Public Relations Notes (GPT)
CH1
This chapter is about understanding public relations (PR) and corporate communication, how they
have changed over time, and their role in businesses and society. The authors aim to explain both
the theory (ideas behind PR) and the practice (how PR is actually done in companies).
Key Points in Simple Terms:
1. Understanding PR and Corporate Communication
• PR and corporate communication help organisations connect with people, manage their
reputation, and share important messages.
• To understand PR today, we need to look at how it started and how it has changed over time.
2. Why History Matters
• The early days of PR shaped what it is today. Some of the rst PR strategies still in uence the
way companies communicate.
• Businesses and organisations have always needed communication, and their changing needs
have pushed PR to evolve.
3. The Role of Economic, Social, and Technological Changes
• As society, business, and technology change, PR must also adapt.
• For example, the rise of the internet and social media has transformed how companies
communicate with their audiences.
4. The Four Models of PR (from Grunig, 1984)
• The history of PR can be broken down into four stages (or models), each showing how PR has
evolved.
• These models explain di erent ways PR has been used, from simple publicity to more strategic
communication focused on building relationships.
Why This Matters
By understanding the history and evolution of PR, we can see how it continues to change and
shape the way companies and organisations communicate today.
Grunig’s four models of public relations describe how PR has evolved over time. These models
help us understand di erent ways organisations communicate with people.
Even though Grunig developed them in 1984, they are still useful today. However, modern
communication is much more complex, so these models don’t capture every detail.
Why Are These Models Important?
1) They show the history of PR, including its unethical beginnings (such as propaganda and
manipulation).
2) They help businesses choose the right communication approach for their goals.
The Four Models of PR (Grunig’s Models)
1)
Model: Press Agentry/Publicity
Main Goal: Propaganda (in uencing opinions, sometimes with false or exaggerated information)
Type of Communication: One-way (only from sender to audience, truth is not important)
How Communication Works: Sender → Receiver (no feedback)
Use of Research: Rarely used, mostly just counting audience numbers
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2)
Model: Public Information
Main Goal: Sharing truthful information with the public
Type of Communication: One-way (only from sender to audience, but truth matters)
How Communication Works: Sender → Receiver (no feedback)
Use of Research: Research is limited, mostly to check if messages are clear and e ective
3)
Model: Two-Way Asymmetric
Main Goal: Persuasion using research (in uencing audience but bene ting the sender more)
Type of Communication: Two-way (feedback exists, but communication is still unequal)
How Communication Works: Sender → Receiver ← Feedback (the sender listens but still
controls the message)
Use of Research: Research is used to understand the audience’s attitudes
4)
Model: Two-Way Symmetric
Main Goal: Mutual understanding (both sides communicate equally)
Type of Communication: Two-way (balanced communication between sender and audience)
How Communication Works: Group Group (dialogue, not just persuasion)
Use of Research: Research is used to ensure fair and e ective communication
Breaking It Down Further
1. Press Agentry/Publicity Model (Oldest and least ethical)
• Focuses on getting attention at any cost (even by lying or exaggerating).
• Example: Sensational news stories, misleading political propaganda.
2. Public Information Model
• Focuses on giving people accurate information but still doesn’t encourage feedback.
• Example: Government press releases, corporate announcements.
3. Two-Way Asymmetric Model
• Uses research to persuade people but mostly bene ts the sender (business, government, etc.).
• Example: Advertisers studying consumer behavior to sell products.
4. Two-Way Symmetric Model (Most ethical and modern)
• Encourages open dialogue where both the sender and receiver in uence each other.
• Example: Companies engaging with customers through social media, public forums.
Why This Matters
These models help us see how PR has shifted from manipulating audiences to building honest
relationships. Today, businesses aim for two-way communication to gain trust and long-term
support from the public.
This section talks about the Press Agentry/Publicity Model of public relations, which was the
earliest and least ethical form of PR. It was all about getting attention, no matter the cost, even if
that meant exaggerating or lying.
Key Features of the Press Agentry/Publicity Model
• One-way communication: Organisations send messages to the public, but they don’t care
about feedback.
• Truth isn’t important: The goal is to create excitement, not provide accurate information.
• Little to no research: PR professionals only check how widely their stories are shared, not
whether people believe or trust them.
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Origins of This Model (Mid-1800s to Late 1800s, USA)
• This approach became popular in the mid-1800s in the U.S.
• Press agents were hired to create stories to attract people to new settlements in the American
West.
• Newspapers, often funded by landowners, published exaggerated stories to make new towns
seem amazing and attract settlers.
Phineas T. Barnum – The Master of Press Agentry
• P.T. Barnum, founder of the Barnum & Bailey Circus, is the best example of this PR model.
• He believed “There’s no such thing as bad publicity”, meaning as long as people talk about
something, it’s good—even if the information is false.
• He created fake stories and invented characters to draw attention to his circus.
Examples:
• A 160-year-old woman who supposedly nursed George Washington.
• Siamese twins and a miniature man as part of his circus.
• The Cardi Giant, a fake “giant” fossil used as a publicity stunt.
PR and Advertising Were Blended
• Businesses started using newspapers not just for ads, but also for fake news articles that
promoted them.
• In Italy, this practice later became known as editorial articles.
The “Public Be Fooled” and “Public Be Damned” Era
• This period was called “The Public Be Fooled” by historian Eric Goldman (1948) because of all
the misleading information.
• Wealthy business leaders, like William Vanderbilt, believed in “The Public Be Damned”, meaning
companies didn’t care about public opinion—they just focused on making money.
Criticism and the Shift to a New PR Model
• By the late 1800s and early 1900s, people started to criticize the corruption and unethical
practices of big businesses.
• Writers and journalists exposed scandals and demanded transparency.
• This led to the rise of a more honest approach to PR, led by Ivy Lee, who is considered the rst
real PR consultant.
• His work marks the shift from Press Agentry to the Public Information Model (where truth
became important).
Why This Matters
The Press Agentry/Publicity Model shaped the early days of PR, but it was unethical and based
on manipulation. Over time, PR evolved to focus more on honesty, trust, and two-way
communication.
The Public Information Model was the second stage in the evolution of public relations. It was a
big improvement over the previous Press Agentry Model because it focused on truthful
communication rather than manipulation. However, it was still a one-way form of communication,
meaning companies provided information to the public but did not seek feedback.
Key Features of the Public Information Model
• One-way communication: Companies shared truthful information with the public but did not
listen to their opinions.
• Honesty mattered: Unlike the earlier Press Agentry model, this approach emphasised accuracy
and transparency.
• Limited research: Organisations sometimes checked if their messages were easy to read or if
people were paying attention, but they didn’t conduct deep public opinion studies.
Ivy Lee – The Father of Modern PR
The Public Information Model was introduced by Ivy L. Lee, a former journalist, in the early 1900s.
