VCE Biology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
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© Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2015
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VCE Biology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
Administration .............................................................................................................................. 1
Curriculum..................................................................................................................................... 1
Developing a course ................................................................................................................... 1
Employability skills ...................................................................................................................... 6
Resources ................................................................................................................................... 6
Assessment................................................................................................................................... 7
Scope of tasks ............................................................................................................................ 8
Units 1 and 2 ............................................................................................................................... 9
Authentication ............................................................................................................................... 9
Learning activities ...................................................................................................................... 10
Unit 1: How do living things stay alive? ..................................................................................... 10
Unit 2: How is continuity of life maintained? .............................................................................. 17
Appendix 1: Scientific investigation .......................................................................................... 23
Appendix 2: Defining variables .................................................................................................. 28
Appendix 3: Examples of problem-based learning approaches .............................................. 29
Appendix 4: Sample teaching plan ............................................................................................ 31
Appendix 5: Employability skills ............................................................................................... 35
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Introduction
The VCE Bology Advice for teachers handbook provides curriculum and assessment advice
for Units 1 to 4. It contains advice for developing a course with examples of teaching and
learning activities and resources for each unit.
The course developed and delivered to students must be in accordance with the VCE
Biology Study Design Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020; Units 3 and 4: 2017–2021.
Administration
Advice on matters related to the administration of Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE)
assessment is published annually in the VCE and VCAL Administrative Handbook. Updates
to matters related to the administration of VCE assessment are published in the VCAA
Bulletin.
Curriculum
Developing a course
A course outlines the nature and sequence of teaching and learning necessary for students
to demonstrate achievement of the set of outcomes for a unit. The areas of study broadly
describe the learning contexts and the knowledge and skills required for the demonstration
of each outcome.
Each outcome draws on the set of contextualised key skills for Biology listed on pages 10
and 11 of the Study Design. The development, use and application of the key science skills
must be integrated into the teaching sequence. These skills support a number of
pedagogical approaches to teaching and learning including a focus on inquiry where
students pose questions, explore scientific ideas, draw evidence-based conclusions and
propose solutions to problems.
Teachers must develop courses that include appropriate learning activities to enable
students to develop the knowledge and skills identified in the outcomes in each unit.
Attention should be given to designing a course of study that is relevant to students,
contextually based, employs a variety though manageable number of student tasks and uses
a variety of source material from a diverse number of providers. Learning activities must
include investigative work that involves the collection of primary data, including laboratory
work and field work. Other learning activities may include investigations involving the
collection of primary and/or secondary data through local and remote data logging,
simulations, animations, literature reviews and the use of databases and bioinformatics
tools.
Investigations are integral to the study of VCE Biology; they enable students to explore
concepts through the application of scientific skills and often the scientific method. Common
to different methods of scientific inquiry and learning activities are three key aspects that are
central to the study design’s inquiry focus: asking questions, testing ideas and using
evidence.
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VCE Biology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
Students may work individually or as part of a group or class to complete an activity but
findings, analysis and conclusions should be reported individually. If optional assessment
tasks are used to cater for different student interests, teachers must ensure that they are
comparable in scope and demand.
Scientific inquiry focus
The VCE Biology Study Design enables students to engage with science-related issues by
building their capacities to explain phenomena scientifically, design and evaluate scientific
investigations, and draw evidence-based conclusions. Students see how science works as a
process by undertaking their own scientific investigations that involve collecting and
analysing data and exploring the nature of evidence.
Teachers are advised to provide students with learning opportunities that allow students to
critically evaluate the stories, claims, discoveries and inventions about science they hear and
read in the media and to examine the relevance of science in their everyday lives.
The following table shows how students can draw links between scientific concepts studied
in Units 1 and 2 and their applications in relation to issues discussed in the media:
Unit
Concept
Issues
1
Interrelationships between species in food
webs and ecosystems
 Risk of depleted food sources as a result of
over-fishing and various coastal management
strategies
 Effects of introduced species within an
ecosystem
 Plant and animal population control
2
Human stem cell differentiation including
the distinction between embryonic and
adult stem cells
 Potential uses of stem cells in medical therapies
including social and ethical implications
 Human embryo research
The opportunity for students to work scientifically and respond to questions is an important
feature of the VCE Biology Study Design. Questions reflect the inquiry nature of studying
science and can be framed to provide contexts for developing conceptual understanding.
The VCE Biology Study Design is structured under a set of unit questions and area of study
questions. These questions are open-ended to enable students to engage in critical and
creative thinking about the biological concepts identified in the key knowledge and to
encourage students to ask their own questions about what they are learning. In responding
to these questions, students demonstrate their own conceptual links and the relevance of
different concepts to practical applications.
Teachers are advised to utilise the flexibility provided by the structure of the Study Design in
the choice of contexts, both local and global, and applications for enabling students to
develop skills and understanding. Opportunities range from the entire class studying a
particular context or application chosen by the teacher or agreed to by the class, through to
students nominating their own choice of scenarios, research or case studies, ecosystems or
fieldwork activities. Appendix 3 provides examples of the use of a problem-based learning
approach to develop scientific skills and understanding.
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VCE Biology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
Designing scientific investigations
Students undertake investigations across Units 1 and 2 in VCE Biology. Research questions
of interest may be investigated through a range of research methodologies including
experimental investigations. Primary and/or secondary data should be collected in order to
test hypotheses, predictions and ideas, to look for patterns, trends and relationships in data
and to draw evidence-based conclusions.
An experimental investigation explores whether or not there is a relationship between
variables and therefore requires that students identify which variables will be investigated
and which will be controlled.
The following diagram represents a general process for undertaking scientific investigations:
research
question
Topic selection phase
problem
definition
report
Reporting phase
Planning phase
experimental
design
evaluation
data
collection
and analysis
Investigation phase
Topic selection phase
The selection of a suitable topic for investigation may begin with an idea or observation or
question about an object, event or phenomenon. Students may have already developed a
question as an extension of earlier completed work, or may be curious about a practical
problem, or a particular technological development. Once the topic has been identified
students articulate a research question for investigation. Questions may be generated from
brainstorming. Teachers may provide a question or scaffold the development of an
appropriate testable hypothesis that students can adapt and investigate.
A hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible
explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. A useful hypothesis is a testable
statement that may include a prediction. An example of hypothesis formulation is included in
Appendix 1.
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In some cases, for example in exploratory or qualitative research, a research question may
not lend itself to having an accompanying hypothesis; in such cases students should work
directly with their research questions.
Planning phase
Prior to undertaking an investigation, students should produce a plan that outlines their
reasons and interest in undertaking the investigation, defines the biological concepts
involved, identifies short-term goals, lists the materials and equipment required, outlines the
design of any experiment, notes any anticipated problems, identifies and suggests how
possible safety risks can be managed and outlines any ethical issues.
In planning an experimental investigation students will formulate a hypothesis that will be
tested by the collection of evidence. They may also make predictions about investigation
outcomes based on their existing knowledge. Students should identify the independent,
dependent and controlled variables in their experiment and discuss how changing variables
may or may not affect the outcome. Students should be able to explain how they expect that
the evidence they collect could either refute or support their hypothesis. In planning an
investigation, students may undertake relevant background reading. In addition, students
should learn the correct use of scientific conventions, including the use of standard notation
and SI units and how to reference sources and provide appropriate acknowledgments.
A detailed explanation of types of variables is provided in Appendix 2.
Investigation phase
In the investigation, students will collect primary or secondary qualitative and/or quantitative
data as evidence. Data can be derived from observations, laboratory experimentation,
fieldwork and local and/or global databases. During the investigation students should note
any difficulties or problems encountered in collecting data. The data collected should be
recorded in a form according to the plan, for subsequent analysis and relevance to the
investigation.
Reporting phase
An examination and analysis of the data may identify evidence of patterns, trends or
relationships and may subsequently lead to an explanation of the biological phenomenon
being investigated. For VCE Biology, the analysis of experimental data requires a qualitative
treatment of accuracy, precision, reliability, validity, uncertainty, and random and systematic
errors. For more detailed information see Appendix 1.
Students consider the data collected and make inferences from the data, report errors or
problems encountered and use evidence to answer the research question. They consider
how appropriate their data is in a given context, evaluate the reliability of the data and make
reference to its repeatability and/or reproducibility. Types of possible errors, human bias and
uncertainties in measurements, including the treatment of outliers in a set of data, should be
identified and explained.
For an investigation where a hypothesis has been formulated, interpretation of the evidence
will either support the hypothesis or refute it, but it may also pose new questions and lead
the student to revising the hypothesis or developing a new one. In reaching a conclusion the
student should identify any judgments and decisions that are not based on the evidence
alone but involve broader social, political, economic and ethical factors.
