Table of contents
SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND URBAN
PLANNING ...........................................................................................................
Transport and environmental regulation - common attitudes
and social change .................................................................................................
A. Ahidi
1
3
En\,ironmental imnact assessment of urban mobilih. plan: a methodology
including nocio-economic consequences .............................................................. 15
P. Ateslayer, A. Ahidi. M. Andrd el 01.
Assesstnent model of territorial articulation in rural areas. Application
to four Spanish "comarcas" ...............................................................................
A. Toldn-Becerra, 1. Olero-Pastor, X Laslra-Bravo. P. PPrez-.hfarlinez
27
Model of territorial distribution of C0, emissions reduction target
in the transport sector............................................................................................
A. Toldn-Becerr, P Psrez-Martinez, X.Larfra-Brm:o, I Olero-Pmtor
39
Impact of land use and transport policies on carbon emissions
in London and Wider South East Region of UK ....................................
A. N m d e o , G. MifohaN. 7: Hargreaves
............5 1
Carbon sequestration in shrinking cities - potential or a drop
in the ocean? ...................................................................................................
MU'. Sfrohbach, E. ~ k o l dS Volirodi, D Haase
6I
Urban sprawl, food security and sustainability of Yogyakarta city,
Indonesia .............................................................................................................71
Irham
The local food syslem as a strategy for the rural-urban fringe
planning n pathway to\v;trd, sustainable city regions ........................................83
D. IV. Adrianio
.
AIR QUALITY AND HUMAN HEALTH ........................................................ 97
A case study of chemical weather forecasting in the area
of Vienna, Austria .................................................................................................
A l Hirrl, M Piringer, B.C Kr?,gcr
99
viii
Table of contents
Micrometeorological effects on urban sound propagation: .4numerical
and experimental study .....................................................................................
G. Guil1aur;;e.C Ayroulr, hi. Bbrengier el a/.
109
Performance evaluation of air quality dispersion models
.
.
in Delhl, Ind~a....................................................................................................
A. Namdeo. I. Sohel, J. Cairns el 01.
12 1
Characterization of atmospheric deposition in a small
suburban catchinent ...........................................................................................
K. Lamprea, S. Percol. K Ruban el a/.
131
Atmospheric elements deposition and evaluation of the anthropogenic
part; the AAEF concept ......................................................................................
M Calinon, S A~I-oull,
0.Boudo~imael at.
14 1
Sulfur dioxide and sulfate in particulate matter scavenging processes
modeling in different localities of metropolitan region of SZo Paulo
with different cloud heights .............................................. 153
F.L. Teireira Gonqalves, L.C Mantovani Junior, A. Fornaro, J.J. Pedrolti
Shop opening hours and population exposure to NO2 essessed
with an activity-based transportation model .....................................................
E. Dons, C. B e c k T Arentze e t a / .
161
Lung deposited dose of UFP and PM for cyclists and car passengers
in Belgium .....................................................................................................
L.[;If Pc1;is, H ;!~' ;s,
3. D ~ ~ ~ G z Jel. c!.
G&
17 1
Emissive behaviour of two-wheeler vehicle categorj. Methodologies
and results ............................................................................................................
P. lodice. A t Y Prari, A. Senatore
.
181
Mobility of trace mctals in urban atmospheric particulate maner
...
from Beqmg, China ............................................................................................
N Schlcicher, S. .Vorra, F Clini et a/.
191
.
Health risk from air pollutants, an epidemic in Western Java Indonesia ........... 201
'$4. Dirgawati, J Soemirat. A E K~rsumah.E Wihoit,o
URBAN W A E R S ............................................................................................
211
Emission control strategies for short-chain chloroparaffins
..
in two semi-hypothetical case cltles ................................................................... 2 13
E. Eriksson. M. Revilt, H - C tiol~en-Lulzhofiel a!.
SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND URBAN
PLANNING
Health risk from air pollutants, an epidemic in Western
Java lndonesia
~
-
hlila Dirgawati: Juli Soemirat, Adea E. Kusumah, Eri Wibowo
Environmental Enpineering Department, National Institute of TechnoIopy
(ITENAS), Indonesia. E-mail: mila_dirga@yahoo.com,julisoemirat@gniail.cotn
Abstract
Co~nplaintsfrom irritation of skin, cough, bad odor, and nausea was
suffered by 100% of a village (KS) inhabitant, in Western Java. The
location of KS being upon a hill, just across factories along the coast. The
KS inhabitants blarne the factories for emitting gaseous pollutants, which
cause them to suffer the mentioned symptoms. This study was done to
investigate the possible relationship of health effects and air pollutants
and to estimate the health risk. It designed as a retrospective case-control
study and the health risk measured as odd ratio. The results then verified
by the air quality study. KS inhabitants who were exposed more likely
suffireil :he h e ~ l i l tffFz;s
i
as co~lrpareilto K C wlro were 11v1exposed, bul
the concentrations ofpollutants were all below the standard except PM. In
conclusion, the health risk from air pollutants in KS as the exposed area
were much higher than the unexposed area, and the study presents
premature ex'idence of health effect and air pollutant exposure association
particularly PM.
