CHAPTER TWO: THE SACRED IN NATURE:
INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND RELIGION
Chapter Outline and Unit Summaries
I.
The First Faiths
A.
The Possibility of Extrapolating from Present-Day Tribal Religion Back to
Pre-Historic Religions to Identify Commonalities
B.
Basic Features of Prehistoric Religion
1.
2.
3.
4.
C.
Basic ideas of Indigenous World View
1.
2.
3.
4.
II.
Non-Literate Social Groups
Organized in Small Political Units (Tribes and Clans)
Subsisted by Hunting and Gathering only
Practiced an Archaic Form of Agriculture or Lived as Nomadic
Pastoralists
Our planet is shared by many kind of spirits
Life is a journey with stages of transition
Food has important significance because it is the source of life.
All classes of people had their sacred parts and obligations beyond
their biological nature.
The Natural World is the Realm of the Sacred
A.
Indigenous and the Sacred: Human Life is only Complete in its Total
Relationships
1.
2.
3.
B.
Family, tribe, and ancestors
Wind, Rain, and Sun
Earthly Bounty
Mircea Eliade: Cosmic Religion is the First Indigenous Religion
1.
Hunter-Gatherers
a)
b)
c)
Celebrations of the Hunt
Guidance of Deities to Sources of Food and Shelter
Festivals Celebrating Seedtime and Harvest
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d)
2.
Shamanism
a)
b)
c)
3.
Significant to Indigenous Religion
Tells stories of Heroes
Reflects rites within tribes
Gods, Spirits, and the World
A.
Images and Myths
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B.
Creation Stories about Beginnings and Where Humans Came from
World Made Good, but Something Has Gone Wrong
Original/Ultimate Creator High God is a “Deus Otiosus,” Often
Uninvolved with Humanity
Myths of the Origin of Human Separation from Creator
Myths of Lesser Deities Creating World
Ancestral Spirits
1.
2.
3.
IV.
Travel in trance to heaven or the underworld to recover
stray or stolen souls
Intercede with the Gods
Perform to invoke the fundamental sacredness of nature
and human beings’ part in it
Art, Symbols and Sacred Ideology
a)
b)
c)
III.
Veneration of Nature
Idea of Soul Living Apart from its Dead Body is One of the Oldest
Ideas in Religion, Dating Back Thousands of Years
Spirits of the Dead Remain Active in World, Particularly Among
Family Descendants
Some Believe Ancestors Reincarnate in Tribe or Family
Initiation Rites of Men and Women
A.
Life Seen as a Series of Initiations where Cultures Most Meaningful Signs
of Status are Bestowed and Deepest Mysteries of the Ultimate Meaning of
Human Existence is Revealed.
1.
2.
Birth and Death Central Events Requiring Initiation
Ceremonial Initiations of Indigenous Cultures Enhance, Ratify,
Recapitulate, and Prepare for what is Imparted in Sacred Mysteries
of Birth and Death
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B.
Initiation Rituals for Boys and Girls
1.
2.
3.
V.
Shamans
A.
Definition of Shaman: Persons Singled Out by the Divine to Receive
Special Ecstatic Powers for Dealing with Spiritual Things
1.
2.
B.
Shaman Not by Heredity, Apprenticeship, or Appointment
Shamans Receive Special Gift/Calling/Testing from Spirit World,
Undergo Extremely Traumatic—Even Violent— Psychic and
Physical Contacts with the Spirit World
The Practices of Shamans
1.
2.
3.
4.
VI.
Male Circumcision Rituals Mimic Female Menstruation
Emphasize Spirits of Nature Working Through Natural Processes
of the Human Body
Celebrations of that Which Sustains the Tribe as Coextensive with
Ultimate Cosmic Reality
Shaman Moves Freely Among the Spirit World, Acts as Meeting
Point Between Living and the Dead, Guides Souls of the Dead,
Intercedes with Them on Behalf of the Living
Shaman Performs Semi-spontaneous Dramatic, Suspenseful,
Spectacles of His/Her Contacts with the Spirit World and
Consequent Psychic and Physical Transformations
Some Shamans Make Journeys, Via Séances or Otherwise, into the
Spirit World and Report Back to the Living
Heal Members of the Tribe/Village from their Spiritual and
Physical Maladies, thereby Reinforce Popular Spiritual Lore
Tracing Survivals of Archaic Indigenous Peoples’ Religions
A.
Abrahamic Religions: Contains Elements of Indigenous Religion
1.
2.
3.
4.
B.
Turn of Seasons
The Hunt
The Harvest
Veneration of the Earth and Sky
Popular Religion and American Culture: Altered Version of Archaic
Religion
1.
Christian Symbolism: Christmas – Winter Solstice
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2.
3.
4.
5.
VII.
Halloween/All Saint’s Day– Darkest Time of Year When the
Spirits are Closest to the Living
New Year’s Eve - Precreation Flux
New Year’s Day - Recurrent Day of Creation
May Day – Beltane, a pre-Christian Spring Festival
Indigenous Hunter-Gathers and Agriculturalists
A.
Indigenous Hunters
1.