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The initial phases of the investigation (topic selection, planning and investigation) are
recorded in the student logbook while the report of the investigation can take various forms
including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral or a multimodal presentation of the
investigation.
For more detailed information on scientific investigations see Appendix 1.
Maintenance of a logbook
Students maintain a logbook for each of Units 1 and 2. The logbook is a record of the
student’s practical and investigative work involving the collection of primary and/or
secondary data. Its purposes include providing a basis for further learning, for example,
contributing to class discussions about demonstrations, activities or practical work; reporting
back to the class on an experiment or activity; responding to questions in a practical
worksheet or problem-solving exercise; or writing up an experiment as a formal report or a
scientific poster. No formal presentation format for the logbook is prescribed.
The logbook may be digital and/or paper-based. Data may be qualitative and/or quantitative
and may include the results of guided activities or investigations; planning notes for
experiments; results of student-designed activities or investigations; personal reflections
made during or at the conclusion of demonstrations, activities or investigations; simple
observations made in short class activities; links to spreadsheet calculations and other
student digital records and presentations; notes and electronic or other images taken on
excursions; database extracts; web-based investigations and research, including online
communications and results of simulations; surveys; interviews; and notes of any additional
or supplementary work completed outside class. All logbook entries must be dated and in
chronological order. Investigation partners, expert advice and assistance and secondary
data sources must be acknowledged and/or referenced.
Teachers may use student logbooks for authentication and/or assessment purposes.
Fieldwork
Fieldwork can be undertaken in a range of contexts. Schools with limited access to natural
ecosystems could use sections of gardens, particularly soil and leaf litter or artificial aquatic
ecosystems in aquariums. However, wherever possible, investigations of such ecosystems
should be supported by fieldwork in local natural ecosystems such as the local stream,
remnant vegetation or parklands. If using local or state parks, regulations regarding activities
and the collection of organisms should be checked and followed. Activities should be
planned to create minimal impact on the ecosystem under investigation.
Availability of resources, physical conditions of local ecosystems and weather conditions that
enable undertaking of fieldwork may influence sequencing of learning activities.
Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics is an integral part of biology and biological research. For VCE Biology, the
availability of free bioinformatics secondary school sample lesson plans and online genomic
databases and tools for the analysis of biological data can enrich the teaching of concepts
related to human biology, genetics, evolution and molecular biology. The International
Society for Computational Biology (ISCB) offers bioinformatics lesson plans on their website
at:
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www.iscb.org/bioinformatics-resources-for-high-schools/lesson-plans-for-bioinformaticscurriculum
Inclusion of bioinformatics into courses also provides increased opportunities for
differentiated learning and individual student research. Bioinformatics tools such as BLAST
and Cn3D can be used to explore how bioinformatics is applied in a variety of contexts; for
example, investigating the genetic and molecular consequences of a mutation to the Breast
Cancer Susceptibility 1 (BRCA1) gene; comparing genes and proteins; finding model
organisms; investigating the genes involved in speech or intelligence; exploring the genetic
basis for lactose intolerance; and considering the evolutionary origin of the plague.
Student safety and wellbeing
When developing courses, some issues to consider include: duty of care in relation to health
and safety of students in learning activities, practical work and excursions; legislative
compliance (for example, chemical storage and disposal and copyright); sensitivity to cultural
differences and personal beliefs (for example, discussions related to medical issues);
adherence to community standards and ethical guidelines (for example, environmental
responsibility when undertaking fieldwork); respect for persons and differences of opinion;
sensitivity to student views on the use of animals in research (for example, providing
alternatives to dissections).
For more detail regarding legislation and compliance, refer to pages 7 and 8 of the Study
Design.
Employability skills
The VCE Biology study provides students with the opportunity to engage in a range of
learning activities. In addition to demonstrating their understanding and mastery of the
content and skills specific to the study, students may also develop employability skills
through their learning activities.
The nationally agreed employability skills are: Communication; Planning and organising;
Teamwork; Problem solving; Self-management; Initiative and enterprise; Technology; and
Learning.
The table (Appendix 5) links those facets that may be understood and applied in a school or
non-employment related setting, to the types of assessment commonly undertaken within
the VCE study.
Resources
A list of resources is published online on the VCAA website and is updated annually. The list
includes teaching, learning and assessment resources, contact details for subject
associations and professional organisation.
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Assessment
Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning. At the senior secondary level it:




identifies opportunities for further learning
describes student achievement
articulates and maintains standards
provides the basis for the award of a certificate.
As part of VCE studies, assessment tasks enable:
 the demonstration of the achievement of an outcome or set of outcomes for satisfactory
completion of a unit
 judgment and reporting of a level of achievement for school-based assessments at Units
3 and 4.
The following are the principles that underpin all VCE assessment practices. These are
extracted from the VCAA Principles and guidelines for the development and review of VCE
Studies published on the VCAA website.
VCE assessment
will be valid
This means that it will enable judgments to be made about demonstration of the
outcomes and levels of achievement on assessment tasks fairly, in a balanced
way and without adverse effects on the curriculum or for the education system.
The overarching concept of validity is elaborated as follows.
VCE assessment
should be fair and
reasonable
Assessment should be acceptable to stakeholders including students, schools,
government and the community. The system for assessing the progress and
achievement of students must be accessible, effective, equitable, reasonable
and transparent.
The curriculum content to be assessed must be explicitly described to teachers
in each study design and related VCAA documents. Assessment instruments
should not assess learning that is outside the scope of a study design.
Each assessment instrument (for example, examination, assignment, test,
project, practical, oral, performance, portfolio, presentation or observational
schedule) should give students clear instructions. It should be administered
under conditions (degree of supervision, access to resources, notice and
duration) that are substantially the same for all students undertaking that
assessment.
Authentication and school moderation of assessment and the processes of
external review and statistical moderation are to ensure that assessment
results are fair and comparable across the student cohort for that study.
VCE assessment
should be
equitable
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Assessment instruments should neither privilege nor disadvantage certain
groups of students or exclude others on the basis of gender, culture, linguistic
background, physical disability, socioeconomic status and geographical location.
Assessment instruments should be designed so that, under the same or similar
conditions, they provide consistent information about student performance. This
may be the case when, for example, alternatives are offered at the same time for
assessment of an outcome (which could be based on a choice of context) or at a
different time due to a student’s absence.
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VCE assessment
will be balanced
The set of assessment instruments used in a VCE study will be designed to
provide a range of opportunities for a student to demonstrate in different contexts
and modes the knowledge, skills, understanding and capacities set out in the
curriculum. This assessment will also provide the opportunity for students to
demonstrate different levels of achievement specified by suitable criteria,
descriptors, rubrics or marking schemes.
Judgment about student level of achievement should be based on the results
from a variety of practical and theoretical situations and contexts relevant to a
study. Students may be required to respond in written, oral, performance,
product, folio, multimedia or other suitable modes as applicable to the distinctive
nature of a study or group of related studies.
VCE assessment
will be efficient
The minimum number of assessments for teachers and assessors to make a
robust judgment about each student’s progress and learning will be set out in the
study design. Each assessment instrument must balance the demands of
precision with those of efficiency. Assessment should not generate workload
and/or stress that unduly diminish the performance of students under fair and
reasonable circumstances.
Scope of tasks
For Units 1–4 in all VCE studies assessment tasks must be a part of the regular teaching
and learning program and must not unduly add to the workload associated with that
program. They must be completed mainly in class and within a limited timeframe.
Points to consider in developing an assessment task:
1. List the key knowledge and key skills.
2. Choose the assessment task where there is a range of options listed in the study design.
It is possible for students in the same class to undertake different options; however,
teachers must ensure that the tasks are comparable in scope and demand.
3. Identify the qualities and characteristics that you are looking for in a student response and
design the criteria and a marking scheme
4. Identify the nature and sequence of teaching and learning activities to cover the key
knowledge and key skills outlined in the study design and provide for different learning
styles.
5. Decide the most appropriate time to set the task. This decision is the result of several
considerations including:
 the estimated time it will take to cover the key knowledge and key skills for the
outcome
 the possible need to provide a practice, indicative task
 the likely length of time required for students to complete the task
 when tasks are being conducted in other studies and the workload implications for
students.
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Units 1 and 2
The student’s level of achievement in Units 1 and 2 is a matter for school decision.
Assessments of levels of achievement for these units will not be reported to the VCAA.
Schools may choose to report levels of achievement using grades, descriptive statements or
other indicators.
In each VCE study at Units 1 and 2, teachers determine the assessment tasks to be used for
each outcome in accordance with the study design.
