Lord (Exod 24:3–8).
The writings of Moses were stored at the central sanctuary because of their
special status as inspired Scripture (Exod 25:16, 21; Deut 10:1–2; 31:24–26).
In Deut 18:15–22, the Lord promised to raise up a succession of prophets
“like Moses” to speak His word for subsequent generations, and the pronouncements of these messengers of God would also be recognized as possessing divine authority.
When Was the Process Completed?
Jewish tradition affirmed that prophecy
ceased in Israel ca. 400 BC after the ministry of Malachi. First Maccabees 9:27 states,
“So there was great distress in Israel, such as
had not been since the time that the prophets ceased to appear among them.” Baruch
85:3 makes a similar claim, and the Jewish
Talmud states that the Holy Spirit departed
from Israel after the prophets Haggai,
Zechariah, and Malachi in the early postexilic period. While some questions remained
regarding some of the “writings” that were
already included in Scripture (e.g., Esther)
even until the Council of Jamnia in AD 90,
the evidence suggests that the Hebrew canon
was essentially completed and fixed by 300 A Torah scroll being held in its
BC. All of the canonical books of the Old wooden case at a celebration in
Jerusalem.
Testament, except for Esther, appear among
the copies of the Dead Sea Scrolls (250 BC–AD 70).3
How Does the New Testament View the Old Testament?
Jesus and the apostles accepted the inspiration of the Old Testament
Scriptures and often referred to or quoted them as authoritative. According
to Jesus, the words written by the human authors of Scripture were the
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“command of God” and “God’s word” (Mark 7:8–13; cf. Matt 19:4–5). As
God’s Word every part of the Old Testament would be accomplished and
fulfilled (Matt 5:17–18; 26:54, 56; Luke 24:27, 44; John 7:38), and nothing
it predicted could be voided or annulled (Luke 16:17; John 10:35). Jesus
described the Old Testament canon as extending from Genesis to Chronicles
when speaking of the murders of Abel and the prophet Zechariah in Matt
23:34–35 and Luke 11:49–51 (cf. Gen 4:8 and 2 Chr 24:20–22).
How Reliable Are the Old Testament Documents?
Though the earliest parts of the Old Testament were written ca. 1400
BC, the earliest existing Hebrew manuscripts for the Old Testament are the
more than 200 biblical manuscripts found at Qumran among the Dead Sea
Scrolls, dating from roughly 250 BC to AD 70. Prior to the discovery of
the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947, the earliest extant Hebrew manuscripts of the
Old Testament dated 800–1000 years after the time of Christ. The earliest
complete copy of the Old Testament is Codex Leningrad, dating to near AD
1000.
Despite these significant chronological gaps between the original manuscripts and the earliest documents, one can have confidence that the original
message of the Hebrew Bible was faithfully preserved throughout its long
and complicated transmission process.
Scribal practices in the ancient Near East demonstrate the care and precision taken by members of that craft in copying important political and
religious texts. Israelite scribes who had a special reverence for the Scriptures
as the Word of God were careful when copying the biblical manuscripts.
As the earliest existing
Hebrew manuscripts, the Dead
Sea Scrolls are an important
witness to the textual integrity
of the OT. Many of the biblical
scrolls found at Qumran reflect
a text that closely resembles the
later Masoretic Text (MT), the
textual tradition represented in
the Hebrew Bible today. The
close similarity of the Isaiah
Scroll (1QIsab) found at Qumran A fragment from the Dead Sea Scrolls.
to later Masoretic manuscripts
of Isaiah reflects how carefully the scribes copied the text.
How We Got the Bible 5
After the close of the OT canon (ca. 300 BC) and the standardization of
the Hebrew text (first century AD), meticulous and careful scribal practices
ensured that the received text of the OT was handed down unchanged. A
special group of scribes called the Masoretes (AD 500–1000) played a vital
role in the transmission and preservation of the OT text. The Masoretes also
meticulously counted the letters, words, and verses in the text. For example,
the final Masorah at the end of Deuteronomy notes that there are 400,945
letters and 97,856 words in the Torah and that the middle word in the Torah
is found in Leviticus 10:16.
