tested intelligence. He offered a method to
demonstrate capability, rather than cleverness.
His work was built on by Boyatzis (1982), who
sought to establish the behaviours demonstrated
by 'good' managers and develop these as
Jeanette Welsh
competencies. He argues that 'competencies are a
behavioral approach to emotional, social and
This is the first in a series of articles aimed at
cognitive intelligence' (Boyatzis 2008, p7). Their
those with educational responsibilities within
Emergency or Unscheduled Care. Although some work has subsequently been added to by
departments are lucky enough to have a Practice Goleman (1995, 1998, 2006) who researched
Development Nurse, not all are and these articles self-awareness, self-management, social
awareness and relationship management in
are intended to guide those with limited
experience through the maze of coordinating all relation to effective performance.
STARTING TO STRUCTURE
STAFF DEVELOPMENT
the training and development necessary for
nurses working within our speciality.
Garavan & McGuire (2001) trace competencies
from the work of F.W.Taylor in 1911, who strove
to find 'one best way' and they suggest that
Most managers ask a willing volunteer to
competency models try to combine the ideal level
organise a teaching rota, or to book and monitor of knowledge, skills, attitude and experience
attendance at mandatory training. It quickly
which enable employees to become high
becomes evident, however, that organising
performers. From a business perspective it is
training for our speciality is an enormous task and often argued that this provides a competitive
one that can appear daunting as the full
edge. Competition is not a word which sits
magnitude of it emerges.
comfortably for healthcare professionals and
many would agree with Holms' (1995) contention
After several years of trial and error it finally
that those wishing to be seen as competent have
dawned that the starting point for planning any to re-work themselves and their experience to fit
training and development is actually the desired the competencies.
output. That is, you have to know where you are
going before you can navigate a sensible course. There is a degree of Newtonian clarity about
Some will argue that the starting point is a
much of the debate surrounding competence, an
Training Needs Analysis, but how can you
underlying assumption that provided the language
analyse training needs before knowing what level is sufficiently carefully crafted then employees
of performance you are looking for in your staff? will know the expected outcome and strive to
achieve it. Whilst the desire to structure
performance expectations is understandable, it
There are various ways to stipulate the
inevitably leads to some struggles to break out of
performance expected of staff, but for several
the mould, seeking an acceptance that disorder is
years the preferred method in the NHS (and
inevitable. It is perhaps more realistic to expect
elsewhere) has been to use a competency
framework. There are generally strong feelings that humans will choose to conform with some
about the use of competencies so a background behaviours and not with others.
history of competencies is useful.
Chivers and Cheetham (2001) examined
professional competence and highlight, as did
Competency frameworks are available for many Schon (1983), that professionals solve problems
areas of work and they are regarded as the signal by using “repertoires” of solutions and “refrom organisation to individual stipulating the
framing” and “re-naming” difficult problems. The
expected areas and levels of performance (CIPD underpinning theory is that of technical
2008). David McClelland first proposed use of rationality - that sound professional knowledge
competencies as 'a critical differentiator of
will lead to sound professional competence.
performance' in 1973. His emphasis was on tryingTherefore knowledge is extensively tested, and
to assess employees as being fit for their job role, competence generally is not. Schon's (ibid) work
rather than previous assessment systems, which
has had a profound effect on the way many
to be able to communicate, be analytical, be
healthcare professionals are trained and
creative and solve problems (Fleming 1991).
consequently there is now considerable
Whilst this model (Cheetham & Chivers 2001) is
requirement to reflect on learning and on practice rather more complex than others it has the merit
to continuously improve. However, this does not of seeming to fit experience.
create competence. The work of Boyatzis (1982)
and Goleman (1995) has brought to the fore
Organisations use competency frameworks in
issues around personal effectiveness in
several different ways – recruitment and
management and interpersonal relations;
selection; performance review; training and
however, being empathetic, socially aware and development and to support pay and grading
able to get the best out of others is of little benefit (Whiddett & Hollyforde 2003). These are clearly
if the professional is unable to understand their stated by the Department of Health (DH) (2004)
core work. A kind nurse who is unable to fill a
as being the purposes of the Knowledge and
patient's self-care deficit (Henderson 1966, Orem Skills Framework (KSF), which is designed to be
1995) is not competent and professionals who 'simple to understand, feasible to implement, to
are unable to recognise critically ill patients and be linked to other competency frameworks and be
respond appropriately are a liability within
supportive of future developments' (ibid.). The
Unscheduled Care. This leaves functional
FEN competencies can be used in exactly the
competence, the territory of NVQs (National
same ways, complementary to the KSF.
Vocational Qualifications) to supply the emphasis
on correctly achieving outcomes and tasks
(Mansfield & Mathews 1985). Yet this does not Cheetham & Chivers (2001) suggest that five
areas of competence are needed by professionals:
solve the dilemma either as without the
1. Technical/Rational
knowledge of why and when tasks should be
2. Reflective Practice
carried out the healthcare professional runs a
3. Functional competence
serious risk of providing inappropriate care.
