Summary of Chapter 2
I. Introduction
a. The difficult dialogue that occurred between the student and professor
demonstrates the necessity of highlighting culturally conditioned assumptions
which are outside the level of awareness.
b. It is important to identify these assumptions because they define different realities
and determine our actions.
c. The major themes, which emerged from the dialogue, which were: a) cultural
universality vs. cultural relativism; b) the emotional consequences of race; c) the
inclusive or exclusive nature of multiculturalism; d) the sociopolitical nature of
counseling/therapy; and e) the nature of multicultural counseling competence.
i. Theme one: Cultural universality vs. cultural relativism
In this instance the professor embraces an etic (culturally universal)
perspective whereas the student values an emic (culturally specific)
perspective.
ii. Theme two: The emotional consequences of race
In the dialogue, the professor seems to downplay or negate race as a
powerful variable in the therapeutic process
He also becomes defensive when the issue of race is raised by the student
Defensiveness or the avoidance of race would make it impossible for any
teaching and learning to occur in the classroom setting
iii. Theme three: The inclusive or exclusive nature of multiculturalism
The professor shifts the focus from race to other concerns to minimize the
importance of race
However, other demographic variables such as gender, ethnicity, sexual
orientation, social class, disability, and other variables are also important
and should not be negated
iv. Theme four: The sociopolitical nature of counseling/therapy
The dialogue illustrates the symbolic meanings of power imbalance and
oppression
Since the professor has authority and control in the classroom, he has the
power to define reality
v. Theme five: The nature of multicultural counseling competence
The student seems to question the professor’s competence in his ability to
effectively treat a family of color in a therapeutic setting
Oftentimes, Euro-American standards are imposed on clients of color and
as a result, can cause harm to people of color
II. A Tripartite Framework for Understanding the Multiple Dimensions of Identity
a. White Eurocentric values of individualism are embedded in many theories of
counseling and psychotherapy
b. As a result, the group level of existence is negated, and people of color are
marginalized
III. The Tripartite Framework is useful for exploring the formation of personal identity
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
a. Individual level: All individuals are in some respects like no other individuals
b. At a genetic level, humans are the same however, we all possess individuality
c. Group level: All individuals are in some respects, like some other individuals
i. People belong to different group memberships (e.g. race, gender, etc.),
however, individuals within groups share similar values, beliefs, rules, and
social practices
d. Universal level: All individuals are in some respects like all other individuals
e. We all share commonalities as humans (e.g. biology, birth, death, love, selfawareness and language).
Individual and Universal Biases in Psychology and Mental Health
a. Most psychologists focus on the individual and universal levels of identity placing
less importance on the group level (e.g. “be your own person”)
b. With respect to universality, psychology has sought universal facts studying
human behavior independent of context in which human behavior originates
c. The group level has been negated for sociopolitical reasons because issues of race
and gender (for example) highlight issues of oppression and bias
The Impact of Group Identities on Counseling and Psychotherapy
a. Given that theories of counseling and psychotherapy arise from White, Eurocentric values, they may not apply to people of color
b. For example, in many Asian cultures, a “self orientation” is considered
undesirable while a “group orientation” is highly valued, however, the
“independent and autonomy” values espoused by Western theories may
pathologize Asian Americans who adhere to a group orientation
Multicultural Counseling and Therapy (MCT)
a. MCT can be defined as both a helping role and process that uses modalities and
defines goals consistent with the life experiences and cultural values of clients,
recognizes client identities to include individual, group, and universal dimensions,
advocates the use of universal and culture-specific strategies and roles in the
healing process, and balances the importance of individualism and collectivism in
the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of client and client systems (Sue &
Torino, 2005).
b. MCT:
i. Broadens the roles that counselors play and expands the repertoire of
therapy skills considered helpful and appropriate in counseling
ii. Uses modalities and defines goals that are consistent with the racial,
cultural, gender, and sexual orientation backgrounds of clients
iii. Acknowledges the individual, group, and universal dimensions of identity
iv. Utilizes cultural specific strategies of helping (e.g. using more selfdisclosure with African-American clients
v. Balances the individualistic approach with a collectivist reality with
clients of color
vi. Assumes a dual role in helping clients (e.g. counselor and advocate)
What is Cultural Competence?
a. Cultural Competence is the ability to engage in actions or create conditions that
maximize the optimal development of client and client systems. Multicultural
Counseling competence is defined as the counselor’s acquisition of awareness,
knowledge, and skills needed to function effectively in a pluralistic democratic
society (ability to communicate, interact, negotiate, and intervene on behalf of
clients from diverse backgrounds), and on an organizational/societal level,
advocating effectively to develop new theories, practices, policies, and
organizational structures that are more responsive to all groups (Sue & Torino,
2005).