Teachers should select a variety of assessment tasks for their program to reflect the key
knowledge and key skills being assessed and to provide for different learning styles. Tasks
do not have to be lengthy to make a decision about student demonstration of achievement of
an outcome.
A number of options are provided in each study design to encourage use of a broad range of
assessment activities. Teachers can exercise great flexibility when devising assessment
tasks at this level, within the parameters of the study design.
Note that more than one assessment task can be used to assess satisfactory completion of
each outcome in the units.
There is no requirement to teach the areas of study in the order in which they appear in the
units in the study design.
Authentication
Teachers should have in place strategies for ensuring that work submitted for assessment is
the student’s own. Where aspects of tasks for school-based assessment are completed
outside class time teachers must monitor and record each student’s progress through to
completion. This requires regular sightings of the work by the teacher and the keeping of
records. The teacher may consider it appropriate to ask the student to demonstrate his/her
understanding of the task at the time of submission of the work.
If any part of the work cannot be authenticated, then the matter should be dealt with as a
breach of rules. To reduce the possibility of authentication problems arising, or being difficult
to resolve, the following strategies are useful:
 Ensure that tasks are kept secure prior to administration, to avoid unauthorised release to
students and compromising the assessment. They should not be sent by mail or
electronically without due care.
 Ensure that a significant amount of classroom time is spent on the task so that the
teacher is familiar with each student’s work and can regularly monitor and discuss
aspects of the work with the student.
 Ensure that students document the specific development stages of work, starting with an
early part of the task such as topic choice, list of resources and/or preliminary research.
 Filing of copies of each student’s work at given stages in its development.
 Regular rotation of topics from year to year to ensure that students are unable to use
student work from the previous year.
 Where there is more than one class of a particular study in the school, the VCAA expects
the school to apply internal moderation/cross-marking procedures to ensure consistency
of assessment between teachers. Teachers are advised to apply the same approach to
authentication and record-keeping, as cross-marking sometimes reveals possible
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breaches of authentication. Early liaison on topics, and sharing of draft student work
between teachers, enables earlier identification of possible authentication problems and
the implementation of appropriate action.
 Encourage students to acknowledge tutors, if they have them, and to discuss and show
the work done with tutors. Ideally, liaison between the class teacher and the tutor can
provide the maximum benefit for the student and ensure that the tutor is aware of the
authentication requirements. Similar advice applies if students receive regular help from a
family member.
Learning activities
Unit 1: How do living things stay alive?
Area of Study 1: How do organisms function?
Outcome 1:
Examples of learning activities
Investigate and explain how
cellular structures and
systems function to sustain
life.
 examine and draw the structure of a variety of different cells under the
microscope and group to make distinctions between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic plant and animal cells
 prepare a range of ‘wet slides’ and construct a ‘Top 5 handy hints for
preparing wet slides’ poster that includes relevant images of the slides
 use prepared slides to examine the cell types that make up one specific
organ, then compare similarities and differences in a jigsaw ‘I’ll show you
my cells if you show me your cells’ activity
 compare prepared slides of normal and diseased cells under a microscope
 discuss the importance of observation and hypothesis formulation in
scientific endeavour after considering the following quotation from author
and journalist Allen Steele: ‘Look…first and foremost, I’m a scientist. That
means it’s my responsibility to make observations and gather evidence
before forming a hypothesis, not vice versa’
 conduct an experiment to investigate the relationship between surface area
and volume and apply findings to explain how cell structure meets the input
needs of living things for molecules
 conduct a first-hand experiment that explores the semi-permeability of an
artificial membrane to different substances including water, starch, protein
and glucose
 convert the following research questions into testable hypotheses, including
an explanation of how variables are controlled, and write a proposed
experimental method for one of the hypotheses:
 Are the cell walls of evergreen plants different from the cell walls of
deciduous plants?
 Is a change in temperature related to deciduous leaves changing
colour?
 Do different wavelengths of light affect the rate of photosynthesis?
 Does the rate of cellular respiration change in different seasons?
 Are the leaf stomata of plants in different environments the same?
 dissect the flowers along the stem of a gladiolus plant (the most mature
flowers are at the base of the stem while immature flowers are at the tip of
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the stem) and capture images of the dissection to develop a time sequence
of flower development, identifying which structures develop first and
whether male or female structures develop first
design, plan and conduct an experiment to collect first-hand data that
investigates a factor that affects the rate of photosynthesis or cellular
respiration, including the use of sensors
investigate the need for chlorophyll for photosynthesis in variegated leaves
design, plan and conduct an experiment to show how an environmental
factor such as light intensity, temperature, air movement or humidity impact
on the transpiration rate of a vascular plant
capture an image of a first-hand dissection of a mammalian system and
annotate the image to name the functions of specific organs in the system
and to identify the system’s relationship to another system
use prepared slides to examine the cell types that make up one specific
organ, then compare similarities and differences in a jigsaw activity with
other students who have investigated different organs
Detailed example
WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF CELL SIZE ON THE UPTAKE OF A SUBSTANCE BY DIFFUSION?
Aim
To investigate the relationship between surface area and volume and apply findings to explain how cell structure
meets the input needs of living things for molecules.
Introduction
Students investigate the relationship between diffusion and cell size by conducting an experiment using agar
cubes as a model for cells. The task requires students to use a model, measure to collect data, use evidence
and transfer their findings to explain the significance of the relationship for living cells.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.
Pre-activity preparation
The task follows class work on cells and how substances move across the plasma membrane. A review of units
of measurement and calculations of surface area and volume may also be required. Technical support prepares
agar cubes of four different sizes containing 0.01 M sodium hydroxide and phenolphthalein for each group of
students. Each student group also requires 0.1 M hydrochloric acid, a beaker, white tile, paper towel, ruler,
forceps, stopwatch and knife.
Health and safety notes
 The concentrations of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid are at a safe non-irritant level.
 There are no ethical issues.
Procedure
 Students collect material for their group including pre-cut agar cubes of different sizes.
 Cubes are placed in beaker and covered with the hydrochloric acid diffusion solution.
 Start stopwatch.
 Leave the cubes in the solution for 5 minutes.
 While waiting students could construct a results table in their logbooks and begin the calculations for each
cube.
 After 5 minutes students pour off diffusing solution, wash cubes in a little water and blot surfaces dry with
paper towel.
 Students cut cubes in half to measure how far the acid has diffused into the cube and enter data into table.
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Length of side of
cube
Total surface
area of cube
Total volume of
cube
Surface area to
volume ratio
Distance acid
diffuses in
5 minutes
Rate of diffusion
cm/min
0.5cm
1.0cm
2.0cm
3.0cm
Discussion questions and report writing in logbook
A series of four to six graded questions that address the data and the implications of the relationship for cell
survival should be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example:
 Identify: What are the dependent, independent and controlled variables in your investigation?
 Explain: How does cell size affect movement of substances into a cell?
 Apply: Which cube best represents a cell that has the greatest chance of survival? Explain your choice.
 Propose: What further tests could be performed to investigate how substances move into cells? Outline a
method for a further test.
Teaching notes
 It is important that students understand how to do the calculations. Some students will not, and teachers are
advised to discuss calculations explicitly before the task, including leading students through one line of the
table as an example.
 The data can also be presented in graphical form; this lends itself to a deeper discussion of the experimental
results, including consideration of interpolation and extrapolation, significance of line gradients and
continuous versus discrete data.
 There are many variants of this task in terms of:
a. reagents
b. different shapes of agar blocks
c. temperature (environment and/or reagents and/or cubes)
d. concentration of the diffusion solution.
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Area of Study 2: How do living systems sustain life?
Outcome 2:
Examples of learning activities
Explain how various
adaptations enhance the
survival of an individual
organism, investigate the
relationships between
organisms that form a living
community and their habitat,
and analyse the impacts of
factors that affect population
growth.
 model how an adaptation such as colour for camouflage against predation
enhances survival of an organism by calculating the ‘survival rate’ of different
coloured tooth picks that are subject to predation from pegs in various
habitats, or by undertaking a timed ‘hunt the red ribbon’ activity using 5 cm
lengths of red and green ribbon on red/green backgrounds
 use life-size footprints and/or handprints of less well-known animal species to
suggest what the whole animal would look like, how it would move, what it
would eat and what special adaptations it could have to assist in species
survival
 convert the following research questions into testable hypotheses, including
an explanation of how variables are controlled, and write a proposed
experimental method for one of the hypotheses:
 Do pets have colour preferences?
 Do musicians have better hearing?
 Are organic fertilisers more effective than commercially processed
fertilisers?
 How does the dosage or method of application of fertilisers affect their
activity?
 What are the effects of irradiation on seed germination?
 Are the seeds from indigenous plants more resistant to fire than the
seeds from native or introduced plant species?