He believed companies should be honest with the public and that if the truth made them look
bad, they should change their behavior.
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• Lee’s rst big PR project: He worked for the Pennsylvania Railroad Company after a train
accident. Instead of hiding the facts, he shared full and truthful details with the press.
• Another example – The 1906 Coal Mine Strike:
• Lee advised the Coal Roads and Mine Company on how to handle a major strike.
• He sent newspapers a clear, honest statement explaining the company’s position and actions.
• His message: PR should be open, transparent, and based on facts.
• He even invited journalists to verify the information themselves.
This approach became known as “The Public Be Informed”, which replaced the earlier “The
Public Be Fooled” attitude from the Press Agentry model.
Limitations of the Public Information Model
Even though this model promoted honesty, it wasn’t interactive. Companies didn’t actively listen
to the public or use research to understand public opinion deeply. Instead, PR professionals relied
on their own intuition to guess what the public wanted.
The In uence of World War I
• After World War I, people became worried about the power of propaganda
• The U.S. government created the Committee on Public Information to study how mass
persuasion worked.
• This led to the idea that public opinion should be studied scienti cally and regulated by
authorities, setting the stage for future PR models that focused on two-way communication.
Why This Matters
The Public Information Model was a major step forward because it encouraged truth and
accountability in PR. However, it still lacked true engagement with the public. Later PR models
would evolve to include two-way communication, where companies both share information and
listen to feedback.
The Two-Way Asymmetric Model – Scienti c Persuasion
The Two-Way Asymmetric Model was developed in the 1920s and was championed by Edward L.
Bernays, who is often called the “Father of Modern Public Relations.” This model introduced the
idea that organisations should study public opinion before launching PR campaigns, but the goal
was still to persuade the public to accept the company’s message—rather than truly listening to
and adjusting based on public feedback.
Key Features of the Two-Way Asymmetric Model
• Scienti c persuasion: The main goal was to convince people to support the company’s
perspective.
• Two-way communication (but unequal): Organisations collected feedback from the public, but
only to ne-tune their messaging—not to make real changes based on public concerns.
• Research-driven: Companies studied public opinions and behaviours to make their PR
campaigns more e ective.
• Public is “understood” but not necessarily prioritised: The company focused on what people
liked about their brand and used that information to shape a positive image, rather than making
real changes to bene t the public.
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Edward L. Bernays and His In uence
• In 1922, Bernays was invited to teach the rst-ever university course on PR at New York
University.
• In 1923, he wrote Crystallising Public Opinion, a book that de ned PR and explained how it
could be used strategically.
• He introduced the idea that PR should be based on research and psychology, studying what
people think and how they behave.
• His famous quote: “The public should be understood and its needs considered.” However, the
company still controlled the narrative.
How It Worked in Practice
• Companies surveyed public opinion to see what people liked or disliked.
• They then adjusted their messaging (ads, speeches, press releases) to highlight what the public
already agreed with, rather than changing the company’s actual practices.
• PR professionals told management what the public would accept, rather than pushing for actual
change in company policies.
Limitations of the Two-Way Asymmetric Model
• Feedback was used to persuade, not to listen. Companies only studied public opinion to make
their messages more convincing.
• The company still had the upper hand. While it was better than the one-way models before it,
this approach was still imbalanced in favour of the company rather than truly addressing public
concerns.
• Real engagement was missing. Organisations did not truly collaborate with the public or make
signi cant changes based on their needs.
Why This Matters
The Two-Way Asymmetric Model was an improvement because it introduced research and
audience analysis into PR. However, it was still about manipulating rather than collaborating with
the public. A more ethical and balanced approach—the Two-Way Symmetric Model—would come
next.
The Two-Way Symmetric Model – Mutual Understanding
The Two-Way Symmetric Model is the most ethical and balanced approach to public relations.
Unlike previous models that focused on manipulating or persuading the public, this model
promotes open dialogue and mutual understanding between an organisation and its audience.
Key Features of the Two-Way Symmetric Model
• Goal: Mutual Understanding → The organisation and the public both in uence each other and
adapt.
• Two-way communication (balanced) → Instead of a one-sided message, this model
encourages dialogue, where both sides listen and change.
• Public Relations as a mediator → PR professionals act as a bridge between the organisation
and the public, helping both parties understand each other better.
• Research-driven → Research is used not just to persuade the public, but to understand their
opinions and improve relationships.
How Is This Di erent from the Two-Way Asymmetric Model?
Two-Way Asymmetric
Organisation’s interests come rst
Communication is two-way, but biased towards the organisation
The organisation listens to the public, but only to persuade them
Example: A company surveys customers to see what they like, then promotes only those aspects
Two-Way Symmetric
Interests of both the organisation and the public are balanced
Communication is two-way and equal
The organisation listens to the public and is willing to change
Example: A company surveys customers and makes real changes based on their concerns
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Origins & Importance
• This model became popular in the 1950s but doesn’t have a single creator, unlike previous
models.
• Scholars like Cutlip and Center (authors of E ective Public Relations, 1952) helped develop it.
• James E. Grunig later formalised the concept, explaining that true public relations should
involve negotiation, compromise, and dialogue.
How Does It Work in Practice?
• Instead of just pushing a message, companies ask for public input and make real changes.
For example:
• A company facing criticism for environmental impact doesn’t just defend itself (asymmetrical).
Instead, it engages with activists, listens to concerns, and changes policies (symmetrical).
• A business receives negative reviews about a product and actually improves it instead of just
launching an ad campaign to convince people otherwise.
Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Communication on Social Media
Asymmetric use: A company posts on Facebook and replies to comments only to persuade
people to agree with them.
Symmetric use: A company uses social media to ask for feedback, engage in real discussions,
and adjust policies based on public concerns.
Why This Model Matters
• It represents the most ethical and e ective way for organisations to communicate.
• It builds trust, long-term relationships, and credibility with the public.
• It moves PR beyond manipulation and towards genuine engagement.
This model is seen as the ideal approach to PR, though in reality, many organisations still struggle
to fully adopt it.
History of Public Relations in Italy – A Simple Overview
Public relations (PR) in Italy developed much later than in the United States. While PR in the U.S.
started in the early 1900s, in Italy, it o cially began around 1943, during World War II.
Three Main Phases of PR Development in Italy
1. First Phase (1943 – mid-1950s): The Beginning
• PR work was mostly a mix of press o ce activities and lobbying (in uencing decision-makers).
• The rst PR professionals in Italy were recruited by the Allied troops during World War II.
• Big foreign companies like Esso and BP (British and American) started using PR in Italy.
• Some Italian companies like Eni, Fiat, Enel, and Olivetti also began PR e orts.
2. Second Phase (1955 – 1970): PR Agencies Emerge
• Many small PR agencies were created in Italy.
• At rst, these agencies focused mostly on event planning (lunches and receptions) rather than
true PR strategies.
