Chapter IX
1. How crucial was the role of the peasants and working classes in the outbreak of
the French Revolution? Did the lower classes gain any advantages from the
revolution?
The French revolution was fueled by the third order of the society, meaning all people
excluding the clergy and nobles, such as the working class and peasants. The national
poverty caused by the war debts that was piling on the already heavy taxations of the third
order enraged people as they perceived the inequality and injustice which they were subject
to. Although at first motivated by economic disadvantage and disparity, the movement
across from took a political turn which was led by people such as the peasants and working
class, for the same class of society–rights for every man. Although the revolution was
motivated by the economic needs of the middle and lower class, it was the middle class who
enjoyed the most benefits. However, the most significant advantage was the recognition of
equal rights of all people, which included the lower classes as well.
2. Compare and contrast the causes of the English (Glorious) Revolution and the
French Revolution. Evaluate the impact of each revolution on government,
economy, and society.
Both revolutions shared a common opposition and fight against absolute monarchy and its
means of exerting power over different aspects of the state, for English it was motivated by
limiting their power but for French it was to abolish their power. They were different in the
nature of their revolution as the English Glorious revolution was more religious-political
(catholics vs. protestants), while the French revolution was more social and then it became
socio-political (social inequality and utter inflation for the lower classes). Also, the French
revolution took place over a decade and was marked with far more brutal casualties, and
the English revolution that took place for one year. Lastly, the major impact of the English
revolution was bringing upon a constitutional monarchy–empowering the parliament–and
for the French, it was abolishing long-lasting feudalism and establishing legal equality.
3. Napoleon Bonaparte was perhaps the last and most eminent of the enlightened
despots. Compare and contrast his personal traits and political actions with those
of earlier enlightened absolutists.
Previous enlightened despots were part of the monarchy, yet he, a gallant man with ideas
far exceeding his height, was born from a minor nobility and raised to power through
military victories. Many of the previous enlightened despots were acquaintances with
enlightenment philosophes (e.g. Fredrick II and Voltaire) and used those ideas to become
somewhat western, yet Napoleon was the child of revolution and enlightenment, meaning
that he was born in a world which was already shaken by such novel ideas, and he aimed to
employ these ideas for the sake of the nation. Although they both aimed to eliminate the
noble and feudal power and created reformations in the country, it was Napoleon who
sought to codify laws to ensure legal equality for everyone and also laws for modernization
of economy and education. Also, despite both having a centralized government, the
previous rulers were more tolerant in comparison with Napoleon, who made the impossible
possible for the sake of his dreams and the nation.
4. What measures did Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety take in 1793–
94 to save the revolution? In your opinion, were these measures justified?
The measures taken by Robespierre and the committee were called The Reign of Terror,
which aimed to put an end to counterrevolutionary acts and win the war. Although
repressing the civil counterrevolutionaries, these measures signified dictatorship and
tyranny through their actions exerted by the Revolutionary courts and Committee of
General Security. As a result, many people were imprisoned and around 40,000 were killed.
The Committee of Public Safety was also established, which had a direct control over
legislation and the representatives members of the Convention, and appointed national
agents to this committee to centralize the administration. Furthermore, through levée en
masse, they called every member of the nation to serve the nation in all ways they could
(e.g. scientific innovations). They abolished slavery in the far colonies of France, granting
them rights and liberation, but also obtaining their support for repressing the
counterrevolutionaries. The law of a general maximum was set to reduce inflation and to
help with food supplies and wages. And, the cult of reason was developed through
Dechristianization, as it perceived religions as counterrevolutionaries, although later
adopted toleration of catholics.
In my opinion, firm actions in times of national restlessness are justified to grant order in the
country. However, perceiving these actions with a modern day perspective, they cannot be
justified, as they merely aimed to oppress the oppositions though inhumane means through
grand tyrannical power and perhaps acting like the kings and the system they aimed to
abolish towards their very own people.
5. The Directory (1795–1799) lasted longer than any other French revolutionary
government before Napoleon. How do you account for its powers of endurance?
What were its weaknesses?
The previous revolutionary governments were politically and militarily weak as they lacked
social bases of the day and military conquests. The new one adopted a system which
focused on military and political expansion, while restricting the politically active classes,
which restricted the concentration of power in one side. Furthermore, the weaknesses
included deceiving the elections, heavy reliance and force of the military, the growing
distrust in its legitimacy, and not resolving the economic problems
6. What were the main points of the Napoleonic codes? Did they transform French
society, or simply retrench many aspects of the Old Regime?
The main points of Napoleon codes were codes which made the state legally uniform,
granted legal equality and civil rights, formulated property and criminal rights, and banned
all labor unions and organisations. They reflected much of the old regime, with the additions
of the new accomplishments following the French revolution.
