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(Brooker, 2019)My urine data from lab seemed to align with the clinical ranges. My urine pH of 6.5 fits with the most normal
value of 6.0 and in the accepted range. Other substances like ketone, glucose, blood and leukocytes also came up negatively. The
only exception was in the Urobilinogen where my levels were slightly elevated, and this was most likely caused by my liver’s
inability to recycle urobilinogen but luckily my value wasn’t too far out to worry about hepatitis or cirrhosis. All other data fits
into the normal range.
Table 1. My urinalysis data
Read Time
Constituent
Reading including units
Clinical Ranges
Within Range
2 min
Leukocytes
Yes
60 sec
Nitrites
Yes
60 sec
Urobilinogen
2
0.2 – 1 mg/dL
No
60 sec
Protein
Yes
60 sec
pH
6.5
4.5 – 8.0
Yes
60 sec
Blood
Yes
45 sec
Specific Gravity
1.00
1.002 - 1.030
Yes
40 sec
Ketone
Yes
30 sec
Bilirubin
Yes
30 sec
Glucose
Yes
1.
2.
Below are tables 2 and 3 representing possible causes of an abnormal urinalysis result
Table 2. Urine Color and Possible Causes
Color
Diet
Drugs
Light yellow to amber
Clear to light yellow
normal
Increased fluid intake
none
alcohol
Yellow orange to orange
Large quantities of carrots
Antibiotics, Pyridium
Green
Red
Brown
Green food dyes
beets
Large quantities of
rhubarb, fava beans,
severe dehydration
Huge quantities of
rhubarb, excessive
sorbitol consumption
diuretics
Senna laxatives
Antipsychotic drugs,
Sennoside laxatives,
phenytoin
antidepressants
Brown to black
Disease/ Biological
factor
none
Uncontrolled diabetes
mellitus
Bilirubin from obstructive
jaundice
Biliverdin, bile pigment
Hematuria
none
Melanin pigment from
melanoma (rare)
Table 3. Abnormal Urinalysis Results and Possible Causes
Possible Causes
Low pH <6
High pH >8
Low specific gravity <1.010
High specific gravity >1.026
Glucose present
Protein present
DIET
High protein diet or cranberry juice
Diet rich in vegetables or dairy
products
Increased fluid intake
Decreased fluid intake or loss of
fluids
Large meal
High protein diet
DISEASE
Diabetic ketoacidosis
Renal tubular acidosis, Urinary
Tract Infections
Diabetes insipidus, aldosteronism
Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus or
severe anemia
Diabetes
Severe anemia
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3.
The control represents the urinalysis data of a healthy patient and patient Y’s data represents the urine of someone who probably
has diabetes. The first sign of this would be that the urine is cloudy which shows that it has sugar in it like glucose. Diabetes is
stereotyped by high levels of blood sugar so it’s appropriate to assume that the kidneys can’t properly filter out the sugar and it
comes out in the urine. Glucose level is also high in the urine which further supports the hypothesis. Patient Z seems to have
relatively healthy urine. The data is shown below.
Table 4. Patient Y and Z urinalysis data
Color at start
Glucose 30 sec
Specific gravity
pH 30 sec
Protein 30 sec
4.
Control
Clear, bright yellow
Negative
1.010
5.0
negative
Y
Cloudy, bright yellow
100
1.010
7.0
Trace
Z
Clear, bright yellow
Negative
1.020
5.0
negative
The four major excretory organs across the animal kingdom are the Protonephridia, Metanephridia, Malpighian tubules and
kidneys. Protonephridia are the tubular shaped organ that is found in organisms from several phyla, one being phylum
Platyhelminthes for example the planarian. This simple excretory system involves flame cells that act as a pump enabling cilia to
create an outward current that enables waste to be flushed out through the body surface. Metanephridia are the excretory organ
that can be found in phylum Annelida like earthworms and unlike protonephridia have no flame cells. They also have a tubular
shape and mainly work to filter out waste and reabsorb selectively the useful remainders of excretion. The Malpighian tubules are
primarily found in insects like grasshoppers, and they are composed of long thin tubes found in the hindgut. They remove waste
from metabolism from the hemolymph and release it through the anus in the form of uric acid. Kidneys are the most complex of
the excretory organs listed above and can be found in mammals like humans. They are bean shaped and carry out filtration and
reabsorption. Kidneys are made up of millions of tiny subunits called nephrons and they carry out filtration of blood under
pressure to take out waste products of metabolism. The waste products are then released in the form of urine at the end of
excretion.
5.
Uric acid is the least toxic form of nitrogenous waste from animals and had the best solubility as only 1mL of water is needed to
form 1 gram of uric acid giving a solubility of 1000g/L. Ammonia is the most toxic form of nitrogenous waste and also needs
about 500mL of water to form 1g of it giving a solubility of 2g/L. Urea is the middle ground of the two though its much closer in
toxicity to uric acid than it is to ammonia. It is much less toxic than ammonia and it takes 50ml of water to dissolve one gram of it
giving at a solubility of 20g/L.
6.
Organisms that excrete ammonia in the highest amount are usually the more aquatic animals like tadpoles (amphibians) and
turtles (reptiles). Organisms that excrete urea in the highest amount tend to be terrestrial vertebrates like humans (mammals) and
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frogs (amphibians). (Academy, 2023) Organisms that excrete uric acid in the highest amount are the terrestrial organisms that stay
in arid environments, and they include insects (arthropods) and birds (reptiles).
7.
Uric acid is the least toxic form of nitrogenous waste from animals; this means it can be kept in the body for longer periods
without harming the internal anatomy of the animal. Uric acid is the most soluble form as well as it has a solubility of 1000g/L,
this is very good for water storage and conservation as most of these organisms stay in dry environments and water may be
needed for other metabolic processes.
8.
Uric acid takes a lot of ATP (energy) to be produced compared to urea and ammonia which is a significant cost to the organism
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REFERENCES
(Jones, 2023) (JEFF A. SIMERVILLE, 2005) (Barrell, 2023) (NLM, 2024) (FACC, 2016) (Academy, 2023) (Brooker, 2019)
Bibliography
Academy, K. (2023, May 16). Khan Academy India. Retrieved from youtube.com: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o4EpWELFyQ&list=WL&index=1
Barrell, A. (2023, October 27). Medical News Today. Retrieved from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/324469
Brooker, R. J. (2019). Biology 5th Edition. In R. J. Brooker, Mc Graw Hill (pp. 1044-1047). Minnesota: McGraw Hill.
FACC. (2016, October 16). Medscape. Retrieved from Medscape.com: https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/2074001overview?form=fpf
JEFF A. SIMERVILLE, M. W. (2005). Urinalysis: A Comprehensive Review. American Family Physician, 1-3.
Jones, J. (2023, February 9). Healthline. Retrieved from Healthline.com: https://www.healthline.com/health/dark-urine#takeaway
NLM. (2024, November 25). MedLine Plus. Retrieved from National Library of Medicine: https://medlineplus.gov/labtests/urobilinogen-in-urine/