• In 1961, Aldo Chiappe founded one of the rst real PR agencies in Italy.
• During this time, PR was mainly seen as a support tool for advertising and marketing, not a
separate profession.
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3. Third Phase (1970s – Today): PR Becomes a Profession
• PR became a recognized profession with dedicated associations and institutions.
• 1970: FERPI (Federazione delle Relazioni Pubbliche Italiana) was founded to support PR
professionals.
• Mid-1970s: ISFORP (Training Institute of Public Relations) was established.
• 1982: ASSOREL (Association of Public Relations Agencies) was created, o ering a full range of
PR services.
• 2020: ASSOREL merged into UNA (United Communication Companies), forming a stronger PR
industry group.
Growth of PR in Italy (1980s – Today)
PR expanded rapidly in the 1980s and 1990s, specialising in di erent industries:
• Cultural sponsorships (e.g., funding art and culture events)
• Fashion PR (helping Italian fashion brands gain global recognition)
• Public communication (government and institutional PR)
• 1992: The rst university course in PR started at IULM University in Milan.
• Since the 2000s, PR has had ups and downs in investment but remains a key industry.
• In the last decade, PR has grown again, focusing more on building relationships and engaging
with the public rather than just media management.
Conclusion
PR in Italy started late but grew into a professional eld by the 1970s. Today, it is an important
industry, with a focus on relationships, audience engagement, and strategic communication.
Current Trends in Public Relations – A Simple Overview
Since the 1990s, communication has become more important for businesses. It is no longer just
about creating a good image—it has become a key part of managing a company and making
strategic decisions (Golinelli, 1991).
Why Communication is Now Essential in Business
• In the past, PR and communication were only support tools for branding.
• Today, they are essential for business success and organisational management.
• A company is now seen as a network of relationships, and communication manages and
strengthens those relationships.
Three Key Changes in Public Relations Today
1.
New Theories and Concepts
• The way we think about communication and public relations has changed.
• PR is now more connected to economic and organisational strategies, not just marketing.
2.
Bigger Role in Business Strategy
• PR professionals are now involved in decision-making and company governance.
• Companies use PR to build trust, manage reputation, and handle crises.
3.
New Skills and Training for PR Professionals
• PR professionals need new skills beyond traditional communication.
• Training now includes strategic planning, digital media, crisis management, and analytics.
Why This is Important
• Studies in Europe (EUPRERA), the U.S. (USC Center for Public Relations), and Italy (IULM
University) show that PR is becoming more strategic.
• In Italy, this change has been very fast compared to English-speaking countries.
• Understanding these trends helps businesses and PR professionals stay competitive.
Conclusion
PR has evolved from a basic marketing tool to a key part of business strategy. Companies now
see communication as essential for managing relationships, making decisions, and ensuring longterm success.
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Theoretical and Conceptual Changes in Public Relations – A Simple Overview
Over time, public relations (PR) and corporate communication have developed into serious
academic disciplines, with their own theories, research, and professional organizations (Ihlen, Van
Ruler, 2007). PR has evolved by borrowing ideas from communication, economics, management,
sociology, and psychology (Botan & Hazleton, 2006).
PR vs. Corporate Communication – What’s the Di erence?
• Public Relations (PR) focuses on building and maintaining relationships with di erent audiences.
It looks at how organizations can connect with people in meaningful ways.
• Corporate Communication is about ensuring consistent messaging across all channels. It
focuses on managing a company’s identity, reputation, and overall communication strategy.
• Even though there are some di erences, both PR and corporate communication share the same
goal: Building and protecting the organization’s reputation while maintaining its unique identity.
The Excellence Theory – A Key PR Model
One of the most important theories in PR is the Excellence Theory (Grunig, Grunig, Dozier, 2002).
It explains how organizations can manage communication e ectively. The theory has six key
principles:
1) PR should be a key part of business strategy
• PR professionals should have a seat at the table when decisions are made.
2) PR has four main roles:
• Managerial (strategy and planning)
• Consultancy (advising organizations)
• Technical (writing, designing, creating content)
• Media Relations (handling the press and media).
3) PR should be managed as a single, uni ed department
• There should be one PR team overseeing all company communication.
4) The best PR model is the Two-way symmetric model
• Organizations should listen to their audiences and be willing to change based on feedback.
5) PR should be strategic, not just tactical
• Research and analysis should be used to plan PR campaigns e ectively.
6) Great PR organizations share ve characteristics:
• Open communication culture (employees are involved and valued)
• Balanced communication with audiences
• Flexible structure (not overly bureaucratic)
• Equal opportunities for all employees
• Satis ed employees who believe in the company
Key PR Concepts
In the next sections, three important PR concepts will be discussed:
1.
Publics – The di erent groups PR professionals communicate with.
2.
Relationships – How organisations build and maintain trust with their audiences.
3.
Image, Reputation, and Identity – How companies shape their public perception.
These concepts are crucial because they help organisations build stronger connections with their
audiences and maintain a positive public image.
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The Concept of Publics – Simple Explanation
One important idea in public relations (PR) is understanding the di erence between stakeholders
and publics.
Here’s the breakdown:
• Stakeholders are anyone who has an interest in an organisation and can be a ected by its
actions or decisions. This can include employees, customers, investors, suppliers, media, and
even the local community.
• Publics are a speci c group of stakeholders who have a common issue or concern with the
organisation. A stakeholder only becomes a public when a problem or issue connects them to
the organisation. For example, McDonald’s customers might become a public if they are
concerned about health issues like obesity and want healthier food options.
Situational Theory of Publics – How People React to Problems
A key theory by Grunig from the 1960s is the Situational Theory of Publics, which explains how
people decide to act or communicate when faced with an issue. It focuses on how people search
for information and act based on problems, rather than just reacting to messages (like cognitive
dissonance theory suggests).
There are three key factors that explain how people behave in relation to an issue:
1. Problem Recognition
• Do people recognize the problem? Are they aware that something needs to be xed or
addressed?
2. Level of Involvement
• How much does the problem personally matter to them? Do they feel personally impacted by
the issue?
3. Constraint Recognition
• Are there things that stop them from solving the problem? This could be practical limitations or
psychological barriers.
Communication Behaviour – Active vs Passive
There are also two key types of communication behaviour that describe how people deal with
problems:
1. Active Communication
• People actively search for information about the issue and are willing to engage in e orts to
solve it.
2. Passive Communication
• People might not actively search for information but could still be a ected or passively process
information about the issue.
How This Helps PR – Segmenting Publics
Using the Situational Theory of Publics, PR professionals can group audiences into di erent
categories based on their responses to issues:
Active Publics – Those who are highly involved, seeking information and willing to take action.
Passive Publics – Those who are less involved and don’t take much action.
Latent Publics – Those who are unaware of an issue but could become active once they
recognise the problem.