b. A culturally competent helping professional:
i. Is one who is actively in the process of becoming aware of his or her own
assumptions, values, biases, preconceived notions, and limitations
ii. Is one who actively attempts to understand the worldview of his or her
culturally different client
iii. Is one who is in the process of actively developing and practices
appropriate intervention strategies
c. Competency One: Therapist Awareness of One’s Own Assumptions, Values, and
Biases
i. Self-awareness is the key to competence, however, this can be difficult
because of the feelings that arise when feelings associated with racism,
sexism, and classism, etc. emerge
d. Competency Two: Understanding the Worldview of Culturally Diverse Clients
i. It is crucial for helping professionals to understand and share the
worldview of their culturally diverse clients
ii. This is akin to the process of cultural role taking where the therapist
acknowledges hat he/she has not lived a lifetime as a culturally different
other and develops cognitive empathy for the client
e. Competency Three: Developing Appropriate Intervention Strategies and
Techniques
i. Interventions and techniques should be congruent with the worldview and
values of the client (e.g. more directive approach in working with Asian
Americans)
f. Cultural Competence can be seen as residing in three domains:
i. Attitudes/Beliefs—and understanding of one’s own cultural conditioning
that affects the personal beliefs, values and attitudes of a culturally diverse
population
ii. Knowledge—possessing knowledge and understanding of various
culturally worldviews
iii. Skills—an ability to determine and use culturally appropriate intervention
strategies
iv. Cultural competence is directed toward the individual and organizational
level
v. One must develop alternative helping roles (e.g. work outside the office,
focus on environmental conditions, view the client as encountering a
problem rather than having one).
VIII. Multidimensional Model of Cultural Competence in Counseling
a. Dimension I: Group-Specific Worldviews
i. Includes human differences associated with race, gender, sexual
orientation, physical ability, age, and other significant reference groups.
b. Dimension II: Components of Cultural Competence
i. To be effective therapists, professionals must be aware of their own biases
and assumptions about human behavior, must acquire and have knowledge
of the particular groups they are working with, and must be able to use
culturally appropriate intervention strategies in working with different
groups
c. Dimension III: Foci of Therapeutic Interventions
i. Focus 1: Individual—Provide culturally effective and sensitive
mental health services, helping professionals must deal with their own
biases, prejudices, and misinformation/lack of information regarding
culturally diverse groups in our society
ii. Focus 2: Professional—Definitions of psychology (the
study of mind and behavior) may be biased and at odds with different
cultural groups and standards in mental health practice are culture bound,
then they must be changed to reflect a multicultural worldview
iii. Focus 3: Organizational—It is important to realize that
institutional practices, policies, programs, and structures may be
oppressive to certain groups (e.g. redlining in home mortgages, laws
against domestic partners)
iv. Focus 4: Societal—If social policies (racial profiling,
misinformation in educational materials, inequities in health care, etc.) are
detrimental to the mental and physical health of minority groups, for
example, does not the mental health professional have a responsibility to
advocate for change? Our answer, of course, is affirmative.
IX. Implications for Clinical Practice
a. Understand the terms “sociodemographic” and “diverse backgrounds” in the
MCT definition to be inclusive and encompass race, culture, gender, religious
affiliation, sexual orientation, elderly, women, disability, and so on.
b. Realize that you are a product of cultural conditioning and that you are not
immune from inheriting biases associated with culturally diverse groups in our
society
c. When working with different cultural groups, attempt to identify culture, specific
and culture-universal domains of helping
d. Be aware that persons of color, gays/lesbians, women, and other groups may
perceive mental illness/health and the healing process differently than do Euro-Americans
e. Be aware that Euro-American healing standards originate from a cultural context
and represent only one form of helping that exists on an equal plane with others
f. Realize that the concept of cultural competence is more inclusive and
superordinate than is the traditiona definition of “clinical competence”. Do not
fall into the trap of “good counseling is good counseling.”
g. If you are planning to work with the diversity of clients in our world, you must
play roles other than that of the conventional counselor (e.g. consultant, advisor,
change agent, facilitator of indigenous healing systems)
h. Realize that organizational/societal policies, practices, and structures may
represent oppressive obstacles that prevent equal access and opportunity. If that is
the case, systems intervention is most appropriate
i. Use modalities that are consistent with the lifestyles and cultural systems of
clients
j. Finally, but most important, realize that MCT (and cultural competence) is
inclusive because it includes all groups (including Whites, males, and
heterosexuals) because conventional counseling and therapy are exclusive and
narrow and are based on Euro-American norms. As such, cultural competence is
superordinate to clinical competence