 Are the seeds from introduced species more resistant to frost than the
seeds from native or indigenous plants?
 Do human eating patterns change at different times of the year?
 Do bacteria respond to music?
 Do animals display ‘handedness’?
 Can left-handed people adapt to being right-handed more easily than
right-handed people can adapt to being left-handed?
 What type of light attracts the most insects?
 Do the same sorts of organisms live in soils from different areas in the
school?
 use the stimulus-response model to show how thermoregulation occurs in
humans by the control of heat exchange and metabolic activity through
physiological and behavioural mechanisms
 investigate the behaviour of crawling insects (for example, ants, woodlice)
using choice chambers
 compare class observations of a single biological phenomenon or object and
discuss why careful observation is important in scientific investigations, then
comment on the quote from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832)
German poet, dramatist: ‘We see only what we know’
 examine and classify preserved or living plants, insects or animals using a
printed or computer generated key or field guide
 design, construct and evaluate the effectiveness of a photobioreactor to
cultivate algae
 research a bioprospecting application and organise a class ‘Bioprospecting
Product of the Year’ competition
 carry out a field study on the ecology of a habitat to produce valid and
reliable data, including the use of quadrats and transects to assess the
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abundance and distribution of organisms, and the measurement of specific
abiotic factors, for example solar energy input, climatic factors, topography
and oxygen availability
investigate changes in an abiotic factor on the survival of an organism
record the population growth of duckweed (Lemna major) over a three-week
period, collect and graph data, and recognise carrying capacity limit
undertake fieldwork in a local environment involving sampling techniques
and the use of quadrats and transects that may include:
 patterns of grass growth under trees
 distribution of flowering plants in a field
 distribution of lichens, algae or moss on trees, rocks and other surfaces
 leaf size in plants growing in different light or soil conditions
analyse and relate the measurement of specific abiotic factors to the
distribution of organisms in a selected ecosystem
Detailed example
WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF SOIL SALNITY ON THE GERMINATON FO SEEDS?
Aim
To investigate changes in an abiotic factor on the survival of an organism.
Introduction
Soil salinity is an important environmental factor for plants. In this task students investigate the effect of salinity
on the germination of wheat seeds. Increasing salinity is an issue for food crops and can impact on achieving
food security.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.
Preparation
The student needs to specify and make up sodium chloride solutions of differing concentrations.
Health and safety notes
There are no significant issues.
Procedure
Seeds are germinated in a warm place for about 7 days on layers of filter paper placed in a Petri dish that is
labelled for a specific sodium chloride solution. The student also needs a control using distilled water. All other
growth variables and the number of seeds per Petri dish should be kept constant. Seeds should be kept damp
and monitored during the trial. At the end of the trial the student counts the number of seeds that have
germinated, measures the height of any shoots and makes any other relevant observations.
Discussion questions and recording in logbook
Students present their findings in their logbooks using photos, images and other observations in a table, and
also present data graphically plotting the number of seeds germinated against differing sodium chloride
concentrations. Students use evidence collected from their investigation to respond to the investigation
question. Students should also comment on any issues or limitations related to how the investigation was
conducted.
Students should present their investigation findings in an appropriate format.
Teaching notes
 The investigation could be done at home or outside timetabled sessions and is not limited by availability of
resources.
 Students may need help with preparing the sodium chloride solutions of appropriate differing concentrations.
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 Students could expand or modify the investigation and pool results to:
a. investigate different varieties of wheat (including genetically modified varieties)
b. compare the germination rates of wheat, oats and barley
c. compare the germination rates of food crops with Australian native grasses.
Area of Study 3: Practical investigation
Outcome 3:
Examples of learning activities
Design and undertake an
investigation related to the
survival of an organism or
species, and draw
conclusions based on
evidence from collected data.
Examples of research questions
 Do different colours of light affect the rate of photosynthesis?
 How does plant richness in a living community affect insect abundance?
 How does the dentition in herbivores, omnivores and carnivores reflect the
nature of their diets?
 How does light affect yeast growth?
 How do different breads affect the rate of mould growth?
 What is the effect of soil salinity of the germination of food crops?
Detailed example
HOW DO DIFFERENT BREADS AFFECT THE RATE OF MOULD GROWTH?
The practical investigation builds on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 1 Area of Study 1 and/or Area of
Study 2. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account number of
students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration:
 What input would students have into the selection of the question?
 To what extent will all students consider the same investigation question, or complete different parts to the
same question so that class data can be pooled?
 What input would students have into the design of the experiment?
Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases.
Students may subsequently adapt the template as a personal work plan in their logbooks.
Topic selection phase
In this detailed example, the investigation question was generated following a class discussion of the role of fungi
in an ecosystem, relating to fieldwork undertaken in Area of Study 2. One student mentioned that she discovered
a mouldy sandwich in her locker. Other students commented on how quickly bread went mouldy. Further
discussion led to the identification of different types of breads and that mould growth may differ between breads.
From this discussion students formulated a question for investigation: How do different breads affect the rate of
mould growth?
Planning phase
Students may need guidance in:
 fitting the investigation into the time available, and developing a work plan
 identifying the technical skills involved in the investigation, and
 ensuring that resources are available that meet the requirements of the investigation.
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Teachers should work with students to:
 determine to what extent students will work independently or in groups (different students or groups may
investigate different types of breads, for example commercial white, wholemeal, rye, sourdough, spelt)
 discuss the independent, dependent and controlled variables in the experiment
 identify safety aspects of growing moulds, including use of gloves and disinfectant; use of sealed containers
such as covered petri dishes or Tupperware containers for the investigation; correct disposal of moulds in the
school laboratory; health warning that bread moulds can cause infections, particularly in people with
respiratory problems or a weakened immune response.
 establish the use of standard notation and SI units and how to reference sources and provide appropriate
acknowledgments.
Investigation phase
Prior to students undertaking practical investigations the teacher must approve student-designed methodologies.
A possible general methodology for the experiment is as follows:
 Students collect and assemble equipment including data recording materials.
 Students cut even portions of the bread types and then place each bread sample into a sealable container
(other variables should be explicitly controlled).
 A few drops of water should be added daily to each bread sample and the container should be re-sealed.
 Students observe the containers and take a digital photo daily of each bread type to record the mould growth.
 Using the photos students can calculate the growth of mould per day in terms of the mould area in mm 2 in a
table and then graph the area of mould growth against time in days. The investigation should take place over
at least one week.
Reporting phase
Students consider the data collected, report on any errors or problems encountered, and use evidence to explain
and answer the investigation question. Differences in mould growth can be explained in terms of the amount of
preservative in the bread. Other avenues for further investigation include:
 determination of the composition and amount of preservative in different breads
 identification of different moulds
 effect of changing variables on mould growth, for example temperature, light intensity, humidity.
The above phases could be recorded in the student logbook. The report of the investigation can take various
forms including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral presentation of the investigation.
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Unit 2: How is continuity of life maintained?
Area of Study 1: How does reproduction maintain the continuity of life?
Outcome 1:
Examples of learning activities
Compare the advantages and
disadvantages of asexual and
sexual reproduction, explain
how changes within the cell
cycle may have an impact on
cellular or tissue system
function and identify the role
of stem cells in cell growth
and cell differentiation and in
medical therapies.
 conduct first-hand observations of the mitotic cell cycle in an onion root tip
preparation
 use genetic beads to model replication errors in mitosis or meiosis
 debate the topic ‘guessing is scientific’ with reference to developing a
hypothesis in an experiment
 prepare a gardener’s handbook that details various methods of vegetative
propagation
 convert the following two research questions into testable hypotheses,
including an explanation of how qualities described as ‘best’ and ‘safe’ can
be quantified, and write a proposed experimental method for one of the
hypotheses:
 Which grafting techniques work best?
 Are genetically modified crops safe?
 discuss the implications of the use of cloning in agriculture and horticulture
on biodiversity
 culture bacteria on a suitable medium under differing environmental
conditions
 dissect and examine the reproductive structures of an insect-pollinated and
a wind-pollinated flower and explain how each is adapted for pollination
 model the behaviour of two pairs of chromosomes during meiosis showing
how sexual reproduction produces new assortments of alleles that give rise
to variations in offspring phenotypes
 produce a poster that explains the types of stem cells and their potential use
in medical therapies
 interview a geneticist or embryologist, or conduct internet research, to report
on an aspect of current cytological research
 comment on physician and poet Lewis Thomas’ quotation: ‘The capacity to
blunder slightly is the real marvel of DNA. Without this special attribute, we
would still be anaerobic bacteria and there would be no music.’ In the
‘Medusa and the Snail’ 1974 p. 23
 discuss the biological, social and ethical aspects of the following:
 What will happen if we take DNA from an animal and transplant it into a
human?