Symbols of the Divine
a)
b)
c)
d)
2.
3.
4.
B.
IX.
Hunting Part of Religious Fabric of Life in Prehistoric Religion
Hunting Animals is Act of Interplay with Spiritual Forces
Archaic Hunters Relate Soul-to-Soul with Hunted Animal
Archaic Hunters Treating Animals with Spiritual Respect
1.
2.
VIII.
Animal for the Hunter
Plant for Agriculturalists
King as Giver of Order for Ancient City and Empire
Psychological Sense of Self in Relation to Community and
the Earth
Hunt Rituals
The Divine Master/Mistress of Animals Believed to Open or Close
the Hunting Area to Humans
Indigenous Gathers
A.
The Archaic Gathers Reveal Reverent Attitude to the Land and Emphasize
Interplay of Nature and Spirit World
B.
Prehistoric Peoples Mostly Dependent on Plant-food and Small Animals,
not Large Game
C.
Women Gather Plant-food and Small Animals, Hence Have High Status in
Generally Egalitarian Hunter/Gatherer Societies
Indigenous Farmers
A.
Agriculture had an Awareness that their Craft came after the First Humans
and gave a New Importance for the Earth Goddess and Earth’s kin by
Gender.
B.
The Willingness to Plant Seeds and Domesticate Animals Signifies a
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Change in Religious Attitude: It is Legitimate to Disturb Nature and
Intervene in its Cycles
1.
Shift to Agriculture Leads to Change in Religion to Emphasis on
Death-Rebirth Symbolism
2.
Guilt and Remorse Might Accompany Humans in the “Fall” from
Hunter/Gatherer Societies to Agricultural Societies
a)
b)
c)
d)
3.
The Rise of the Agricultural Death-for-Life Principle
a)
b)
X.
Early Agricultural Religions Suggest Guilt Over Lost
Innocence of Previous Hunter/Gatherer Life
Archaic Myths Contain Themes Suggesting Agriculture
Seen as Illicit Act Against Earth
The Japanese Myth of Kojiki Equates Murder of Food
Goddess and Agriculture
The Indonesian Myth of the Hainuwele Equates the
Planting of Seeds with Banishing the Divine Creators
Agriculture Accentuates Death-for-Life Principle and
Takes Form in Preoccupation with Ritual Death
Early Agricultural Myths Indicate Sacrificial Killing that
Transfers Power from Victim to the Sacrificer
The Social Impact of Agriculture, The Role of Women, and The
Patriarchical Revolution
A.
B.
C.
Beginning of Agricultural Religion, approximately 12,000 years ago,
Produced Far Reaching Religion Changes
Flourishing Agricultural Economy Supported More Than Farmer,
Reaching Traders, Rulers, Priests, and Scholars
Religious Products in New Agricultural Economy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
D.
E.
Elaborate Polytheism Mirrored in the Heavens the New Division
of Labor and Bringing Together of Tribes
Subject to Commerce, Taxation, and Control
Created a Need for Market Roads and Irrigation Systems.
Writing of Sacred Scripture
Fruits of Leisure for Priests, Scholars, and Philosophers
Huge Impact on the Role of Women in Society
Ritual Roles of Girls and Women in the Paleolithic and early Neolithic
Societies were Ritually Equal in Religion
Complexity of Agricultural Society Became More Hierarchical
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1.
2.
3.
4.
XI.
Women’s Lives Became More Restricted and Starting to be
Subordinate to Men
Continued Development of Agriculture Marked Significant and
Long-Ranging Reactions by Men
Megalithicism was an Important Development in this Society
Last Archaic Stage is called “Patriarchal Revolution”
Fundamental Features of Indigenous Peoples’ Religions
A.
Theoretical
1.
Basic Worldview
a)
b)
2.
Gold or Ultimate Reality
a)
b)
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Myth are told and enacted at festivals or by Shamans
Benign Deities and Ancestral Spirits are Helpers
Practical: What is Expected of Humans
1.
2.
3.
C.
Many Deities and Spirits
Possible High God or Unifying Force over other Deities
and Spirits
Either No Point of Origin of the World or the World was created
by Gods or a High God who may be Passive.
Destiny of the World is not Clear
Origin of Humans are Often children of Gods, Gods, or semidivine primal parents
Destiny of Humans either goes after Death to Another World or
could be reborn in this World
Revelation or Mediation between the Ultimate and the Human
a)
b)
B.
The universe is a place animated by many spirits
Humans have a place in the Order of All Things and are
Subject to Rules and Cycles
Worship, Practice, Behavior to undergo Initiation
Honor and Sacrifice to the Gods and Ancestors
Observe Communal Norms of Behavior and Taboos
Major Social Institutions
1.
2.
Immediate ethnic community is a spiritual unit
Shamanism
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Key Names, Concepts, and Terms
rites
shamanism
shaman
cosmic religion
soul
popular religion
deus otiosus
high god
taboo
Ancestral spirits
initiations
totem pole
ecstasy
bodhisattva
asceticism
Neolithic
Paleolithic
Mitsimu
aboriginal
indigenous hunter/gatherers/farmers
Mircea Eliade
death for life principle
Miko
matrilineal
Patriarchal Revolution
megalithism
Abrahamic Religions
Questions for Class Discussion
1.
