The University of New South Wales School of
Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
MATS1110 - Introduction to Materials for Engineering
Applications
Sports Car Brake Pads Materials Selection Project
Table of Contents
Executive summary...................................................................................................................................... 3
Product Context............................................................................................................................................4
Component description and functions....................................................................................................... 4
Property Requirements................................................................................................................................5
Mechanical Property Requirements.........................................................................................................5
Non-Mechanical Property Requirements................................................................................................ 5
Candidate Materials.....................................................................................................................................7
Carbon ceramic composites.....................................................................................................................7
Metal alloys............................................................................................................................................. 8
Comparison of Mechanical Properties.................................................................................................... 8
Comparison of Non-mechanical Properties.............................................................................................9
Material Sourcing and Production/Process Costs................................................................................... 10
Preferred Candidate...................................................................................................................................11
Conclusion................................................................................................................................................... 11
Appendix..................................................................................................................................................... 12
Executive summary
This report investigates the most suitable material for sports car brake pads, which endure extreme
thermal and mechanical loads during high-speed braking. Three materials were evaluated Carbon-Carbon (C/C), Carbon-Silicon Carbide (C/SiC), and Copper-Tin (Cu–Sn) alloys - based on the
brake pad’s mechanical and non-mechanical property requirements. While the Cu-Sn alloys were cheaper
and easy to manufacture, their high-density and high-thermal conductivity made them unfitting for sports
car applications. The carbon–ceramic composites demonstrated an overall better suitability, exhibiting
excellent stiffness, strength and thermal stability. C/SiC was ultimately selected as the preferred material
due to its higher oxidation temperature compared to C/C, which fell between the operating temperatures
of sports car braking systems and presented risks such as degradation of material properties and braking
failure.
Product Context
Braking pads are a critical component of a vehicle’s braking system as they are responsible for slowing
vehicles down through converting kinetic energy into heat, by using friction against brake rotors. In high
performance sports cars, brake pads operate under extreme environments as they endure intense thermal
and mechanical loads to decelerate vehicles travelling at speeds upwards of 300 km/h. These exceptional
demands make the selection of the material essential to ensure reliable, consistent and safe braking
performance. As high performance sports cars are amongst the top-end of the car market, manufacturers
and customers spare no expense for these pads in maximizing the car’s speed and handling capabilities
Component description and functions
A brake pad’s primary function within a vehicle's braking system is to slow it down by converting kinetic
energy into heat. It is composed of a ‘friction material layer’ bonded to a steel backing plate with shims
attached to minimise vibration and noise.
The friction material is the working surface that acts against the brake disc to generate friction and
braking torque. The steel backing plate provides structural support, transferring the force from hydraulic
pistons to the friction material while braking. The shims act as a buffer to accommodate the expansion
and contraction of the various metal components of the brake pad, reducing vibrations and maintaining
stability when driving [1].
During braking, hydraulic pressure pushes the pad against the rotating disc converting kinetic energy into
heat through friction at the mechanical interaction of the contact surfaces. This produces the braking
torque necessary to slow down the car but it also produces high amounts of thermal energy.
Consequently, the brake pad itself must be capable of withstanding the extreme temperatures, high loads,
and wear and tear caused by braking. Even more so in sports cars where rapid deceleration from high
speeds is expected and operating temperatures can reach the hundreds of degrees celsius.
Property Requirements
Mechanical Property Requirements
As sports cars travel at extremely high speeds, the brake pads must be able to withstand the immense
frictional forces and high temperatures generated during braking. Hence, the brake pad material must
possess sufficient yield and compressive strength to avoid plastic deformation under these braking loads.
Utilising a Porsche 911 brake test as baseline [2], a rough calculation on a high-performance sports car
with a representative weight of 1500kg [3] was conducted. Assuming deceleration from 200 km/h, the
required braking torque for each front wheel is approximately 2300 Nm [4].
Estimating the average pad contact pressure, with a pad coefficient of friction of 0.45 [5], a combined pad
area of 0.010 m2 for both sides of the disc [6], and a rotor radius of 160mm [7]. The mean contact
pressure can be expressed as:
𝑇
2300
𝑝 = µ𝐴𝑟 = 0.45×0.010×0.16 = 3. 19 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Therefore, the brake pad material must maintain a compressive strength well above 3 MPa to prevent
permanent deformation during high-load braking, with additional allowance for intense loads under
repeated high-temperatures.
Furthermore, fracture toughness is a crucial requirement for brake pads, as they undergo severe cyclical
stresses and thermal gradients, making them susceptible to surface cracks and fractures. According to
fracture mechanic principles, crack growth occurs when 𝐾 > 𝐾𝑐, where 𝐾𝑐 is the material's fracture
toughness [8]. Thus, brake pads must be made from a material with a high fracture toughness.
Similarly, as brakes will endure thousands of braking cycles in their lifespan, a material with high fatigue
strength is essential. A material with a fine-grained microstructure, high hardness and ductility would be
most suitable [9], as they hinder dislocation movement and delay fatigue crack formation.