 What will happen if we take DNA from a human and transplant it into an
animal?
 Is it possible to create human body organs under laboratory conditions?
 Who or what should be cloned?
 Should genetically modified foods be labelled?
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Detailed example
OBSERVING MITOSIS IN AN ONION ROOT TIP PREPARATION
Aim
To observe the mitotic cell cycle in an onion root tip preparation.
Introduction
Mitotic division of the cell cycle is confined to the cells near the tip of the growing root. This is a task where each
student prepares their own stained slides of onion root tips and searches for and identify cells undergoing
different stages of mitosis. It gives students first-hand experience in slide preparation, further develops
microscopy skills and allows for students to record their observations in a series of drawings.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.
Preparation
Onion bulbs should root in water to provide tips prior to task. There are a variety of stains for this task that the
lab manager can investigate.
Health and safety notes
Students should be warned about warm hydrochloric acid and stains. Safety glasses and gloves are required.
Method
 The student cuts off an onion root and lays it on a microscope slide. They cut off 1–2 mm of the root tip and
discard the remainder of the root. The root tip is covered with two to three drops of 1 M hydrochloric acid.
Using tongs or a peg to hold the slide, the slide is warmed by passing it gently back and forth over a Bunsen
burner flame.
 Excess hydrochloric acid can be removed using the edge of a paper towel. The root tip is then covered with
0.5% aqueous toluidine blue. Again the slide should be passed over the heat source without boiling the
liquid. The slide should be allowed to stand and cool for one minute.
 The student removes excess stain with the edge of a paper towel and adds one fresh drop of toluidine stain
to the root tip and places cover slip over the root tip.
 The slide is then placed – cover slip up – between two layers of paper towel on the lab bench. Using one
finger, the student carefully applies pressure to the cover slip without breaking it in order to squash and
spread the root tip tissue.
 Using a compound microscope, firstly under low power, then using high power, the student locates the
meristematic region and seeks to identify and draw the various stages of mitosis.
Discussion questions and report writing in logbook
Drawings of the sub-phases of mitosis are recorded in the student logbook. Students should be shown what
constitutes a good scientific drawing. Students should name the sub-phase and justify it by providing evidence.
Teacher notes
 Group data can be collated to give whole class data.
 Given that it takes on average 24 hours for an onion root tip cell to complete the cell cycle the assumption is
made that the number of cells in each sub-phase is related to the amount of time spent in that sub-phase.
Hence students could construct a pie graph showing the percentage of time spent in each sub-phase.
The task can be expanded by students counting and comparing the number of cells that are in each sub-phase
of mitosis.
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Area of Study 2: How is inheritance explained?
Outcome 2:
Examples of learning activities
Apply an understanding of
genetics to describe patterns
of inheritance, analyse
pedigree charts, predict
outcomes of genetic crosses
and identify the implications of
the uses of genetic screening
and decision making related
to inheritance.
 design a poster with annotations to outline the sequencing of the human
genome and that show the relationship between a genome, the nature and
location of genes and their alleles
 analyse the metaphor ‘DNA was the first three-dimensional Xerox machine’
by Kenneth Boulding from an address to the University of Wyoming in 1975
called ‘Energy and the Environment’, and quoted in Boulding’s later
collection Beasts, Ballads and Bouldingism, 1980
 examine the conventions used in a human karyotype; undertake a
karyotyping exercise; use an example of a human karyotype that shows
chromosomal abnormalities to research and report on the consequences
for that individual use computer simulations to investigate patterns of
inheritance, for example in Drosophila
 conduct an experiment to determine whether fingerprints are inherited
 respond to a series of genetic problems that involve interpretation and use
of genetic language, the allocation of symbols to genotypes and the
definition of phenotypes as dominant or recessive
 conduct a first-hand investigation on the inheritance of the pigment
production in barley that has alternative alleles for pigmentation (green and
dominant) or no pigmentation (white and recessive)
 construct a pedigree chart using the student’s family history for the
inheritance of a genetic characteristic such as hair colour or eye colour over
several generations; from the information suggest the likely mode of
inheritance
 use bioinformatics tools such as BLAST and Cn3D to investigate the
genetic and molecular consequences of a mutation to the Breast Cancer
Susceptibility 1 (BRCA1) gene
 conduct a survey investigating the views of the school, family and local
community on gene therapy and cloning
 discuss the biological, social and ethical aspects of the following:
 Who should have access to an individual’s genetic information?
 Should age limits be placed on genetic screening?
 Which genetic disorders should be prioritised for screening?
 use a problem-based learning approach to discuss the following case
reported in Nature journal in January 1979 and to propose credible
explanatory mechanisms: A woman with type AB blood gave birth to a child
with blood type O; a second type O child was born six years later’ (‘Human
chimaera detectable only by investigation of her progeny’ by Mayr, Pausch
and Schnedl, Nature 277: 210–211)
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Detailed example
INHERITANCE OF PIGMENT PRODUCTION IN BARLEY
Introduction
There is a gene that controls pigment production in barley that has two alternative alleles. One allele produces
pigmentation that results in a gene dominant phenotype, while another allele produces no pigmentation resulting
in a white (or albino) recessive phenotype. Students have first-hand experience in germinating heterozygous
barley seeds and comparing the actual phenotypic ratio to the expected phenotypic ratio in this monohybrid
cross.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant science skills embedded in the task.
Preparation
Seeds are purchased and are readily germinated by spreading them out on cotton wool soaked with water in a
Petri dish. Students can monitor the germination and growth of the shoots and maintain moisture over a period
of 5 days at room temperature.
Health and safety notes
There are no issues.
Method
When shoots have reached the height of 5 cm students count the number of white and green shoots and
determine the phenotypic ratio for the sample. This is compared to the expected ratio. Data from groups can be
collated as class data.
Discussion questions and report writing in logbook
Discussion questions could include asking students to allocate symbols for each allele, write the genotype for
white seedlings, write the possible genotypes for green seedlings and explain why white seedlings fail to
survive. Students could be asked to determine the genotype of a green seedling as either a homozygote or
heterozygote by conducting a test cross.
Teacher notes
This is a relatively short and simple task. Corn cobs provide another opportunity for students to examine the
inheritance of kernel colour or kernel shape. Another task would be to conduct a first-hand investigation into the
inheritance of a single autosomal locus with two alleles in Drosophila. This would allow students to demonstrate
skills in using equipment and obtaining experimental data. F1 and F2 generations can be obtained over a twoto four-week period. Students should know how to sex Drosophila.
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Area of Study 3: Investigation of an issue
Outcome 3:
Examples of learning activities
Investigate and communicate
a substantiated response to a
question related to an issue in
genetics and/or reproductive
science.
 How is a specific genetic disease (state example) inherited and what are the
consequences and treatments for this genetic disorder?
 What is the chromosomal abnormality that gives rise to a specific syndrome
(state example) and what are the consequences for the individual?
 What is the difference between reproductive cloning and therapeutic cloning
and what are the ethical issues associated with it?
 What are the main techniques used in assisted reproductive technology
(ART) in humans and what are the ethical issues associated with such
techniques?
 How do genetic factors impact on complex human behaviours such as
aggression?
 How does genetic testing of embryos and foetuses offer hope to individuals
wishing to have children and what are the ethical implications for such
testing?
 How might the sequencing of the human genome impact on our lives, our
medical decisions and society?
Detailed example
HOW IS CYSTIC FIBROSIS INHERITED AND WHAT ARE THE BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL
CONSEQUENCES?
The investigation of an issue builds on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 2 Area of Study 1 and/or Area of
Study 2. The focus is on students being able to communicate a response to a selected issue. Teachers must
consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account number of students, available
resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration:
 To whom will students be expected to communicate their results?
 What alternative communication formats will students be able to consider?
 To what extent will students work on their research and response inside and outside class time, and how will
student work be monitored and authenticated?
 Will time be allocated in class for students to present their work to other students?
 Are students able to investigate genetic disorders other than cystic fibrosis?
Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the issue into a series of timed phases.
Students may subsequently adapt the template as a personal work plan in their logbooks.
Issue selection phase
It is suggested that teachers lead a brainstorming session to review the different issues related to genetics
and/or reproductive science. In this detailed example, following classwork on genetic crosses. a student
identified a family friend as having cystic fibrosis where neither parent had the condition, and wondered whether
it was a sex-linked or autosomal recessive disorder. Other students nominated other genetic disorders that were
common in particular families or disorders that appeared to be sex-linked. It was determined that students in the
class could work independently or in groups to research a genetic disorder of interest, but were required to
present an individual communication.
Students were required to clearly articulate a question for a focused response.