4. Personal/behavioural competence
Without sufficient self- and social awareness
there is little possibility of establishing trusting 5. Meta- competence
Mapping the KSF Health and Wellbeing
relationships to enable that care.
competencies against these shows a
predominance of functional competence and
Fleming (1991) raised the idea of metacompetencies, those competencies which could meta-competence (most of the latter map to KSF
be used to facilitate monitoring of performance core competencies). The FEN core competencies
and assist development of other competencies. It are more targeted at technical/rational and
is quite clear when trying to write competencies functional competence than the KSF but this is
that some issues transcend individual professions predominantly in the areas of 'Assessment' and
and are transferable between contexts but even 'Intervention'. 'Care delivery' and 'management of
self and others' appear to be more generic and
teasing these out does not prove or measure
therefore are likely to map better to the KSF.
overall professional competence.
Therefore the FEN competencies will be of
Cheetham and Chivers (2001) therefore
greater use in determining what needs to be
concluded that each of the approaches to
taught to enable staff to care for patients with
competence offers only a partial insight and
presenting to Emergency Care as they specify the
emphasise one aspect of competence to the
detriment of others. Which leaves the conclusion knowledge and skills needed to achieve
that all five theories, at least, need to be applied. competence. However, more generic training
(usually offered Trustwide) is likely to be useful
That is: a competent professional must have
sound knowledge (Bloom 1956), technical ability for many of the Care Delivery and Management
of Self and Others competencies and KSF, which
(Mansfield 1985), self- and social awareness
(Goleman 1985) and be willing to reflect in and may simplify training plans and will certainly
on action (Schon 1983) to inform and improve lighten the teaching load of Emergency Care.
future performance. Additionally they will need Paired carefully this should enable a training
strategy to be drawn up detailing the development
needed for staff at each stage, using local
resources, ensuring that sound foundations are in Goleman, D. (1998) Working with Emotional
place.
Intelligence New York. Bantam Books.
References:
Bloom, B.S. (1956) Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives, Book 1, Cognitive Domain
London. Longman Group Ltd.
Goleman, D. (2006) Social Intelligence New
York. Bantam Books.
Henderson, V. (1966) The nature of nursing New
York: Macmillan.
Boyatzis, R.E. (1982) The competent manager: a
model for effective performance London:Wiley. Holms, L.(1995) HRM and the irresistible rise of
the discourse of competence Personnel Review 24
st
Boyatzis, R.E. (2008) Competencies in the 21
(4): 16 – 28.
century Journal of Management Development 27
(1): 5 – 12.
McClelland,D. (1973) Testing for competence,
rather than intelligence American Psychologist
CIPD (2008)
28: 1 – 14.
Competency and competency frameworks
http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/perfmangmt/compMansfield, R. & Mathews, D. (1985) Job
etnces/comptfrmwk.htm
Competence: A description for use in vocational
(Last accessed 02/11/08)
education and training Blagdon Further
Education College Quoted by: Cheetham, G. &
Cheetham, G. & Chivers, G.E. (2000) A new look Chivers, G.E. (2000) A new look at competent
at competent professional practice. Journal of
professional practice. Journal of European
European Industrial Training 24(7):374 – 383. Industrial Training 24(7):374 – 383.
Cheetham, G.& Chivers, G.E. (2001) How
Professionals Learn in Practice: an investigation
of informal learning amongst people working in
professions Journal of European Industrial
Training 25 (5) (whole edition).
Orem, D.E. (1995) Nursing: Concepts of practice
5th ed. St.Louis:Mosby.
Schon, D.A. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner –
How Professionals think in action. Aldershot:
Ashgate.
Department of Health (UK) (2004) Knowledge
and Skills Framework
Taylor, F.W. (1911)The Principles of Scientific
www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publi Management New York: HarperCollins and
cations/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_409 Norton Quoted by: Garavan, T.N. & McGuire, D.
0843 (Last accessed 02/11/08)
(2001) Competencies and workplace learning:
some reflections on the rhetoric and the reality.
Faculty of Emergency Nursing (2008)
Journal of Workplace Learning 13 (4):144 – 163.
Competency model. www.fen.uk.com/career.htm
Last accessed 02/11/08.
Whiddett, S. & Hollyforde, S. (2003) A Practical
Guide to Competencies:How to enhance
Fleming, D. (1991) The Concept of Metaindividual and organisational performance.
competence Competence and Assessment
London. CIPD.
16: 7-10.
Jeanette Welsh is the Practice Development
Garavan, T.N. & McGuire, D. (2001)
Nurse for Emergency and Unscheduled Care at
Competencies and workplace learning: some
Gloucestershire Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust.
reflections on the rhetoric and the reality. Journal Jeanette.Welsh@glos.nhs.uk
of Workplace Learning 13 (4):144 – 163.
Goleman, D. (1995) Emotional Intelligence New The next article in this series will examine how to
York. Bantam Books.
structure a training strategy.