Prehistoric cosmic religions might seem quite alien to us today. In
what ways might features of prehistoric cosmic religions remain a continuing
presence in contemporary religious and secular life? First identify some of the
authors’ examples. Second, suggest some possible examples from both religious
and secular contexts.
2.
The authors argue that the “pendulum” swung toward “patriarchy”
with the rise of agricultural society, and it might be swinging back toward
egalitarian values today. Why do they think the pendulum swung toward
patriarchy in the past, and what has changed today that would lead it to swing the
other way?
Evaluation Questions
Multiple Choice
1.
Mircea Eliade called the first indigenous religion, including beliefs
and practices, a __________ religion.
A. patriarchical
B. cosmic
C. megalithic
D. ancestral
2.
Halloween, Christmas, and the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca are
contemporary instances of the survivals of elements from _____________:
A. an archaic religion
B. animism
C. shamanism
D. totemism
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3.
A.
B.
C.
D.
4.
The Japanese myth of Kojiki suggests that: __________.
archaic Japanese people did not believe in shamans.
the development of agriculture in Japan was accompanied by a sense
of religious guilt for having violated the earth.
women were the dominant hunters in archaic Japanese society.
archaic Japanese people originally worshipped a high creator god but
then moved to the worship of plants and animals.
The ritual practices of the prehistoric and tribal religions, such as the
Indian Naga, the Amazonian Jivaro, and the Bengali Khonds all suggest that the
__________.
A.
rise of agriculture was accompanied by the increasingly held belief in
the religious value of human sacrifice.
B.
rise of patriarchy was accompanied by the increasing use of feminine
seed- soil/mother-child symbolism.
C.
decline of cosmic religion was accompanied by the decline of leisure
activities such as philosophy and scholarship.
D.
rise of megalithism was accompanied by the decline of archaic
farming.
5.
A.
B.
C.
D.
The Luguru tribe of East Africa believes __________.
in patriarchal social practices.
the active involvement of the Creator in their lives.
that agriculture leads to a banishing of the gods
from human life.
the ancestral spirits are concerned with guiding
human affairs.
True/False
6.
It is not possible to extrapolate from present-day tribal religions back
to worldwide prehistoric religions because they share no commonalities across
historical epochs.
7.
Ancient cosmic religions looked to the changing of the seasons, rather
than to historical events, as the time when reality is revealed.
8.
Initiation rituals emphasize spirits of nature working through natural
processes of the human body and celebrate that which sustains the tribe as
coextensive with ultimate cosmic reality.
9.
Shamans are like priests in that they receive their positions of
religious authority after a long period of training by their human peers in the
rituals and doctrines of their religion.
16
.
10.
According to the authors, an important function of a shaman is to
reinforce popular spiritual lore.
Fill in the Blank
11.
The two basic features that characterize prehistoric religion are
___________ and __________.
12.
Menstrual blood of a woman is considered to be sacred but also
__________ for the men.
13.
The __________ were the shamanesses of ancient Japan, and are still
found today in the northern parts of the island Honshu.
14.
Agricultural religions reflected an increase in commerce due to the
products of an elaborate __________ religion.
15.
May Day, the White Lady, and the Maypole all grew out of the
ancient spring festival of __________.
Matching
Match the terms to their proper definition or example; the same term might apply to more
than one definition or example.
A. Asceticism
16.
B. Shamans
C. Deus Otiosus
D. Mitsimu
Persons singled out by the divine to receive special ecstatic powers for
dealing with spiritual things
17.
Personages with the numinous enchantment of the Divine haloing
them
18.
High god who creates the world but remains uninvolved with
humanity
19.
Religious practices involving refraining from sexual activity
20.
The Caribou Man of the Labrador Indians
Essay Questions
21.
Describe the general characteristics and practices of shamans. In your
17
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answer explain how shamans differ from priests or any other religious leaders.
22.
Discuss the reasons why some early agricultural societies produce
myths portraying the rise of agriculture as a “fall” and loss of innocence and how
this understanding differs from Hunter/Gatherer Religions.
23.
Discuss the social changes caused by the rise of agriculture. Then
explain some of the ways that these changes led to changes in religion; reflect
particularly on the cycles of the seasons and rise of the “life for death” principle.
24.
Explain how the rise of agricultural society both affirmed feminine
symbolism in religion and led to the diminishing of earlier egalitarian conceptions
of male and female social roles.
25.
Critically evaluate the following statement: “The one constant in the
transition from archaic hunter/gather practices to agricultural practices was the
role of the shaman; the shaman/shamaness simply changed names to become the
priest/priestess of ancient agricultural religions.
Answer Key for Evaluation Questions
Multiple Choice:
1. B
2. A
True/False:
6. False
7. True
8. True
3. B
4. A
9. False
5. D
10. True
Fill in the Blank:
11. non-literate; organized into small political units (tribes / clans)
12. taboo
13. miko
14. polytheistic
15. Beltane
Matching:
16. B 17. D
18. C
19. A
20. D
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