Planning phase
Students may need guidance in:
 distinguishing between autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, X-linked and Y-linked traits
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 developing a set of interview questions (for students who may wish to interview those involved in diagnosis
and treatment of the condition, or those who are afflicted by the genetic disorder)
 constructing a survey (for students who may wish to survey relevant people regarding social and/or
biological consequences)
 considering appropriate communication formats for specific audiences.
Teachers should work with students to:
 set timeframes and milestones for the task
 determine the nature of the work that is to be completed inside and outside the classroom
 ensure that ethical guidelines are followed such as confidentiality and respect for persons with and sensitivity
to issues around genetic disorders
 check the scientific accuracy of content prior to students working on the response (communication) phase.
Investigation phase
In researching material students should show an understanding of the nature of the genetic disease and clearly
explain its mode of inheritance. Consequences of the disease not only include the wellbeing of the individual
and the current treatments required but also include how current technologies screen for the disease and give
potential parents knowledge to make informed choices about having offspring that may or may not have cystic
fibrosis.
It is important that students structure the research component into a set of manageable tasks that constitute a
personal work program. Work in this phase can be done outside the classroom and recorded in students’
logbooks, with class time allocated to check on progress and the quality of material being researched.
This activity provides students with opportunities to learn how to document reference resources and
acknowledge contributions using standard conventions.
Reporting phase
Students could present their response to the investigation question to a specific audience using various formats.
For class presentations teachers may wish to limit the number of formats used and to set time and/or word
limits. The response should clearly address the question, demonstrate that the student understands the relevant
biological concepts and be appropriate for the given audience.
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Appendix 1: Scientific investigation
Hypothesis formulation
Once a topic has been identified students develop a research question for investigation,
which may involve formulating a hypothesis.
Teachers should guide students so that they do not proceed with a research question or
hypothesis that is not testable.
Variables
The formulation of a hypothesis includes the identification and control of variables. A variable
is any quantity or characteristic that can exist in differing amounts or types and can be
measured. Values for variables may be categorical or they may be numerical, having a
magnitude.
Not all variables can be easily measured. Length can be measured easily using, for
example, metre rulers. Shades of colour are less easily measured and are more likely to be
subjective. They might be measured by, for example, using photographic comparisons to
produce a set of graduated ‘standards’ that are nominated and named for the purposes of
the investigation.
In VCE Biology, students are required to identify independent and dependent variables.
They should also understand the need to control other variables (extraneous variables
including confounding variables) that may affect the integrity of the experiment and the
interpretation of results. Operationalisation of variables is beyond the scope of the VCE
Biology Science Study Design.
Concepts related to variables that apply to VCE Biology Science are specified in Appendix 2.
Developing a testable hypothesis
A hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible
explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. A useful hypothesis is a testable
statement that may include a prediction. In some cases, for example in exploratory or
qualitative research, a research question may not lend itself to having an accompanying
hypothesis; in such cases students should work directly with their research questions.
There is no mandated VCE Biology ‘style’ for writing a hypothesis. Recognition of null and
alternate hypotheses, one- and two-tailed hypotheses, and directional and non-directional
hypotheses is not required.
The following table provides an example of how a hypothesis may be constructed from a
research question using an ‘If-then-when’ construction process:
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Step 1: Ask a research question of interest: Do tomato seedlings grow better if exposed to longer daylight hours?
Step 2: Identify the independent variable (IV): number of daylight hours
Step 3: Identify the dependent variable (DV): growth of tomato seedlings
Step 4: Construct a hypothesis (a – f below):
a
b
c
…then…
d
trend indicator
e
…when…
f
If…
relationship phrase
(the
DV)…
(to the IV)
(effect on the DV)
(action by the IV).
…depends on…
...show an increase/
decrease ...
…increased/decreased…
…be greater than/less
than…
…greater/less…
…results from…
…is affected by…
…is directly related to…
…be larger/smaller…
trend indicator
…large/small…
Hypothesis: If the growth of tomato seedlings is directly related to the number of daylight hours it receives, then the
seedlings will show an increase in growth when they are exposed to an increased number of daylight hours.
Notes:
 Different writing styles for hypotheses can be equally valid
 Some hypotheses include reasons for the inherent prediction, for example the above hypothesis may be extended as:
‘If the growth of tomato seedlings is directly related to the number of daylight hours it receives, since photosynthesis uses
light to make glucose, then the seedlings will show an increase in growth when they are exposed to an increased number
of daylight hours.’
Accuracy, precision, reliability and validity
Accuracy
Experimental accuracy refers to how close the experimental result obtained is to the
accepted, or ‘true’, value of the particular quantity subject to measurement. The true value is
the value that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly. For example, if an
experiment is performed and it is determined that a given substance had a mass of 2.7 g,
but the actual or known mass is 9.6 g, then the measurement is not accurate since it is not
close to the known value. The difference between a measured value and the true value is
known as the ‘measurement error’.
While accurate measurements and observations are important in all science experiments, in
some cases it may not be possible to determine the accuracy of a measurement since a true
value for a particular quantity may be unknown. Often, measurement accuracy is evaluated
by making comparisons with accepted values for a physical quantity.
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Precision
Experimental precision refers to how closely two or more measurements agree with other.
Precision is sometimes referred to as ‘repeatability’ or ‘reproducibility’. A set of precise
measurements will have very little spread about their mean value. For example, if a given
substance was weighed five times, and a mass of 2.7 g was obtained each time, then the
experimental data are very precise. Precision is independent of accuracy, so that if the true
mass was 9.6 g then these data are very precise but inaccurate. Results can also be
accurate but imprecise. For example, if repeated measurements were repeated to determine
the mass of a given substance and masses of 9.5 g, 9.7 g and 9.8 g were obtained, then if
the true mass was 9.6 g the data would be accurate but not precise since the measurements
for the given substance are close to the true value, but the measurements are spread over a
range.
The reproducibility of an experimental method is dependent on its level of experimental
precision. A measurement that is highly reproducible tends to give values that are very close
to each other.
Experimental precision can be improved by:
 repeating the experiment multiple times
 collecting results from other groups to further increase the number of samples
 practising experimental techniques so that expertise in using equipment is improved.
Quantitatively, a measure of precision (or imprecision) is the standard deviation or the
magnitude of the error (or uncertainty). The larger the uncertainty, the less assurance there
is that any repeated measurements taken will be within a very narrow range of values, for
example, a measured mass of 2.7 g ± 0.1 g is less precise than 2.702 g ± 0.001 g.
Replication of procedures: repeatability and reproducibility
Experimental data and results must be more than one-off findings and should be repeatable
and reproducible in order to draw reasonable conclusions. Repeatability refers to the
closeness of agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on
identical test material, under the same conditions (same operator, same apparatus, same
laboratory and after short intervals of time). Reproducibility refers to the closeness of
agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on identical test
material but under different conditions (different operators, different apparatus, different
laboratories and/or after different intervals of time). Reproducibility is often used as a test of
the reliability of an experiment.
Reliability
Experimental reliability refers to the likelihood that another experimenter will perform exactly
the same experiment under the same conditions and generate the same results (within a
very narrow range of values). Experiments that use human judgment may not always
produce reliable results.
Validity
Experimental validity refers to how well the experimental design matches the requirements
of the investigation to produce results that address the stated aim/s.
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Both internal and external validity should be considered in evaluating experimental results:
 internal validity dictates how an experimental design is structured and encompasses all of
the steps of the scientific research method
 external validity is the process of examining the results and questioning whether there are
any other possible causal relationships.
Data are said to be valid if the measurements that have been made are affected by a single
independent variable only. They are not valid if the investigation is flawed and control
variables have been allowed to change or there is observer bias.
Experimental uncertainties and errors
It is important not to confuse the terms ‘error’ and ‘uncertainty’, which are not synonyms.
Error is the difference between the measured value and the accepted value of what is being
measured. Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt associated with the measurement
result. It is also important not to confuse ‘error’ with ‘mistake’.
Experimental uncertainties are inherent in the measurement process and cannot be
eliminated simply by repeating the experiment no matter how carefully it is done. There are
two sources of experimental uncertainties: systematic errors and random errors.
Experimental uncertainties are distinct from human errors.
Human errors
Human errors include mistakes or miscalculations such as measuring a height when the
depth should have been measured, or misreading the scale on a thermometer, or measuring
the voltage across the wrong section of an electric circuit, or forgetting to divide the diameter
by 2 before calculating the area of a circle using the formula A = π r2. Human errors can be
eliminated by performing the experiment again correctly the next time, and do not form part
of error analysis.
Systematic errors
Systematic errors are errors that affect the accuracy of a measurement. Systematic errors
cause readings to differ from the accepted value by a consistent amount each time a
measurement is made, so that all the readings are shifted in one direction from the accepted
value. The accuracy of measurements subject to systematic errors cannot be improved by
repeating those measurements.