This theory helps PR professionals choose the best messages and strategies to reach di erent
groups of people based on how they react to issues.
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The Concept of Relationship in Public Relations – Simple Explanation
In public relations (PR), building and maintaining good relationships between an organisation and
its audiences (or publics) is central. This is the main goal of PR: creating and nurturing positive
relationships.
Why Relationships Matter
• Ledingham and Bruning (2003) say that strong relationships between an organisation and its
publics, built on shared interests and goals, lead to mutual understanding and bene ts. The
better the relationship, the more e ective the PR e orts.
• PR professionals are tasked with managing and improving these relationships. Their success is
measured by how well they manage the quality of these connections over time.
Dialogue and Communication
• Kent and Taylor (2002) emphasize that the best relationships are built on dialogue, where both
sides communicate openly and ethically. It’s not just about using communication as a tool to
achieve your goals but treating the other side as an equal partner in the conversation.
• Dialogue in PR isn’t just a technique—it’s an ethical approach to communication where both
sides genuinely listen to each other and try to understand the other’s point of view.
Eleven Strategies for Building Strong Relationships
PR professionals use several strategies to improve and maintain these relationships with their
audiences. Here are 11 strategies that can be used to build better relationships:
1) Access
• Give people (publics or opinion leaders) access to information and decision-making processes
in the organisation.
2) Positivity
• Make sure to keep a respectful, listening-oriented climate that improves satisfaction and trust.
3) Openness
• Be transparent and willing to discuss di erent topics openly and directly with stakeholders.
4) Legitimacy
• Show commitment to maintaining the relationship for the long term and demonstrate reliability.
•
5) Networking
• Build networks of relationships and alliances, including with groups that share common
interests.
6) Sharing Tasks
• Involve stakeholders in managing and discussing important issues related to the organisation.
7) Dual Concern
• Aim to balance the needs and interests of the organisation with those of the stakeholders.
8) Cooperation
• Always look for mutual bene ts and ways to work together for a win-win outcome.
9) Being Unconditionally Constructive
• Be open to adjusting the organisation’s behaviour to meet the stakeholders’ needs.
10) Win-Win or No Deal
• Only enter into agreements that bene t both parties. If mutual bene t can’t be achieved, avoid
making a deal.
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11) Keeping Promises
• Always follow through on commitments to build trust and credibility with stakeholders.
Summary
The key idea is that public relations is about relationships. It’s not just about managing messages
but about creating strong, lasting relationships through ethical, two-way communication. PR
professionals use speci c strategies to ensure these relationships stay positive and bene cial for
both the organisation and its publics.
Image vs. Reputation in Public Relations – Simple Explanation
In recent years, the goal of communication in public relations has shifted from just building a
company’s image to strengthening its reputation. Let’s break down the di erence between image
and reputation.
Image:
• Image refers to how a company appears to the public. It’s about the external aspects and can
be changed or in uenced quickly. For example, a company can use advertising or PR
campaigns to make itself look good, even if things aren’t actually that great internally.
• Image can be manipulated (like through spin-doctoring), which is when information is twisted to
make the company seem better than it really is.
Reputation:
• Reputation is more lasting and based on the company’s real actions over time. It can’t be easily
changed like image can. If a company does something bad, it can lose its reputation, but it
takes a long time and consistent e ort to improve it again.
• Reputation is built on behavior, actions, and history of the company. A company’s reputation
re ects what it has done, not just how it appears.
Why the Shift from Image to Reputation?
• Public relations now focus more on managing reputation because it is a more authentic
re ection of a company. In the past, PR might have tried to make a company look good by
improving its image, but now it’s about showing the true, consistent behavior of the organization
over time.
• This shift means communication strategies are now focused on building strong, long-term
relationships with stakeholders (like employees, customers, investors, etc.) instead of just
promoting a positive image through ads or media campaigns.
Building Reputation through Relationships:
• E ective communication today isn’t just about sending out messages. It’s about creating and
nurturing relationships with stakeholders. Good relationships are genuine and based on actions.
If a company says something but doesn’t follow through with actions, its reputation will su er.
• Reputation is strengthened by consistent, meaningful relationships with both internal
(employees, managers) and external stakeholders (customers, suppliers, the public). These
relationships should be grounded in honesty, trust, and shared goals.
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The Role of Communication in Reputation:
• Communication professionals, especially communication managers, now play a strategic role in
shaping the company’s actions and its reputation. They work alongside other managers in the
company to ensure that the organization’s values, culture, and actions align with what the public
expects.
• Authenticity is key. Communication strategies need to re ect the company’s identity, which
includes its core values and distinctive personality.
Summary:
• Image can be quickly changed and manipulated, but reputation is built over time through real
actions and consistent behavior.
• Today, public relations is more focused on managing a company’s reputation by building
genuine relationships with stakeholders, rather than just focusing on creating a good image
through campaigns.
• Good communication in organizations helps build and strengthen reputation by aligning actions
with values, maintaining trust, and creating long-lasting relationships.
Changes in the Role of Communication in Organizations – Simple Explanation
Over the last few decades, the role of public relations (PR) and communication in companies has
undergone signi cant changes. These changes re ect how the communication function has
become more integrated into the overall management of organizations.
How Communication Has Evolved:
1. Old vs. New Communication Structure:
• In the past, communication tasks were separated into di erent units. For example, media
relations (dealing with the press) and event management (organizing events) were handled by
di erent teams, each focusing on speci c tasks.ù
• Today, communication activities are carried out by a single integrated unit. This unit manages all
communication e orts in a coordinated way, rather than dividing tasks into isolated parts. This
approach ensures that everything works together smoothly.
2. Strategic Importance of Communication:
• In many companies, the Communication Department now directly reports to the General
Manager and is part of the Executive Committee. This means that the communication director
(head of communication) is now involved in strategic decision-making alongside other top
executives like nance or sales directors.
• This change gives communication professionals a more signi cant role in shaping company
strategies, policies, and actions.
3. The Role of the Communication Director:
• The communication director is part of what’s called the “dominant coalition,” meaning they are
one of the key decision-makers in the company.
• The director of communication can now have two types of in uence:
• Advisory In uence: When the management team values and acts on the communication
department’s advice.
• Executive In uence: When the communication director is invited to participate in meetings with
the top executives to discuss and shape company strategies.
Types of Communication Services:
1. Basic Services:
• These include traditional tasks like media relations (working with journalists) and event
management (organising events for the company).
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2. Specialised Services:
• These are more speci c areas of communication, such as:
• CSR Communication (Corporate Social Responsibility, like environmental or charity e orts),
• Public A airs (managing relationships with government or other in uential groups),
• Crisis Communication (dealing with negative situations that could harm the company),
•
Internal Communication (communicating within the company),
•
Marketing Communication (promoting products and services),
•
International Communication (managing communication across countries).