The Hebrew text on this collapsed stone from the
trumpeting place in Jerusalem reads, “to the place
of trumpeting to . . . .” This stone probably marked
the place where a trumpeter announced the beginning and end of the Sabbath every week.
The Gezer Calendar is believed
to be one of the oldest Hebrew
inscriptions found to date. The
inscription is on a limestone
tablet and dates from 925 BC.
The study of textual criticism is the science that enables scholars to
determine and establish the wording of the original text. The number of textual variants due to handwritten mistakes that affect the meaning of the text
are relatively few, and none of these variants change any major OT teaching
or Christian doctrine.4 Rather than undermining a person’s confidence in the
Scriptures, the textual criticism and transmission history of the Bible enables
everyone to see how accurately the Bible today reflects what God originally
communicated to His people in His Word. By contrast, no other documents
from the ancient world were as accurately copied, preserved, and transmitted
as the Old Testament Scriptures.
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How We Got the New Testament
Which Books Belong in the New Testament?
The New Testament consists of twenty-seven books that were written
from about AD 45 to approximately AD 100. Some authors penned their
books, while other authors dictated the contents of a letter or narrative to an
assistant (i.e., a scribe). This assistant wrote down what was spoken, and the
author checked the document for accuracy. Apparently, Paul handwrote
some of his first letters (Gal 6:11), but his later letters, which were dictated,
ended with his handwritten salutation to authenticate them (2 Thess 3:17;
Col 4:18; also see 1 Pet 4:12). The books of the New Testament were written
on leather scrolls and papyrus sheets. These books included the four Gospels,
the Acts of the Apostles, Paul’s Letters, the General Epistles, and the
Revelation (or Apocalypse).
These books were circulated independently at first, not as a collection. Itinerant
preachers such as the apostle Matthew may
have stayed in the homes of rich believers
who had libraries and servants to be their personal scribes. Matthew may have allowed a
scribe to copy his Gospel. Hence, the Gospel
of Matthew was circulated widely as he traveled from church to church. Paul instructed
that some of his letters be circulated (Col
4:16). We do not know if the actual letter
(called an “autograph”) was circulated to
various churches or if copies were made by
scribes to be circulated. Regardless, copies
were eventually gathered into collections
(apparently there were collections of Paul’s
letters, see 2 Pet 3:16). They were copied
into codices which are similar to modernday books, with the pages sewn together Greek papyrus.
on one side to form a binding. In this form
the documents were easier to read. Leather and scrolls were harder to use
because the entire book had to be unrolled to find a passage. Also, papyrus
sheets cracked if rolled into a scroll; hence, the flat papyrus pages were sewn
into a book. The codex collection was called in Latin Ta Bibla, the words we
use to designate our Bible.
How We Got the Bible 7
The Greek Language
The New Testament books were written in Greek that was different
from the classical Greek of the philosophers. Archaeological excavations
have uncovered thousands of parchments of “common language Greek,”
verifying that God chose the language of common people (Koine Greek) to
­communicate His revelation. God chose an expressive language to communicate the minute colors and interpretations of His doctrine. Still others feel
God prepared Greeks with their intricate language, allowed them to conquer
the world, used them to institute their tongue as the universal “trade language,” then inspired men of God to write the New Testament in common
Greek for the common people who attended the newly formed churches.
This made the Word of God immediately accessible to everyone.
The Manuscript Evidence
The original manuscripts, called “autographs,” of the books of the Bible,
were lost, mostly during the persecution of the early church. Roman emperors felt that if they could destroy the church’s literature, they could eliminate
Christianity. Others were
lost due to wear and tear.