Common sources of systematic errors are faulty calibration of measuring instruments, poorly
maintained instruments, or faulty reading of instruments by the user (for example, ‘parallax
error’).
Random errors
Random errors are uncertainties that affect the precision of a measurement and are always
present in measurements (except for ‘counting’ measurements). These types of
uncertainties are unpredictable variations in the measurement process and result in a spread
of readings.
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Common sources of random errors are variations in estimating a quantity that lies between
the graduations (lines) on a measuring instrument, the inability to read an instrument
because the reading fluctuates during the measurement and making a quick judgment of a
transient event.
The effect of random errors can be reduced by making more or repeated measurements and
calculating a new mean and/or by refining the measurement method or technique.
Outliers
Readings that lie a long way from other results are called outliers. Outliers must be further
analysed and accounted for, rather than being automatically dismissed. Repeating readings
may be useful in further examining an outlier.
Presenting and analysing data
To explain the relationship between two or more variables investigated in an experiment,
data should be presented in such a way as to make any patterns and trends more evident.
Although tables are an effective means of recording data, they may not be the best way to
show trends, patterns or relationships. Graphical representations can be used to more
clearly show whether any trends, patterns or relationships exist. The type of graphical
representation used by students will depend upon the type of variables investigated:
 pie graphs and bar charts can be used to display data in which one of the variables is
categorical
 line graphs can be used to display data in which both the independent and dependent
variables are continuous
 lines of best fit can be used to illustrate the underlying relationship between variables
 scattergrams can be used to show an association between two variables
 sketch graphs (not necessarily on a grid; no plotted points; labelled axes but not
necessarily scaled) can be used to show the general shape of the relationship between
two variables.
When drawing graphs, students should note that:
 the independent variable is represented on the horizontal axis while the dependent
variable is represented on the vertical axis
 the existence of a correlation does not necessarily establish that there is a causal
relationship between two variables
 not all experiments will show a correlation between variables
 common types of relationships in biology include linear, exponential and cyclic.
Students should understand why it is important not to ‘force data through zero’. In drawing
conclusions they should examine patterns, trends and relationships between variables with
the limitations of the data in mind. Conclusions drawn from data must be limited by, and not
go beyond, the data available.
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VCE Biology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
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Appendix 2: Defining variables
The table identifies types of variables that apply to VCE Biology.
Type of variable
Definitions
Categorical
Categorical variables are qualitative variables that describe a quality or
characteristic typically addressing ‘what type?’ or ‘which category?’ They are
generally represented by non-numeric values and may be further classified as
ordinal or nominal.
 Ordinal variables can take values that can be logically ordered or
ranked, for example, birth order (1st, 2nd 3rd), population size (small,
medium, large) and attitudes (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly
disagree)
 Nominal variables can take values that cannot be organised in a logical
sequence, for example, gender, eye colour and type of leaf
Bar charts and pie graphs are used to graph categorical data.
Numerical
Numerical variables are quantitative variables that describe a measurable
quantity as a number, typically addressing ‘how many?’ or ‘how much?’ They
are further classified as continuous or discrete.
 Continuous variables can take any value between a certain set of real
numbers, for example, length (7.85 metres), age (12.5 million years) or
production (canola crop yield of 2.6 tonnes per hectare)
 Discrete variables can take a value based on a count from a set of
distinct whole values and cannot take the value of a fraction between one
value and the next closest value, for example, number of kangaroos in a
paddock
Scatter plots and line graphs are used to graph numerical data.
Independent
An independent variable is the variable for which quantities are manipulated
(selected or changed) by the experimenter, and assumed to have a direct
effect on the dependent variable. Independent variables are plotted on the
horizontal axis of graphs.
Dependent
A dependent variable is the variable the experimenter measures, after
selecting the independent variable that is assumed to affect the dependent
variable. Dependent variables are plotted on the vertical axis of graphs.
Extraneous
Any variable that is not intentionally studied in an experiment is an
extraneous variable and must be controlled (kept constant), or at least
monitored, in order that it does not threaten the internal validity of
experimental results by becoming a confounding variable.
Confounding
Confounding variables are types of extraneous variables that correlate either
directly or inversely with both the independent and dependent variables and
can interfere with the validity of the experiment by providing alternative
explanations for experimental results.
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Appendix 3: Examples of problem-based
learning approaches
A problem-based learning environment is conducive to linking scientific concepts to
examining science-based issues in society. Scenarios can be developed from local issues,
fictional case studies or case studies reported in scientific journals, as illustrated in the
following example.
Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: what are you trying to find out?
Case study: A woman with type AB blood gave birth to a child with blood type O. A second type O child was born
to the woman six years later.
(from ‘Human chimaera detectable only by investigation of her progeny’ by Mayr, Pausch and Schnedl, Nature
277: 210–211, January 1979).
Task: Propose credible explanatory mechanisms for this case.
Step 2: Refine the question/explore
possible options
(class brainstorming)
Step 3: Plan the actual
investigation/narrow your choices
(class consensus)
Step 4: Test ideas and obtain
further information
(group and/or individual)
Note: this scenario appears to contradict Mendelian genetics; students should draw on conceptual understanding
related to meiosis, fertilisation and developmental biology in order to construct a response.
A problem-based learning approach can also be used to develop specific science skills. The
skills should link to relevant biological content. The following example focuses on the skill of
hypothesis formulation.
Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: what are you trying to find out?
Student question: Are organic fertilisers better than commercial fertilisers?
Task: The research question is too broad. The word ‘organic’ needs clarification here. Is the question actually
asking about the source of the fertiliser and whether fertiliser from one source is more effective than fertiliser from
another source? Once this is clarified, a testable hypothesis can be developed.
Step 2: Refine the question/explore
possible options
(class brainstorming)
Possible responses:
Terms must be scientifically accurate:
 Could commercial fertilisers be
organic, or partly organic?
 Is animal manure fully organic?
 Do different animal manures have
different organic content?
6.



Step 3 Plan the actual investigation/
narrow your choices
(class consensus)
Possible responses:
Need to identify dependent and
independent variables and control
other variables.
Independent variable (being
controlled) relates to types of fertiliser
used:
 ‘high organic’ compared with
Question is too broad –
‘high inorganic’ labelled
commercial fertilisers
needs to be more specific:
 dried chicken manure compared
‘Better’ in what way?
with dried commercial product that
‘Better’ for all types of plants?
is largely inorganic (nitrate/
Would/could/should all ‘organic’
phosphate/sulfate)
and ‘inorganic’ fertilisers be tested?  liquefied ‘fresh’ manure compared
©VCAA 2015
Step 4: Test ideas and obtain
further information
(group and/or individual)
Possible responses:
 Hypothesis example: ‘If
numbers of tomatoes per
plant is directly related to
the amount of organic
fertiliser available to a
tomato plant, then the
number of tomatoes grown
on plants fertilised with high
concentrations of organic
fertiliser will be greater than
the numbers of tomatoes
grown on plants fertilised
with lower concentrations of
the same organic fertiliser’.
Not all hypotheses are testable
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 Could some organic fertilisers be
better than inorganic fertilisers but
worse than others, so should
specific fertilisers be tested?
 Could plants respond differently at
different growth stages to fertiliser?
 Does it make a difference if the
fertilisers are wet or dry?
with liquid fertiliser
 a range of animal manures
compared with a range of
commercial fertilisers.
Dependent variable relates to plant
improvement and could be:
 improved growth
 improved growth rate
 larger fruit or vegetable size
 longer fruiting period
 more fruit/vegetables per plant.
Control of other variables is
dependent on selected independent
and dependent variables.
and not all variables can be
controlled for some
experiments.
For this problem, students
generate possible hypotheses;
provide feedback on each
other’s hypotheses; modify own
hypotheses
Step 4: Write a conclusion that draws upon discussions/research/experiments, including discussion of scientific
terminology, control of variables and evaluation of experimental methodology.
Note: This class problem-based learning approach can be used to generate different questions for students to
investigate, particularly for experimental investigations.
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Updated November 2015
Appendix 4: Sample teaching plan
Sample Course Outline – VCE Biology Unit 1: How do living things stay alive?
Note: This is a sample guide only and indicates one way to present the content from the Study Design over the weeks in each school term.
Teachers are advised to consider their own contexts in developing learning activities: Which local fieldwork sites would support learning in the
topic area? Which local issues lend themselves to debate and investigation? Which experiments can students complete within the resource
limitations of their learning environments?
Week
Area
Topics
1
Cells (basic structural features of life; prokaryote; eukaryote; surface
area to volume ratio; internal structure of the cell; cell organelle
structure and function)
2
3
How do
organisms
function?