7. What were the political implications of the storming of the Bastille?
The storming of the Bastille was an important event as it led people to seize governmental
weapons stored at Bastille–a detention place for privileged convicts and storage of some
cannons, sending a direct threat to the state, especially because of the death of the
governor. Following this event, the committee formed by citizens was recognized as the
municipal government by the king, and the symbol of which was recognized through the
newly-established flag that represented people, revolution, and the sovereign nation.
8. What was the impact of the French Revolution internationally? Consider both
sympathetic and counterrevolutionary responses.
Similar to the American revolution, the French Revolution glorified the ideas of liberty and
equality, but at the same time spread fear and counterrevolutionary notions considering its
military conquests and power in the region, even being called the Jacobin. Among the
sympathetic responses, there was the Haitian revolution that led to recognition of equal
rights of men in Saint-Domingue–a French colony. The counterrevolutionary responses
included the Émigrés who emigrated France and resided in neighboring countries, such as
Britain, who promoted restoration of monarchy.
Chap X
1. The peace settlement of 1814–1815, including the Treaty of Vienna, the
treaties of Paris, and the British colonial settlement, was the most far-reaching
diplomatic agreement between 1648 and 1919. What were the major
provisions of the peace settlement?
Some of the main provisions were the return of the Bourbon dynasty, recognition of
European countries borders of to restore a balance of power and avoid another universal
monarchy, Britain gained significant colonies in South Africa, France had to accept a sort of
punishment by paying a large fine and surrendering some of its territory, and establishment
of collective meetings that would occur periodically among the leaders to solve problems.
Poland was left unattended for 100 years, and tension between Vienna and Berlin cooled
down as the attention was moving eastward.
2. How did the Napoleonic period promote the rise of nationalism?
Napoleon’s influence and military force in the region through wars and political expansions
resulted in neighboring countries’ resistance towards being annexed to the French state.
After the revolution (legal equality) and the rise of Napoleon (The Napoleonic codes), the
ideas of national identity grew among countries that built the framework for nationalism,
which highlighted the power of the nation–its people and sovereignty–while considering
France as an inspiration–motivating movements or collaborative alliances–and an opposing
force which required a nationalistic resistance.
3. Four coalitions were created to contend with Napoleonic expansionism. Why
was only the last coalition successful?
The previous coalitions were unsuccessful as they were not united unlike the last one.
Furthermore, the last coalition was able to contend with Napoleon because their actions
were militarily coordinated, considering that overthrowing him was only possible through
defeating his military, and unified through alliances across regions, which could oppose
threats from different fronts.
4. To whom did Napoleon’s reforms and policies appeal? Why?
Napoleon’s reformist ideas of equality appealed the most to those who were fond of
enlightenment ideas and were willing to experience the same course of changes in their
states for obtaining what France acquired with the rise of Napoleon, such as equality with
the nobility for all and equal economic and intellectual opportunities for wages, trades, and
businesses. In the grand empire, many of these people were among the commercial and
professional classes, meaning that they were peasants and mostly (upper) middle class
people. Furthermore, his ideas appealed to some nobles as their progressive ideas
overlapped with Napoleon’s ideas of national sovereignty, equal rights, and liberty.
To those who were part of the regime and favored it.
5. Why was Napoleon able to garner support for his anti-British agenda?
Napoleon gained others’ support through portraying the British as an enemy or the corrupt
source of problems in the region, threatening the security and prosperity of the state, and
all which was gained through the accomplishments and casualties of the revolution which
the nation was not ready to lose after their hard endeavors of gaining them. Furthermore,
he gained external support through making alliances or forcing them to accept his terms in
fighting the British. He later enhanced this by establishing a continental system, thus making
an economic warfare with the British through shutting out British goods and blocking
shipping to Britain from European ports, and requiring his allies to follow this rule.
6. Why did nationalism become a movement of resistance to Napoleon? What
aspects of the international system imposed by Napoleon did they resist?
Napoleon aimed to exert his power by assigning kings who were his own relatives to the
states which he was aiming to control. Despite being praised for revolutionary ideas against
the absolute monarchy in the past, he was becoming another force of absolutism and
oppression in the region by controlling the economic state of Europe in relation to Britain
via navy and military expansions which required full support (e.g. soldiers or money) for the
army from allies. These endeavors threatened the sovereignty and liberty of other states, as
they recognized that their own right to dictate the fate of their country was replaced by the
dictation of a more powerful state–France–which fueled opposition and national resistance.
ex) spain
7. What aspects of the French Revolution and Napoleon’s reforms did the charter
of 1814 grant to the French people?