Introduction
Complaints from irritation of skin and eyes. cough, bad odor and nausea
were experienced by nearly 100% of KS inhabitants, located in Gerem
District, Cilegon. Cilegon has been the home of heavy industry and a
ma-jor coasta: industrial city in Banten province, lndonesia. The location
of KS being upon hill, just across the industrial site for emitting gaseous
pollutants. The inhabitants blamed these industries which caused them to
suffered the mentioned symptoms.
S. Kauch and G.M.Morrison iedsj, Urbm En~,ironmenr.Prmeedings o f r i ~ riO,ii
Urba,, Evrironmenl sL.mpo,rium. Allinrtcr for Glcbs! Susrainabilit) Bookserics 19,
DO1 IO.1907:978-94-007-2540-9-19: Q Spri~igcrScicncrtBurincss Media B V 2012
20 1
-
202
.
M. Dirgawati ct al.
Industries are major source of air pollution, which emit air pollutants,
namely nitrogen oxides (Nod, volatile organic contpounds (VOCs), carbon
monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (COI), sulfur dioxide (S01) and particulate
matter (PM). Exposure to ambient air pollutants influenced by industrial
emissions has been linked to anumber of different hea!th outcomcs, starting
from modest transient changes in the respiratory tract and impaired pulmonary function and continuing to restricted activitylreduced perfomlance,
.. . visits to the hospital emergency department, admission to hospital and
death [I].
Therefore, an objective study was needed to evaluate whether thcrc
was a correlation between air pollutants exposure in the ambient air and
the health effects. This paper present fi~rtherinvestigation of the health
risk from air pollution exposure in KS. In t h i s study, a retrospective
epidemiological study was clearly the first step in assessing the adverse
health effects that could result from contact with environmental pollutants.
I n addition, local air quality study was conducted to verify the results of
the epidemiological study, since the health outcome is directly related to
air concentration of the pollutants [2].
Monitoring of ambient air quality could provide data to ascertainair
pollu60n concentrations in a specific area [j].However, air quality
monitoring system in this area of study was no! available because of
economically unfeasibility. Hcnce, air quality model was used in this
study to estimate ambient concentrations as a crucial stcp in assessing
pvtential risk to human health due to inhalation of ambient air [3].
Methods
Area of Study
-
KS is a village in Gerem District, Cilegon. Cilegon is located in the western
of Java island, Bantcn province, Indonesia (Fig. 1). According to the
geographical location, Cilegnn have tropical climate, consist of the rainy
season (January to May) with average rainfall is 50-150 mm and dry
season (June to December) with average rainfall is 100-150 mm. Daily
temperature is about 3 1.4"C and 254°C at night time, and average wind
speed range to 3.7 d s e c until 4.8 d s c c [4].
Health risk born air pollutants, an epidcrnic ir, Western .!ava Indonesia
293
& area
Fig. I. Ranten Povince Sitc Map
Epidemiologic Study
The epidemiologic study was carried out to estimate the health risk from
air pollutants in the area of study. This study was conducted after the
symptoms receded, the peop!e at the time of study were healthy and no
longer suffer any symptoms. Hence, the epidemiologic study design was a
retrospective case-control study. Basicly, there were two comparable
yroops :vhich consist oC an cxposeu group (defined as the cases) and
unexposed group (defined as the controls). The two groups should similar
particularly in social-economic level, so that the differences found between
the hvo groups only in t e n s of exposure to environmental pollutants.
The data were obtained from questionnaire and interviewed face to
face, as well as obser\.ation of exposure status in subject without assignment and without following individual subjects for change in disease
status. The collected data be composed of variables related to socioecono~nicand health status. The obtained data then would be sun>niarized
in contingency matrix 2-by-2 as illustrated in Table 1 151.
Table I. Matrix 2-by-2 of Case-Control Study
--
Variables
-Exposed Factur
Unexposed Factor
-
Case.
a
Control
c
d
b
-
204
M. Dirsawati et al.
~~-
~-
~-
~
--
~-
In this study, the cases were KS inhabitants viho expmed by air
pollution and experienced the heathsyrnptoms. The selected control were
KC village inhabitants, which similar in social-economic level and assumed
not exposed by the ambient air w h i c h influenced by the industrial
emissions since it was located just behind the hill where KS was.