The material should also exhibit a high elastic modulus to ensure maintained stiffness and stable frictional
contact during high load braking [10], but not high enough to make them brittle. A study conducted by the
University of Liverpool demonstrated that brake pads with a higher elastic modulus demonstrated reduced
deformation, and more consistent braking performance under extreme conditions [11]. Thus, a material
with a modulus above 100 GPa will allow structural stability and braking frictional consistency in
performance car conditions.
Non-Mechanical Property Requirements
Sports car brakes operate under extreme thermal environments with core temperatures ranging from
450ºC to 600ºC, and peak surface temperatures of 800ºC [12]. Research shows that brake pads should
have a low thermal conductivity to maintain safer caliper temperatures and stable breaking performance.
Brake pads with high thermal conductivity have also demonstrated risk to brake fluid boiling and brake
fade [13]
Furthermore, as brake pads are exposed to the external environment, oxidisation and corrosion can
significantly deteriorate braking performance. Excessive oxidisation produces thick brittle scales that
break off, whilst corrosion induces surface pitting, both compromising friction, braking consistency and
lifespan [14]. Therefore, selecting a material with corrosion and oxidisation resistance is essential.
Most importantly, brakes must possess a high coefficient of friction to ensure consistent braking
performance under both wet and dry conditions. High performance sport cars typically have brake pads
with a coefficient of friction of around 0.4-0.5 [5] to provide reliability under heavy-load braking.
Finally, a moderate density of 1.5 to 3 g/cm3 is the most optimal for a sports car to allow for a more light
weight design for improved fuel efficiency and vehicle handling, without sacrificing wear resistance.
Furthermore, studies have shown that a lower density friction material produces lower wear rates
compared to higher density materials [15].
Property Requirements GRANTA
Inputting these property requirements into GRANTA, a Fatigue strength vs Young’s modulus Ashby chart
was plotted to identify which material groups are suitable for sport car brake pads; narrowing down
potential materials.
Figure 1: Young’s Modulus vs Fatigue Strength Ashby Chart [16]
Candidate Materials
Polymers are non-ideal due to comparatively poor strength and stiffness against metals and composites.
Pure ceramics are also unfit as those classes of materials are too brittle. Metallic alloys and carbon
composites are ideal for the brake pads, due to its high Young’s modulus, high service temperatures and
fatigue properties.
Carbon ceramic composites
Suitable candidates for a brake pad would be C/SiC which is a fabrication of carbon and silicon [27], has
the mechanical properties that satisfies the criteria of the brake pads function: fracture toughness, however
the Young’s modulus is high relative to other carbides. The C/C composite, has a better fit Young’s
modulus for the components function, and displays better fatigue strength than C/SiC, but costs more.
C/SiC
C/C
Compressive strength (MPa)
112
212
Cost (USD$/kg)
1.5
10.5
Young’s Modulus (GPa)
375
160.2
4.6
5.4
1/2
Fracture Toughness (MPa 𝑚
Fatigue Strength (MPa)
)
5
100, (2 × 10 Cycles)
6
180, (2 × 10 Cycles)
Table 1: Mechanical properties of Carbon ceramics [19] [22] [29] [32] [18] [62] [63]
Metal alloys
Metal alloys also suit the conditions of the brake pads, these pure metals are alloyed together to increase
the materials overall mechanical properties. A suitable material would be a sintered bronze alloy of
principal element copper alloyed with tin and other metals (Cu-Sn) due to its typical metal mechanical
properties and excellent thermal stability and corrosion resistance.
Cu-Sn alloys
Compressive strength (MPa)
330
Cost (USD$/kg)
2.2
Young’s Modulus (GPa)
117
1/2
Fracture Toughness (MPa 𝑚
)
Fatigue Strength (MPa)
26
8
165, (10 Cycles)
Table 2: Mechanical properties of Copper-Tin alloy [17], [22], [24], [19], [21], [64]
Comparison of Mechanical Properties
Carbon composites show the highest Young’s modulus compared to the metallic compounds, C/SiC
shows very high stiffness (375 GPa), providing resistance to deformations under compression. C/C has a
6
middling Young’s modulus (160.2 GPa) and offers greater cyclic loading fatigue (180 MPa at 2 × 10
cycles) [25]. Cu-Sn alloys shows the most fatigue resistance under more cyclic loads and fracture
8
toughness (165 MPa at 10 cycles). Both C/SiC and Cu-Sn are relatively cheap to manufacture, while
C/C ceramic is more expensive due to its production processes.
Figure 2: Stress/Strain of C/SiC [24].
Figure 3: Stress/Strain of Cu/Sn alloys [33]
Figure 4: Stress/Strain of C/C [54]
Comparison of Non-mechanical Properties
Both carbon composites offer low densities compared to the copper alloy (1.52, 2.05 < 9.4), The
maximum service temperature of all materials are greater than 800-900℃ and so are all fit for the brake
pads condition. Carbon/Carbon composites however suffer from a low oxidation resistance, and can react
with oxygen above temperatures of 500℃ [37].