3. Managerial Activities:
• These focus on planning, managing, and evaluating communication activities. It’s about
coordinating e orts, tracking results, and ensuring communication e orts align with company
goals.
4. Strategic Activities:
• In this role, the communication team helps top management de ne how communication will
play a part in the company’s overall strategies and operations. It includes making sure that
communication supports both internal stakeholders (employees, managers) and external
stakeholders (customers, media).
Communication’s Role in Reputation:
• Communication is not just about spreading information. It’s about ensuring that all the
company’s actions are consistent with its values and goals, which helps build and strengthen
the company’s reputation.
• Public relations today plays a much more strategic role. It’s integrated into the company’s
overall management, and communication professionals are directly involved in shaping key
decisions that a ect the company’s long-term success and its reputation.
Summary:
• In the past, communication tasks were divided into separate teams, but now everything is
handled by one integrated department.
• Communication professionals are now part of the company’s top decision-making team, making
them key players in shaping business strategies.
• Communication e orts are more specialised and strategic, helping to build the company’s
reputation and align with broader corporate goals.
Changes in the Skills of Communication and PR Professionals – Simple Explanation
Over the years, the role of public relations (PR) and communication professionals has changed a
lot. In the past, these professionals mainly focused on technical tasks like handling media
relations (working with journalists) and organising events. But today, their roles have expanded
and become more complex.
Here are the main changes in the skills and roles of communication professionals:
1. Technical-Specialist Role:
• This is the traditional role of a PR professional, which involves tasks like media relations,
organising events, and handling sponsorships.
• Today, this role has expanded to include more specialised and complex tasks, like:
• Crisis communication: Managing communication during di cult or negative situations.
• Corporate social responsibility (CSR) communication: Promoting a company’s e orts to be
socially and environmentally responsible.
• Environmental communication: Sharing the company’s e orts to protect the environment.
• Internal communication: Ensuring that employees within the company receive clear and
consistent messages.
2. Consultancy and Training Role:
• In addition to the technical tasks, PR professionals now often take on the role of advisors and
trainers.
• Consultancy: They provide advice to other departments in the company on how to handle
communication and public relations.
• Training: They help employees improve their communication skills, especially in terms of
interacting with others and building strong relationships within the company.
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3. Managerial Role:
• Communication professionals also take on managerial responsibilities, meaning they are now
involved in the management and coordination of all communication activities.
• Planning: They create strategies to ensure that communication supports company goals.
• Control and Monitoring: They track the e ectiveness of communication e orts to ensure that
• This managerial role requires them to use various tools and techniques to measure the success
of communication activities and ensure everything is aligned with the organisation’s goals.
4. The Role According to the Bled Manifesto:
• The Bled Manifesto (a document from communication experts) highlights the four main roles PR
professionals now play:
1. Technical-Specialist: Handling media relations, events, and specialised communication
activities like crisis management or CSR communication.
2. Consultancy-Training: O ering advice to other departments and training employees in
communication skills.
3. Managerial: Managing and overseeing all communication e orts within the organisation.
4. Strategic Communication: Using their expertise to help the company achieve its objectives
and improve its reputation.
Summary:
• PR professionals are no longer just communication technicians. Their role has expanded to
include advising other departments, managing communication strategies, and even helping train
employees in communication skills.
• They play a key part in the strategic management of the company, using their skills to ensure
communication supports the company’s success and reputation.
The OASIS Method for Designing and Planning Communication – Simple Explanation
The OASIS method is a guide used by communication professionals to plan and organise
communication activities. It includes ve phases: Objectives, Audience/Insight, Strategy/Ideas,
Implementation, and Evaluation. Here’s a breakdown of each phase:
1. De nition of Objectives:
• What is this? This is the rst step where you de ne what the communication plan aims to
achieve.
• How to do it? Use the SMART method:
• Speci c: The goal should be clear and focused.
• Measurable: The goal should be measurable so you can track progress.
• Achievable: The goal should be realistic.
• Relevant: The goal should be meaningful for the organisation.
• Timely: The goal should have a deadline.
2. Audience Identi cation and Scenario Analysis:
• What is this? Once you know your objectives, you need to gure out who your target audience
is and understand the environment in which you’re operating.
• How to do it?
• Audience Segmentation: You can group your audience using two methods:
• Power-Interest Matrix: You look at how much power (in uence) and interest stakeholders have
in the communication plan.
• Low Power, Low Interest: Minimal communication e ort.
• High Power, Low Interest: Involve them more.
• Low Power, High Interest: Consult them.
• High Power, High Interest: Engage with them closely.
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• Situational Theory of Publics: Classify your audience based on their awareness and
involvement in the issue:
• Latent Publics: Don’t know they have a problem and are not involved.
• Passive Publics: Know the problem but are not involved.
• Active Publics: Know the problem, are involved, and want to help solve it.
• Scenario Analysis: Understand external and internal factors that might a ect the plan using
tools like:
• PEST Analysis: Looks at Political, Economic, Social, and Technological factors.
• SWOT Analysis: Analyses the company’s Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats.
3. Formulation of Communication Strategies and Ideas:
• What is this? Based on what you’ve learned about the audience and the situation, you now
decide how to approach the communication.
• How to do it?
• Message Creation: Decide on the key message to communicate. It can be:
• Rational: Based on facts or evidence.
• Emotional: Aimed at feelings, values, or opinions.
• Choose a Strategy: Decide how to communicate the message. Some strategies include:
• Informative: Present facts clearly.
• Facilitative: Make it easy for the audience to act.
• Persuasive: Use selective language to in uence the audience.
• Coercive: Use threats or rewards to push action.
• Cooperative: Encourage collaboration to solve a problem.
4. Implementation of Tactics:
• What is this? This is when you choose the speci c actions, tools, and methods to carry out your
plan.
• How to do it?
• Media Relations: Press conferences, press releases, interviews.
• Events: Special events, trade shows, fundraising.
• Customer Relations: Direct mail, newsletters, sponsorships.
• Internal Communication: Emails, meetings, intranet.
• Corporate Identity: Logos, publications, company websites.
• Financial Reports: Annual reports, website updates, brie ng materials.
5. Evaluation of the Results:
• What is this? After the communication plan is implemented, you need to check how well it
worked.
• How to do it?
• Formative Evaluation: Check if the plan was e cient and well-executed.
• Summative Evaluation: See if the plan improved the company’s reputation or relationships.
• Accountability Evaluation: Measure if the plan helped the company’s business performance
(sales, growth, etc.).
In Summary:
The OASIS method is a structured approach to planning communication activities. It helps
communication professionals set clear goals, identify the right audience, develop a strategy,
execute the plan using the right tools, and evaluate its e ectiveness. This method ensures that
communication activities are strategic and aligned with the organization’s goals.