Sampling was based on purposive sampling. The subjects consist of 72
cases and 62 controls, determined by Slovin Equation as follows [6,7]:
Where:
N
= Population number
n
= Samples number
= E n o r tolerance = 1 -confidence interval (desired)
e
Risk is classically defined as the probability that a specific outcome or
diseasewill develop within a stated period of time [R]. I n this study, the.
health risk was quantified by Odds Ratio (OR), which estimated indirectly
by comparing disease iiequency for the exposed population and unexposed
population and calcrllated as the number of exposed individuals divided
by the number of unexposed individuals in each group [9]. OR defined
how much more likely it is that someone who is expnsed !o the fictc:
under study will develop the outcome as compared to someone who is not
exposed [lo]. Based on Table 1, mathematical equation for calculating
O R as follows [I 01:
.
.
~
ajb
OR=-=c/d
~.
u.d
b.c
(2)
Air Quality Study
The Gaussian Dispersion hlodel was applied to pred~ctair concentration
at receptors. The model assumes any release from source disperse in a
steady-state manner fro111 the time of release until the time it reaches a
receptor [Z]. !t's for describing the mixture of air pollutants in the
crosswind direction of the source as a
atmosphere at the vzrtical
result of turbulence 11 I]. The model calculates thc concetitration X at any
receptor location (X, Y, Z) from a continous source with an effective
stack height [I?].
~
Health risk lion1 air pollutants. an epidemic in Western Java Indonesia
-~
~
~
.
205
~
~
The input for the Gaussian Dispersion Model consists of emission
information, meteorological data and receptor information. The predicted
pollutants consists of HC, NO,, CO, SO2 and PM. Emission information
were obtained directly from single stack measurements and the results
were evaluated against the emission standard (Tablc 2). Other parameter
sening for the madel were exhaust gas velocity (4.7 mlsec), exhaust gas
temperature (217°C). inner stack diameter (1.20 m), stack height (40 m)
and pressure (75.979 mmHg).
Table 2. Source Parameter Used in P.lodeling.
No
I
2
3
4
5
Parameter
HCas C h
CO
NO2
SO2
PM
~~
~
Magnitude
Unit
my~m'
18
458
rngJNm3
my~m'
75
mgNm3
80
mgh'm3
259
.
P
Emission Standard*
35
100
300
25U
50
-,---.--
Meteorology parameter, i.e wind speed and directions, ambient
temperature, ambient pressure, and atnlospheric conditions were obtained
from local Meteorology Agency for July - Decenlber 2002 period. The
wind direction and speed data were classified according to speed and
direction, the11summarized in the form of a polar diagram called windrose.
It shows the direction from which the wind was blowing, the length of
varioas segclents of :kc spokes show the percent oitime the wind was of
the designated speed [12].
A receptor grid for off-site receptor was set - u p using Cartesian grid
with a 500 m grid sp~cingout to distance of 2.0 km from the center of the
industrial site. The distance from the stacks to the KS was & 1,5 krn and to
the KC was +_ 2,0 km .
All modeling o ~ t p u twas col!ected in plot files that contained seagraphical coordinates (i.e., X and Y coordinates) far each receptor, then
applied it1 Microsoft Exce!l. Tlre predicted air concentrations were expressed
as 115'rn3. The result was illustrated as a contour map of concentration
distribution ofpollutant released from a point source called isopletlrs [12].
The uncertainty of the modeling result was assessed by direct comparison
with the measurements results. The ineasured pollutants comprise HC,
NO,, CO, Sg2aiid PM as well.
M. Dirgawati et al.
I
R e s u l t s and D i s c u s s i o n s
iL t 1
[ij
:
.
,
Epidemiologic Study
For this study, 72 cases and 62 controls were interviewed face-to-face.
Table 3 shows descriptive characteristics of the cases and the controls
based on questiomaires and interview. The table shows that once unpleasent
odor appeared, percentage of exposed population whom suffering eye
irritation were 100?6; breath shortness were 29%; and skin irritation were
194; and cough 8% In contrast, 100% of unexposed population were not
suffering any symptoms except cough for almost 26%.
Table 3. Descriptive Analysis of Controls and Cases Characteristics.
------
--..
I!.
Variables
.
Reside time periods:
0 - 5 year
6 - 10 year
l l -15year
>IS year
Air comfortness:
Yes
No
Time of unpleasrnl odor:
morning
day time
afternoon
~
'
night
Health complaints:
Eye irritation
Breath shomcss
S k i irritation
Cough
9
10
5
7
8
7
51
37
4
62
0
68
I?