The fact that some early
churches did not keep these
autographs but made copies and used them demonstrates that they were more
concerned with the message
than the vehicle of the message. God in His wisdom
allowed the autographs to
vanish. Like the relics from This is the oldest complete Coptic Psalter, representing
the Holy Land, they would one of the most important ancient biblical texts. It dates
to the fourth or fifth century and was found buried in a
have been venerated and cemetery.
worshipped. Surely bibliolatry (worship of the Bible)
would have replaced worship of God.
While some may have difficulty with the idea of not having an original
manuscript, scholars who work with the nonbiblical documents of antiquities likewise do not have access to those originals. When considering the
manuscript evidence, it should be remembered there are close to 5,000 Greek
manuscripts and an additional 13,000 manuscript copies of portions of the
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New Testament. This does not include 8,000 copies of the Latin Vulgate and
more than 1,000 copies of other early versions of the Bible. These figures
take on even more significance when compared to statistics of other early
writings.5
THE NEW TESTAMENT CANON
Some writers have supposed that Christians didn’t discuss a canon for
New Testament books until a few centuries after the life of Jesus. However,
because of the presence of the heretic Marcion (died ca. 160), this is unlikely.
Marcion was a bishop in the church who had a negative view about the God
presented in the Old Testament. He rejected the Old Testament and had a
severely shortened New Testament canon, consisting of only the Gospel of
Luke and ten of Paul’s letters. However, even these were edited to remove
as much Jewish influence as possible. The church excommunicated Marcion
and rejected his teachings and canon.
Another heretical movement, Gnosticism, developed in the second century. In general this group believed that salvation was found in attaining
“special knowledge.” The Gnostics had their own set of writings defending their beliefs and practices. Included in their writings are false Gospels
(for example, the Gospel of Thomas). The Gnostics and Marcion raised the
question as to which books were genuine and authoritative for Christians.6
Metzger concludes: “All in all, the role played by Gnostics in the development of the canon was chiefly that of provoking a reaction among members
of the Great Church so as to ascertain still more clearly which books and
epistles conveyed the true teaching of the Gospels.”7
TESTS OF CANONICITY
The process in which the canon was formed is rather complicated.
However, some offer the following three tests for a book to be considered
part of the canon: (1) apostolicity; (2) rule of faith; and (3) consensus.
The test of apostolicity means that a book must be written by an apostle
or one connected to an apostle. When applied to the New Testament, most
books automatically meet this requirement (those written by Matthew, John,
Paul, and Peter). Mark and Luke were both associates of Paul. James was a
half brother of Jesus, and Jude is either an apostle or the half brother of Jesus.
The only book that has much difficulty with this criterion is Hebrews. Many
in the early church believed Paul wrote Hebrews, but many New Testament
scholars today suggest it was written by Luke. If we don’t know who wrote
it, how can we connect it to the canon? Hebrews 13:23a says, “Be aware that
How We Got the Bible 9
our brother Timothy has been released.” Whoever the author of Hebrews
was, this reference places him within the Pauline circle.8
The rule of faith refers to the conformity between the book and orthodoxy. Orthodoxy refers to “right doctrine.” Therefore, the document had
to be consistent with Christian truth as the standard that was recognized
throughout Christian churches (e.g., in Corinth, Ephesus, Philippi, etc.). If a
document supported heretical teachings, then it was rejected.
Finally, consensus refers to the widespread and continuous use of a
document by the churches.9 At first there was not complete agreement—not
because a particular book was questioned, but not all books were universally
known. However, the books that were included had widespread acceptance.
Because the Holy Spirit breathed His life into a book by the process of inspiration (2 Tim 3:16), then the Holy Spirit that indwelt individual believers
(1 Cor 6:19–20), and the Holy Spirit that indwelt churches (1 Cor 3:16),
gave a unified consensus that a book was authoritative from God.
Applying these criteria to the books contained within the New Testament,
and those that were left out, shows the consistency of the canon as it was
handed down. Some “Gospels” have been found in recent years and have
raised quite a stir, for example, the Gospel of Thomas and the Gospel of
Judas. Why aren’t these “Gospels” considered authoritative for Christians?