This text talks about the evolving role of the Communication Director (often called the Chief
Communication O cer, or CCO) within organizations and how communication is becoming more
strategically important in both business and societal contexts.
1. Strategic-Re ective Role:
• Communication is no longer just about sending messages or managing media. It’s about being
part of the executive team that helps de ne the company’s overall strategies.
• The “re ective” part means listening to and understanding the views, values, and expectations
of the company’s stakeholders (like customers, employees, and society). This allows the
company to stay in tune with what people care about, so the business strategy aligns with these
social and cultural shifts.
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2. Institutionalization Theory:
• This theory says that organizations should evolve to match the social and cultural values of the
society in which they operate. Communication helps ensure this by re ecting societal values
and guiding the organization to act in ways that are consistent with these values.
3. Entrepreneurial Organization Theory (EOT):
• However, there’s also the idea that companies need to stand out and be innovative to succeed,
not just blend in with society. The Entrepreneurial Organization Theory says companies need to
focus on innovation, creating distinctive resources, and constantly improving. Communication
helps with this too by driving innovation and making sure the company di erentiates itself in a
competitive market.
4. The Role of Communication in Innovation and Strategy:
• Research has shown that successful companies like Ferrari, Illyca è, and others use
communication as a key driver of innovation and entrepreneurial development. This means
communication is not just about re ecting society, but also about helping the company innovate
and lead in its industry.
5. The Entrepreneurial Communication Paradigm:
• This is a new model where communication plays a role in four main areas that help a company
grow and succeed:
• Aligning: This is about analyzing the external environment (what’s going on outside the
company) and building strong relationships with key stakeholders.
• Energizing: Communication helps motivate the company and its partners to focus on
innovation and work together.
• Visioning: Communication helps de ne and share the company’s mission and strategies,
ensuring everyone is working towards the same goals.
• Constituting: Communication activates a competitive climate inside the company, helping
people understand the meaning behind corporate decisions.
6. Entrepreneurs and Top Managers in Charge of Communication:
• There’s a shift happening where entrepreneurs and top managers (not just communication
directors) are starting to use communication as a key tool when making important business
decisions, alongside other traditional areas like marketing or nance.
In short, communication is no longer just about managing messages or public relations. It is
increasingly a strategic tool that helps shape business strategies, drive innovation, and keep
companies aligned with social and cultural changes while also helping them stand out in a
competitive market.
The text suggests that communication is becoming a key factor in helping businesses succeed.
It’s not just about public relations or marketing anymore—communication has become an
important tool for making decisions and guiding companies.
1. Strategic Importance of Communication:
• Communication plays a strategic role in the success of businesses. This means that it is used in
a planned and thoughtful way to help businesses achieve their goals.
2. Supporting “Isomorphism” (Alignment with Society’s Values):
• Research shows that when businesses use communication e ectively, it helps them align with
the dominant values in society. This is called isomorphism, meaning that the company becomes
more similar to the values, norms, and expectations of the environment in which it operates.
Essentially, businesses need to make sure they t in with what society expects from them.
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3. Di erentiating from Competitors:
• At the same time, communication also plays a crucial role in helping a company stand out from
its competitors. It’s not just about tting in; it’s about di erentiation—making sure the company
is unique and o ers something di erent or better than others in the market.
4. Entrepreneurial Communication:
• Entrepreneurial Communication is the term used to describe how communication helps in the
decision-making processes that are critical for a company’s success. It supports leadership and
business strategies, helping businesses innovate and remain competitive.
In short, communication is becoming a strategic tool for businesses, helping them both t into
society and stand out from competitors. It plays an important role in decision-making processes
that are vital for success.
1. Communication is Evolving in Companies:
• Since the 1990s, the role of corporate communication (PR) has changed a lot. Companies now
need communication to be more strategic, meaning it’s not just about managing messages
anymore, but also about supporting the company’s goals and considering stakeholder
expectations (like customers, employees, etc.).
• Communication has become an important part of company leadership, in uencing business
strategy and daily operations. It’s about helping the company achieve its goals in a way that
aligns with what people expect.
2. Moving Beyond Image Building:
• In the past, communication was mostly about building the company’s image. Now, it’s more
about managing the company’s reputation, which includes its actions, behaviour, and how it is
seen by others.
• Communication now also covers corporate social responsibility (things like environmental
impact, social ethics) and strategic decision-making.
3. Three Ways Communication A ects a Company’s Reputation:
• In uencing Company Strategy and Behaviour: Communication professionals are now part of
the company’s top leadership, helping to shape the company’s strategies. This includes
decisions on products, services, production processes, and how the company interacts with
both employees and the outside world.
• Managing Relationships and In uencing Actions: PR professionals help manage
relationships with both internal (employees) and external (customers, partners) stakeholders.
They spread the company’s key messages through things like social media and word-of-mouth.
They also train employees and others to act in ways that align with the company’s values and
ethics.
• Strengthening and Consistency of Messages: Communication experts also help to reinforce
the company’s core messages (its mission, values, etc.). This includes activities like organizing
events, managing media relations, and environmental communication. These activities now
focus on ethically grounded values and aligning with the company’s actual behavior, rather than
manipulating public perception.
4. Communication is Becoming More Strategic:
• Overall, communication is growing more important and strategic in companies. It now plays a
key role in setting objectives, guiding decision-making, and shaping corporate behavior to make
sure it aligns with the company’s mission and values.
• As communication professionals take on more managerial and strategic responsibilities, their
work is essential for building and maintaining a strong reputation. A solid reputation is crucial for
a company’s long-term success and stability.
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In short, the role of communication (PR) in companies has shifted from just managing public
relations to becoming a key part of strategic decision-making. Communication now helps guide a
company’s overall direction, build strong relationships with stakeholders, and ensure that the
company’s actions align with its mission and values, ultimately strengthening its reputation and
success.
CH2
The Relationship Between Ethics and Economics:
• The link between ethics (what’s morally right) and economics (how money is made and
distributed) has always been complicated. Ancient Greek philosopher Plato had mixed views: on
one hand, the market (where goods are bought and sold) is important for meeting human needs
and building society, but on the other hand, it can also lead to corruption and inequality.
• In modern capitalism, this con ict grows bigger. While the economy has improved people’s
living standards, there are growing concerns about the huge di erences in wealth and how
businesses harm the environment.
2. Social Responsibility:
• Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is an attempt to x this problem. It’s a way for businesses
to balance their pro ts with doing good for society and addressing the harm caused by their
operations.
• For example: companies like Enron (in the US) and Parmalat (in Italy) were involved in huge
scandals where they went bankrupt because of dishonest behavior by their leaders. These
scandals highlight the need for businesses to act ethically.
3. CSR and Communication:
• CSR is very important for a company’s public image. A company that focuses on CSR can build
trust and credibility with the public.