4
5
Crossing the plasma membrane (characteristics of the plasma
membrane; internal and external cellular environments; simple
diffusion; facilitated diffusion; osmosis, active transport)
Energy transformations and functioning systems (distinction
between photosynthetic autotrophs and chemosynthetic autotrophs
and heterotrophs; photosynthesis; aerobic and anaerobic respiration;
vascular plant systems; mammalian systems)
6
7
8
9
How do
living
systems
sustain life?
©VCAA 2015
Survival through adaptations and regulation (structural,
physiological and behavioural adaptations; models for biomimicry;
homeostasis; stimulus-response model; feedback loops; malfunctions
in homeostasis)
Learning activities
 Experiment: Is yeast alive?
 How to correctly and safely use a light microscope to make biological
drawings of stained and unstained cells, including preparation and staining
of a wet mount
 Preparation of biological drawings of a diversity of cells from a variety of
kingdoms (stimulus material includes professionally prepared biological
drawings)
 Experiment: surface area to volume ratios
 Experiment: movement of materials across a membrane by diffusion and
osmosis
 Simulation: active transport
 Student-designed experiment: Photosynthesis and cellular respiration
 Data analysis: distinction between autotrophs and heterotrophs
 Jigsaw activity: student groups work on a selected vascular plant system
 Disease research: students choose a disease of interest and consider cause
and treatments from system, organ and cellular perspectives





Zoo excursion: structural, physiological and behavioural adaptations
Homeostasis activity
Animations: stimulus-response models
Biomimicry research investigation
Model class zoo: students each create an imaginary animal or plant that is
adapted to a specified environment
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 Activity: classification of plants using a key (including student-created plants
from class zoo)
 Activity: classification of animals using a key (including student-created
Organising biodiversity (classification of biodiversity; binomial
animals from class zoo)
nomenclature; morphology and molecular characteristics; strategies for
managing Earth’s biodiversity)
 Activity: binomial nomenclature – creating a key
 Data analysis: management of biodiversity – Bronwyn Fancourt research
into Eastern Quoll decline in Tasmania
10
11
12
13
Relationships between organisms within an ecosystem
(amensalism; commensalism; mutualism; parasitism; predation;
keystone species; food chains and webs; factors affecting distribution,
density and size of a population)
14
15
16
17
18
19
 Simulation: food chains and food webs
 Field trip: food chains and food webs
 Experiment: limiting factors on duckweed population growth
Negotiation with students/class to define research question – laboratory investigation and/or fieldwork (hypothesis formulation; determination of
Practical aims, questions and predictions; identification of independent, dependent and controlled variables; methodology and equipment list; fieldwork techniques;
investigation risk assessment; undertaking of experiment and/or fieldwork; analysis and evaluation of data, methods and models; limitations of conclusions; possible
further investigations; poster presentation)
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Biology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
Sample Course Outline – VCE Biology Unit 2: How is continuity of life maintained?
Note: This is a sample guide only and indicates one way to present the content from the Study Design over the weeks in each school term.
Teachers are advised to consider their own contexts in developing learning activities: Which local fieldwork sites would support learning in the
topic area? Which local issues lend themselves to debate and investigation? Which experiments can students complete within the resource
limitations of their learning environments?
Week
Area
1
2
How does
reproduction
maintain the
continuity of
life?
5
7
8
9
10
12
13
Cell cycle (derivation of cells from pre-existing cells; binary fission in
prokaryotic cells; key events in the various stages of the cell cycle in
eukaryotic cells)
 Experiment: mitosis in garlic tissue
 Activity: comparison of binary fission and mitosis
Asexual and sexual reproduction (nature of a unique genetic identity; types
collection over a few weeks)
of asexual reproduction; biological advantages and disadvantages of asexual  Experiment: plant tissue culture (for example, students may choose African
reproduction; emerging issues associated with cloning; key events in meiosis
violet, carnation, cauliflower or rose)
including crossing over and non-disjunction; biological advantage of sexual
 Simulations: mitosis; meiosis including crossing over and non-disjunction
reproduction)
 Comparative table of asexual and sexual reproduction
Cell growth and differentiation (types and functions of stem cells in human
development; difference between embryonic and adult stem cells;
consequences of stem cell differentiation; cancer; abnormal embryonic
development)
6
11
Learning activities
 Experiment: asexual reproduction (set up in one class, then regular data
3
4
Topics
How is
inheritance
explained?
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©VCAA 2015
Genomes, genes, alleles and chromosomes (distinction between
chromosome, genome, gene, allele; uniqueness of individual genomes
measured at base pair level; role of genomic research; role of chromosomes;
chromosome variability; autosomes and sex chromosomes; nature of
homologous pairs; gene loci; creation and use of karyotypes)
Genotypes and phenotypes, pedigree charts, genetic cross outcomes
and genetic decision-making (symbols used in assigning genotypes;
dominant and recessive phenotypes; the influence of genes, environmental
factors and epigenetic factors on phenotype; polygenic inheritance leading to
continuous variation using height or skin colour in humans as examples)
 Student investigation: set up a web dilemma that includes social, ethical and
economic implications
 Media analysis: genomic research
 Chromosome analysis: students create karyotypes using provided
chromosomes related to Trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome), Trisomy 18
(Edwards syndrome), Trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome), genotype 47, XXY
(Klinefelter syndrome) or genotype 45, X (Turner syndrome)
 Pedigree analysis and genetic cross exercises
 Simulation activity: marshmallow meiosis (baby reebops)
 Experiment: Is a ‘sweet tooth’ inherited?
 Simulation: ‘toothpick’ fish survival
 Bioinformatics activity: researching genetic disorders using BLAST
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15
16
17
Students register an individual research question (development of a research question and determination of aims; purpose of communication and target audience;
Investigation of
characteristics of effective science communication; investigation methodology, primary and/or secondary sources of information including surveys, interviews;
an issue
undertaking of investigation; analysis and evaluation of data and methods; limitations of conclusions; development of effective communication)
18
19
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VCE Biology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Appendix 5: Employability skills
Assessment task
Employability skills selected facets
Annotations of activities or
investigations from a practical
logbook
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience)
Problem solving (testing assumptions taking the context of data and
circumstances into account)
Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions)
Bioinformatics response
Communication (sharing information; reading independently; writing to
the needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading effectively)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Problem solving (applying a range of strategies to problem solving;
using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking the
context of data and circumstances into account)
Technology (having a range of basic information technology skills; being
willing to learn new information technology skills; using information
technology to organise data)
Data analysis
Communication (using numeracy; persuading effectively; writing to the
needs of the audience)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Problem solving (applying a range of strategies to problem solving;
using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking the
context of data and circumstances into account)
Technology (using information technology to organise data)
Evaluation of research or a case
study
Communication (reading independently; writing to the needs of the
audience; using numeracy)
Learning (being open to new ideas and techniques)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Problem solving (testing assumptions taking the context of data and
circumstances into account)
Media response
Communication (listening and understanding; reading independently;
writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading
effectively)
Problem solving (showing independence and initiative in identifying
problems and solving them; testing assumptions taking the context of data
and circumstances into account)
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VCE Biology Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
Assessment task
Employability skills selected facets
Problem solving involving biological
concepts, skills and/or issues
Communication (sharing information; using numeracy; persuading
effectively)
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options;
initiating innovative solutions)
Learning (managing own learning; being open to new ideas and
techniques)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management; collecting, analysing and organising information)
Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions; developing
practical solutions; showing independence and initiative in identifying
problems and solving them; applying a range of strategies to problem
solving; using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking
the context of data and circumstances into account)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and
visions; articulating own ideas and visions)
Scientific poster
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; persuading
effectively; sharing information; using numeracy)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management; collecting, analysing and organising information)
Problem solving (using mathematics to solve problems; testing
assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account)
Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions)
Technology (using information technology to organise data; being willing
to learn new information technology skills)
Student-designed investigation
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options;
initiating innovative solutions)
Planning and organising (managing time and priorities – setting
timelines, coordinating tasks for self and with others; planning the use of
resources including time management; collecting, analysing and
organising information))
Problem solving (developing practical solutions; showing independence
and initiative in identifying problems and solving them)
Self-management (evaluating and monitoring own performance; taking
responsibility)
Teamwork (working as an individual and as a member of a team;
knowing how to define a role as part of the team; sharing information)
Technology (having the Occupational Health and Safety knowledge to
apply technology; using information technology to organise data)
The employability skills are derived from the Employability Skills Framework (Employability Skills for the Future, 2002),
developed by the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Business Council of Australia, and published
by the (former) Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and Training.
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