0
64
0
25
0
12
0
72
21
3
6
0
0
0
--
16
The obtained dala then \%eresummarized in contingency matrix 2-by-2
as presented in Table 4 to calculate the OR. The OR was estimated
i~!directlyby cornparins disease frequency for the exposcd population and
unexposed population. Derived from the calculation result, the estimated
OR Tor eye irritation; cough; breath shortness; and skin irritation
sequentially were 1771:: 3.11; 173.65; and 118.35. Thus. it is clearly that
the risk of illness in the case area (KS) was ver) high compared lo the
control area (KC).
Health risk from air pollutants, an epidemic in Western Java Indonesia
Table 4. Summary of HealthRisk Estimation.
Variables
Cough:
Cases
-.
Controls
OR---
Yes
G
8.3%
66
91.7%
16
46
25.89'0
74.2%
0.26
No
Skin irritation:
Yes
3
No
69
Breath shortness:
Yes
21
No
51
Eye irritation:
Yes
72
No
0.5-
4.2%
95.8%
0.5
61.5
0.8%
99.2%
5.35
29.2%
70.8%
0.5
61.5
0 8%
99.2%
50.65
99.3%
0.7%
0.5
0.8%
99.2%
17712
61.5
207
-
(C:INO.
(d) SO2
:e) CU
Fig. 2. The Prediction of Air Pollutarrts Dispersion
Air Quality Study
The model was applied to predict the total period average air concentrations at receptors. Result of the dispersion model was contour map
of concentration distribution of all pollutants released from the point
source called isopleths, as slio\vn in Figure ? ah3ve. From the figure, the
M. Dugawati ct ill.
208
~
-~
-
-
~
~~
~~
--
coficentrations of pollutants were decrease as it travels along the site. Tile
liigl~estare a t t h e centre and at a distance of 700m - 2000m towards
the Northeast and the lowest cor~centrationwere outskirts o f the map.
Table 5 summarizes the predicted and measured concentration o f all
pollutants namely SO;, NO2, CO, HC and PM at both sites with a distance
from rhe source 1.5 km to KS and 2.0 km to KC. The predicted and
measured concentratiuns were all below ambient standards, except for
predicted and mesured concentration of I'M w h i ~ hexceeded the standard.
Overall, tile predicted air pollutants concentratioti were much highcr than
the measured concentration either in K S or KC.
T a b l e 5. Predicted ,uld Measured Concentratiori uf Air Pollutants.
Parameter
Ambient Air Collcentration (pg/Nrn3)
-
~mbien;'-
-
The Case5 Area (KS)
Measured
Predicted
--
'The Control Area (KC)
Predicted
Measured
42 34
88.02
387.99
21.29
33 1.99
0.001
0.890
28.81
215.38
.
S0,
NO2
CO
HC
PM
142.12
99.97
936.36
37.79
356.21
--
0
0.002
1.261
28.49
574.23
0
'Ambient Air Quality Standard Rased on PPRI hlc.4!!!0?9
Colllrol [15].
- Au
Quality
Standard*
pmm')
365
150
10,GOO
160
230
:host ,Zlr Po!!ii:ion
The predicted and measured concentratiol~sdata may provide some
insight into the potectial health bur6en associated with air pollutants
exposure. Eyes and skin irritation and breath shortness showed there were
Fig. 3. Coconut Trees Condition in KS.
Health risk from air pollutants, an epidemic in Westem Java Lndonesia
-
209
~
i r r i t a n t substances in the ambient a i r ~ [ l 5 ] .In addition, the leaves of
coconut trees within the KS were brown (Figure 3). But the concentrations
o f all gaseous pollutants were below ambient air standard and in cont~ast
the concentrations o f PM were exceeded the ambient airstandard. There
was likely that the health effect suffered by inhabitants in the exposed
area were caused by irritants gas which absorbed in PM.
I
Conclusion
The health risk from air pollutants in the exposed area were much higher
than the unexposed area. The environmental epidemiologic study presents
premature evidence that there was association between health effect and
air pollutant exposure particularly PM. Further research would be n ~ e d e d
to investigate the atmospheric PM in the area o f study. It was recommended
that the factories on one hand, should reduce their emissions. On the other
hand: an appropriate continuous ambient air pollution m ~ n i t o r i n gdevice
should bc installed to be able to evaluate better the zmbient air and provide some warning of impending health problem. Further environmental
epiden~iologicresearch would be needed to accurately measure the health
risk from air pollutants.
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