• In 2019, the Business Roundtable, a group of major global business leaders, released a
statement about the purpose of companies. This statement emphasized that companies should
care about not just their shareholders (the people who own them) but also their stakeholders
(everyone a ected by the company, like employees, customers, suppliers, and local
communities).
• This statement suggests that businesses should focus on long-term bene ts instead of only
short-term pro ts, which can lead to harm to society and the environment. The statement also
highlighted values like dignity, sustainability, diversity, inclusion, and respect.
4. The Controversy Around CSR:
• The statement caused a lot of debate. Some people felt it was hypocritical because the big
wage gap between employees wasn’t addressed, and others were skeptical about whether
companies would actually follow these principles.
• However, the statement showed a shift in how businesses think about their purpose. In the past,
the Business Roundtable said a company’s main goal was to make money for its owners, but
now it’s about creating value for all stakeholders.
5. CSR in Practice:
• In the rest of the chapter, CSR is explained in more detail, looking at the theory behind it, how
it’s di erent from things like philanthropy (donating money) or cause-related marketing
(marketing that supports social causes), and some of the challenges that come with CSR.
• The second part of the chapter focuses on how public relations (PR) professionals can manage
CSR e orts e ectively and communicate them to the public.
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In summary, CSR is about companies being responsible and ethical, not just focusing on making
money. It’s about caring for everyone a ected by the company and balancing pro t with social
good. However, it also brings challenges in terms of consistency between a company’s message
and its actions.
1. What CSR is and its Importance for PR Professionals:
• Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is when companies act responsibly and think about the
impact they have on society and the environment.
There are two main goals for CSR:
• Preventive goals: Companies work to x or reduce the negative e ects their operations have,
like pollution or resource depletion.
• Generative goals: Companies build positive relationships, both internally (with employees) and
externally (with the community or other organizations). This involves creating partnerships that
bene t both sides, even if there’s no immediate nancial gain.
• (Public Relations) plays a crucial role in helping companies manage and communicate their CSR
e orts. PR professionals help develop relationships and communicate the company’s actions to
the public.
2. The Issue of “Greenwashing”:
• Greenwashing happens when a company tries to appear environmentally friendly, but in reality,
it’s not taking any real action. For example, a hotel might ask guests to reuse towels for
“environmental reasons,” but really, it’s just a way to save money.
• Companies can use greenwashing as a PR tactic to make themselves look good, but it doesn’t
actually help the environment. In fact, it can damage the reputation of CSR, especially if
companies are caught in dishonest practices.
• A famous case of greenwashing was Volkswagen, which was caught cheating on emissions
tests, pretending its cars were environmentally friendly when they weren’t. This caused a huge
reputational crisis for the company.
3. The Relationship Between CSR and PR:
• For CSR to be e ective, it needs good PR. Bad PR (like greenwashing) makes CSR look fake
and harms both the company and the public’s trust.
• A good PR strategy can help build real relationships with the community and other stakeholders
(like customers and employees). PR professionals are skilled at identifying the right people to
communicate with (called stakeholders) and nding ways to engage them.
• PR helps make sure that a company’s CSR actions are communicated clearly and are seen as
authentic. Without good PR, CSR e orts can fail because people might not believe the
company is genuinely committed.
4. The Challenge for PR Professionals:
• PR professionals face challenges when communicating CSR e orts. Sometimes companies talk
about their CSR goals but don’t really act on them. For example, some companies put a lot of
e ort into writing social reports about their CSR activities, but the actual impact might be
minimal.
• PR professionals need to make sure that CSR communications don’t just sound good but are
also backed up by real actions. It’s important that PR is not just about saying the right words
but also showing the company is genuinely committed to making a positive di erence.
• The company Prada Group mentioned that talking about sustainability (like environmental
responsibility) is di cult. It’s not just about saying “we’re doing good things” – it’s about nding
new, creative ways to communicate how the company is making a real di erence.
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5. In Summary:
• CSR is about doing the right thing for society and the environment, and PR helps communicate
those e orts. But PR can also be misused for things like greenwashing, which can make CSR
look fake.
• A good PR strategy is essential to make sure CSR is real, not just for appearances. PR
professionals help ensure that a company’s actions match its words and that stakeholders
believe in the company’s commitment to making a positive impact.
1. What CSR is (According to the European Commission):
• CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) means that companies are responsible for the impact
they have on society. This includes the e ects they have on people, the environment, and
communities.
• According to the European Commission, companies must do more than just follow the law. They
should actively work to include social, environmental, ethical, and human rights concerns in
their daily business operations and overall strategy.
• Companies should also work closely with their stakeholders (like employees, customers,
communities, etc.) to make sure everyone bene ts from the company’s actions.
• The goal is to create shared value, meaning both the company and society should bene t from
CSR activities. This is closely related to two key concepts from Public Relations (PR):
engagement (working with others) and shared value (mutual bene t).
2. Bene ts of CSR for Companies:
• CSR isn’t just about doing good—it can help companies in many practical ways.
For example, it can help them with:
• Risk management (avoiding problems)
• Cost savings (becoming more e cient)
• Access to capital (getting investment)
• Better customer relationships
• Human resource management (taking care of employees)
• Innovation (coming up with new ideas)
• Opening new markets and growth opportunities.
• Additionally, CSR can help companies build trust with their employees, customers, and the
public, which is also a key goal of PR.
3. CSR is More Than Just Following the Law:
• While companies must obey the law, CSR goes beyond this. Companies need to actively work
to reduce harm caused by their activities (like pollution) and collaborate with stakeholders to
improve things.
• In some countries, the law may allow harmful actions like child labor or heavy pollution. But
companies should aim to act as responsibly as possible, even if the laws in those countries
don’t require it.
• Companies that operate globally should follow international guidelines, even if these rules are
not legally binding. Some of these guidelines include:
• OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises
• International Labour Organization’s Declaration
• United Nations Business and Human Rights Guidelines
• Sustainable Development Goals (Agenda 2030)
4. CSR and Communication:
• When companies talk about their CSR e orts, their message needs to be consistent. If they
claim to care about social responsibility, but act di erently (like treating workers poorly in one
country), it can damage their reputation.
• For example, big companies like Nike and Apple have been criticized for the way they treat
workers in countries like China, even though they promote good CSR in other parts of the world.
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5. In Summary:
• CSR is about companies being responsible for the impact they have on society and working with
their stakeholders to create value for everyone. It’s not just about following the law, but actively
reducing harm and improving the community.
• CSR bene ts companies by helping them manage risks, save costs, and build trust. But it also
requires companies to follow international standards and communicate their e orts honestly to
avoid being accused of hypocrisy.
1. What is the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development?
• The 2030 Agenda is a global plan created by the United Nations (UN) in 2015. It consists of 17
goals to make the world more sustainable by 2030. These goals focus on solving important
problems such as poverty, hunger, education, gender equality, climate change, and economic
fairness.