Cu-Sn Alloys
C/Sic
C/C
Density (g/cc)
9.4
2.05
1.52
Thermal Conductivity
(W/m×K)
111
38.89
22.722
Max Service
Temperature (℃)
935
1200
3000
Oxidation Temperature
(℃)
325
1100
500
Table 3: Thermal and oxidation properties of materials [26], [28], [31], [41].
The carbon ceramics are also chemically inert relative to the metals and so have an exceptional chemical
resistance. While bronze also offers a higher corrosion resistance than its alloying metals [46], an oxide
layer of patina can develop on the friction material [39]. This may lead to a reduced coefficient of friction
or materials loss due to constant friction removing the oxide layer to be redeveloped [30]. Bronze alloy
also arises the case of creating copper particles which can lead to pollution [28].
Material Sourcing and Production/Process Costs
Carbon-ceramic brake pads and metallic brake pads differ substantially in terms of material sourcing,
manufacturing complexity and costs.
Carbon ceramics are difficult to source and manufacturing demands a complex multi-staged process that
takes 20 days, which involves, carbon-fibre coating and fractioning, resin mixing and moulding,
infiltration and sintering processes [50]. Although there have been several technological advancements in
producing carbon-ceramic brake pads, reducing its manufacturing costs, high initial costs still remain a
constraint [55].
With limited publicly disclosed information on how expensive the production cost is, a rough estimation
of material costs can put this into perspective. Using the list of different pads shapes [6], we can calculate
that an average pad would have the dimensions of 20mm thickness, and an area 70 cm2. Using the density
of C/SiC found previously, with the average cost of this material at $1,800–$2,500/kg [52], just the
material cost alone is roughly $700 USD. The expensive initial material cost and production process,
justifies the high price tag with an average cost of $27000 USD for 4 sets of pads [56].
In contrast, metallic brake pads made with Cu-Sn alloys are manufactured through a highly automated
process which involves mixing metal powders and fibres, hot pressing, curing and scorching [60]. This
production process allows pads to be mass machined in a cost efficient manner [57]. With limited
information on Cu-Sn production costs, in general metals are more widely available and affordable than
carbon ceramics [58], these factors ultimately contribute to a cheaper general manufacturing cost (as seen
in Table 4). Thus, making it a much cheaper process than carbon-ceramic manufacturing [58].
Table 4. Various metal Costs [51]
These cheaper manufacturing costs are reflected in the pricing of Cu-Sn brake pads, with Amazon selling
one set for around $45 USD [61].
Preferred Candidate
Based on the established property requirements for sports car brake pads, C/SiC was chosen as the
preferred material. This is because it excelled in all the required material properties with compressive
strength, fatigue strength, fracture toughness, young’s modulus, oxidation temperature and thermal
conductivity.
C/SiC demonstrated better overall performance compared to Cu-Sn alloys, critically in thermal
conductivity and density, where a low thermal conductivity is preferred to prevent the risk of brake fluid
boiling and brake fade [13], and lower density allows for a lighter design. Moreover, although cheaper,
sports cars are on the high-end of the market where customers and manufacturers will spare no expense
on performance.
Although C/C composites showed stronger suitability as a brake pad material with overall better
properties than those of C/SiC. Their oxidation temperature of 500°C made them unsuitable for a sports
car braking system, which operates at much higher temperatures. This is due to oxidation causing brake
pads to “degrade their friction-wear and mechanical properties or even undergo braking failure” [59].
Thus, C/SiC was chosen as their oxidisation temperature is much greater than peak load temperatures
faced by sports car braking systems.
Conclusion
In conclusion, as brake pads are vital to the overall performance and safety of sports cars, material
requirements were identified based on their extreme operating conditions. Through research and
comparison of Carbon-ceramic composites, with C/C and C/SiC, and the Cu-Sn metal alloy, these
materials showed distinct advantages and disadvantages. While the metal alloy demonstrated more cost
efficiency in the materials and manufacturing cost, it was out performed by the carbon-ceramics in
material properties. Out of the carbon-ceramic composites, C/SiC proved to be more suitable for a sports
car brake pad due to its high oxidation temperature, despite C/C providing overall better performance.
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Kinetic energy:
1
2
𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣0
=
2
1
(1500)(55. 56 )​
2
= 2, 315, 185. 2 𝐽
Average force:
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐾/𝑠
= 2, 315, 185. 2/150
= 15, 434. 568 𝑁
Braking torque:
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 + 𝑇𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
𝑇𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 2𝑇𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑇𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 0. 6𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑟
𝑇𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡,𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 0. 3𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑟
= 0. 3 × 15, 434. 568 × 0. 5
= 2, 315. 1852 𝑁
= 2. 315 𝑁𝑚
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