First, these Gospels cannot be definitively linked to apostles, even though
apostles are named in the titles.10 Second, some heretical teachings in each
document contradict the teachings of Scripture. Third, neither of these documents was used either universally or continuously by the church.11 Therefore,
they each fail at all three criteria.
The New Testament that Christians use today has a long, rich history.
The original copies were written almost 2,000 years ago and were copied for
over 1,000 years by hand. All the books in the New Testament can be connected to an apostle, have content consistent with sound doctrine, and were
used widely throughout the church. The New Testament was translated into
many languages early in church history. Wycliffe and Tyndale were early
translators of the Bible into English, culminating in the King James Version
and many contemporary versions that now exist for the edification of the
body of Christ.
Altogether the Old and New Testament manuscripts, copies, and translations have stood the test of time. The Bible is God’s Book, written to reveal
Him and His message of salvation. God has preserved His Word over the
centuries to speak to our hearts today. As you read the Bible, let Him speak
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to you. His words will challenge your thinking, stretch your faith, inform
your mind, bless your heart, and stir your soul.
For Further Reading
Beckwith, Roger. The Old Testament Canon of the New Testament Church: And
Its Background in Early Judaism. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985.
Bruce, F. F. The Canon of Scripture. Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 1988.
Geisler, Norman, and W. Nix. A General Introduction to the Bible. Chicago:
Moody Press, 1986.
Kaiser, Walter C., Jr. The Old Testament Documents: Are They Reliable and
Relevant? Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2001.
Merrill, Eugene H. “The Canonicity of the Old Testament.” In The World and the
Word: An Introduction to the Old Testament. Nashville: B&H, 2011.
Rooker, Mark F. “The Transmission and Textual Criticism of the Bible.” In The
World and the Word: An Introduction to the Old Testament. Nashville: B&H,
2011.
Wegner, Paul D. A Student’s Guide to Textual Criticism of the Bible: Its History,
Methods and Results. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2006.
Study Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What does the term canon mean in relation to biblical books?
What is the threefold division of the Hebrew Bible?
What is the function and purpose of textual criticism?
How reliable are the Old Testament documents?
In which language are the books of the New Testament written?
How does the relation of the apostles to the New Testament
books influence their credibility?
NOTES
1. Paul D. Wegner, The Journey from Texts to Translations: The Origin and Development
of the Bible (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 1999), 101.
2. The word Apocrypha means “hidden books” and was first used with reference to these
works by Jerome c. AD 400. The exact meaning of this term when applied to these books
is unclear but implies their biblical authority was doubtful. Thus, they are not included in
Protestant versions of the Bible.
3. In the twenty-four-book canon, the Minor Prophets are a single book (“The Book of
the 12”), and 1–2 Samuel, 1–2 Kings, 1–2 Chronicles, and Ezra-Nehemiah are viewed as one
book each. Josephus arrived at a total of twenty-two books by also viewing Judges-Ruth and
Jeremiah-Lamentations as single books.
How We Got the Bible 11
4. Mark. F. Rooker, “The Transmission and Textual Criticism of the Bible,” in Eugene H.
Merrill, Mark F. Rooker, and Michael A. Grisanti, The World and the Word: An Introduction
to the Old Testament (Nashville: B&H, 2011), 109.
5. Josh McDowell, Evidence That Demands a Verdict (San Bernardino, CA: Campus Crusade
for Christ International, 1972), 48.
6. F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1988), 153.
7. Bruce M. Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1987), 90.
8. For more on the authorship of Hebrews, see the chapter on Hebrews.
9. Also referred to as universality or catholicity.
10. See Andreas J. Köstenberger and Michael J. Kruger, The Heresy of Orthodoxy: How
Contemporary Culture’s Fascination with Diversity Has Reshaped Our Understanding of
Early Christianity (Wheaton: Crossway, 2010), esp. 151ff.
11. See Nicholas Perrin, Thomas: The Other Gospel (Louisville: Westminster, 2007).