The charter granted French people a framework which consisted of the combination of
Napoleonic reforms and accomplishments of the French revolution. These were legal
equality, property rights, freedom of religion, and legislative power over finances such as
taxations under a central government.
The Church did not get their land back.
Chap XI
1. What were the changes instituted by the Reform Bill of 1832? Why was it
considered a very English measure?
The changes made by the Reform Bill of 1832 included redistribution of seats by replacing
seats of the old boroughs with new industrial towns for more representation. Another
change was granting the middle-class men (e.g. doctors, factory owners, businessmen) the
right to vote. These legal reformations could be called very English due to how each move
towards a change was planned strategically and gradually–unlike the French–to avoid
another war which could damage the state politically and economically. By implementing
these reformations, more inclusion and representation of previously-excluded classes was
introduced while preserving the monarchy of the state, perhaps because they have learned
a good lesson from the French revolution.
Forms come gradually.
2. On what grounds did different groups defend or oppose the Corn Law? How
did its repeal come about in 1846?
The Corn laws were tariffs and trade restriction laws towards imported grains that led to an
increase in the food prices. At the time, people were grouped into the group of supporters
that were relatively wealthy aristocrats, and industrial employers with the working class.
The supporters defended this law by stating how important it was to maintain the
landowning aristocracy and how overindependence on imported food must be avoided via
maintaining an economic balance. The opposers believed that this law not only led to rising
prices of food but also the cost of industrial prices and wages which would eventually cause
more harm internally, such as poverty, and externally, as in disadvantages in exportations.
The repeal of this law, or the Anti-Corn law, led to flourishing the industry and the global
economic system in the state as free trade and low tariffs were set. However, another factor
that facilitated the occurrence of this event was the famine in Ireland–after becoming part
of the UK–which urged importations of grain.
Dealing with protectionism and imposing tariffs. Factory owners atwar with workers if those
prices went high conisdring the workers would want higher wages.
3. How did conservatism remain strong in Europe? How had conservatism
changed since the eighteenth century?
Conservatism, built upon the ideas of Burke, emphasised the importance of changes that
are initiated with the seeds of one’s own nation and tradition, while rejecting the outsider
influences of Enlightenment ideas. Furthermore, this political philosophy supported longestablished institutions in the state, such as the church and absolute monarchy, thus
opposing liberal ideas. Following the overthrow of Napoleon, conservatism was reinforced
as it allowed the resurrection of the same order that once strongly ruled the states. This was
further motivated by the fear of war and revolution which could be repressed only if their
forces were repressed by the higher classes and institutions. Since the eighteenth century,
many ideas of reformations urged this political ideology to adapt to the modern times,
meaning to shift its central focus from preserving the religious and monarchy institutions to
people and ideas of the nation.
People were still very religious.
4. What kinds of political systems did Liberals espouse? What kinds of economic
systems did they advocate?
Liberals espoused constitutional monarchy since it valued a representative government
where legislation and administration was not set by one person, but carried by elective
members, while ensuring freedom of the press and the rights of the assembly. They favored
laissez-faire capitalism that minimizes governmental control over economic affairs, and free
markets, while showing resistance towards governmental interventions in businesses.
Furthermore, they advocated freedom of trade via lowering or abolishing tariffs with the
eventual goal of increasing wealth and living standards.
Praising free market, get rid of mercantilism,
5. Why and how did Great Britain’s industrial revolution primarily involve the
textile industry?
The emergence of new series of textile inventions, especially for yarn and cotton, allowed
the process of mechanizing work which required human labor. These machines allowed
moving the work into the factories and facilitated more production of textile under less
amount of time and with less number of people, saving both time and money, considering
the high demand for these products inside and outside of Great Britain. This made the
textile industry a pivotal aspect of the industrial revolution, thus contributing to its
economy.
Clothing and textile were very important
Steam engines and other technology were created for the production of textile.
6. Why was nationalism inherently revolutionary in this age?
Nationalism encouraged preservation of one’s own national cultural and traditional
elements, such as language and history. This was further reinforced by the conception of
national spirit (Volkgeist), which highlighted that preserving one’s national culture required
one to create or preserve the independence and sovereignty of the state. This idea was
revolutionary because it emerged as a force of opposition and resistance to the states that
frequently aimed to expand their territory and power, thus eliminating the national identity
of the states and enforcing their own culture and language.
They wanted the French out, or generally because they were challenging the situation or the
status quo or power states.
7. Why did the congress system fail to make progress toward an international
order?
The congress failed to make progress towards an international order because they aimed to
preserve the current state of affairs by repressing revolutionary movements, and were not
willing to accept any new modern or transnational system for confronting social changes
and problems.
Big powers decide the most, saying that their national interests are not served by a
collective decision for others. (e.g. british saying that their navy is the biggest or huge)