• The goal of this Agenda is for all 193 UN Member States to work together to achieve these
goals by 2030.
2. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):
• These 17 goals cover three main areas:
• Economic development: Goals about fair and decent work, innovation, and reducing
inequalities.
• Social development: Goals about education, gender equality, and strong institutions.
• Environmental protection: Goals about clean water, climate action, and protecting life on land.
• The 17 goals are broken down into 169 targets, which help measure progress towards these
goals. This makes the 2030 Agenda a clear and detailed plan that can be tracked.
3. How Do Organizations Use the 2030 Agenda?
• Many companies link their social responsibility actions to the 2030 Agenda goals. They do this
by mentioning the goals in their sustainability reports and activities.
• The UN has created icons for each of the 17 goals, which companies can use (under certain
• For example, the Prysmiam Group used these icons in their Sustainability Report 2019 to show
how their e orts align with the SDGs.
4. Tracking Progress:
• To stay updated on how well the goals are being achieved, it’s helpful to follow organizations
like the Italian Alliance for Sustainable Development (ASviS). This organization tracks how well
Italy is doing in reaching the SDGs and publishes a yearly report called “Italy and the
Sustainable Development Goals.”
• ASviS also organizes activities like the Sustainable Development Festival to raise awareness and
encourage action on the goals.
5. Other Resources:
• In 2018, the Con ndustria (an association of Italian industries) launched a manifesto called
“Social Responsibility for Industry 4.0”. This document helps companies understand how they
can align with the 2030 Agenda and be responsible in the digital era.
6. In Summary:
• The 2030 Agenda is a global plan with 17 goals that aim to improve the world by 2030 in areas
like social issues, economic growth, and environmental protection.
• Companies often connect their social responsibility e orts to these goals, and there are tools
(like the SDG icons) to help communicate these e orts.
• To track progress, it’s useful to refer to reports like the one from the Italian Alliance for
Sustainable Development and other resources.
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What is Philanthropy?
• Philanthropy refers to the act of donating money, resources, or time to help others or support
causes such as healthcare, education, environmental protection, and poverty reduction. It’s
typically carried out by wealthy individuals, companies, or foundations.
• Examples of famous philanthropists include:
• Bill Gates: He is known for his signi cant donations through the Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation, which focuses on healthcare, especially in poor countries. The foundation has
billions of dollars in funding, and Bill Gates has also done things like raising awareness about
the importance of sanitation by showing a jar full of excrement at a meeting in 2018 to highlight
the need for toilets in every home.
• Celebrities and Business Leaders: People like Taylor Swift and Mel Gibson are also involved in
philanthropy.
Corporate Philanthropy Examples:
• In Italy, companies like Allianz and Just Eat have philanthropic initiatives. For example:
• Allianz Foundation runs a program called “Umana Mente” to help disadvantaged youth learn a
job in luxury hospitality.
• Just Eat runs the “Ristorante Solidale” project, where food waste from restaurants is given to
people in need.
Philanthropy vs CSR:
• While philanthropy is a great and positive activity, it isn’t the same as Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR).
• Philanthropy is separate from a company’s main business activities. It’s more about giving
money or support to good causes, and it often involves an independent foundation.
• CSR, on the other hand, is integrated into the company’s everyday business. It involves
responsible practices in how a company operates, including how it treats employees, interacts
with the environment, and impacts society.
• Even though philanthropy can improve a company’s image and show it cares about the
community, it isn’t part of the company’s core operations. For example, if a company gives
money to a charity (corporate giving), that’s philanthropy, but it’s not the same as implementing
CSR, which focuses on the company’s overall behavior.
In Summary:
• Philanthropy is giving money or resources to support good causes, but it’s separate from a
company’s regular business activities.
• CSR is about a company taking responsibility for its actions in its daily operations, focusing on
ethical, social, and environmental impact.
• While philanthropy can improve a company’s reputation, it’s not the same as CSR.
What is Cause-Related Marketing (CRM)?
• Cause-Related Marketing (CRM) is when a company partners with a non-pro t organization to
promote a product or service. The goal is for both the company and the non-pro t to bene t
from the collaboration.
• Example in Italy: A partnership between Procter & Gamble (P&G), which owns the Dash brand,
and several charities (like ABIO and AIL). They worked together to raise money for kid-friendly
rooms in hospitals. Dash detergent boxes had coupons: when people bought the detergent,
they could use the coupon for a discount, and Dash would donate half the amount to the cause.
This helped create game rooms for children in hospitals across Italy.
• Another example is Banca Euromobiliare’s “Science 4 Life” investment fund, where part of the
proceeds goes to fund research by the Veronesi Foundation. Similarly, BNL Bank has supported
Telethon since 1992 by encouraging donations for research on genetic diseases.
What makes CRM di erent from CSR?
1. Partnership: Like CSR, CRM involves collaboration between companies and social causes.
2. Mutual Bene t: Both the company and the non-pro t bene t from CRM. For example, the
company gets exposure and promotes its product, while the charity gets funding for its cause.
3. Equity: CRM works best when both the company and the non-pro t bene t equally. Both the
company’s marketing goals and the charity’s mission should be aligned and equally prioritized.
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Why is CRM not the same as CSR?
• CRM is sector-speci c and usually involves just one product or project. It’s focused on a shortterm partnership for a particular cause.
• CSR, on the other hand, is broader and covers a company’s overall operations, focusing on
ethical practices and long-term social responsibility.
In short:
• CRM is a marketing strategy where a company works with a charity to promote a product and
raise funds.
• CSR is a company’s ongoing commitment to being socially responsible, which goes beyond
speci c marketing actions like CRM and involves its overall behavior in society.
So, while CRM can be part of a company’s CSR e orts, CSR is much broader and not limited to
just cause-related marketing.
Business Ethics vs. CSR:
• Business ethics is about the right and wrong behavior of people within a company, including
managers and employees. It involves making moral decisions and behaving with integrity.
• CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) is a broader idea that includes the company’s
responsibility toward society. CSR focuses on how the company impacts people, the
environment, and communities, and how it makes ethical decisions in its operations.
Key Points:
1. CSR includes business ethics, but they’re not the same thing.
• Business ethics focuses more on the behavior and decisions of individuals, especially managers,
in the company.
• CSR is a company-wide approach to being socially responsible, considering the company’s
actions toward society, the environment, and more.
2. Ethics and CSR go hand in hand.
• A company with strong ethics is more likely to adopt CSR because it already values fairness and
integrity.
•A business with unethical management is more likely to fail in CSR because its decisions will lack
moral responsibility.
3. Codes of Ethics:
• Over the last 20 years, many companies have created codes of ethics, which are documents
that guide employees on what’s right or wrong. These codes are important for self-regulation,
encouraging companies to act responsibly.
• However, just having a code of ethics isn’t enough. The company’s actions need to match the
ethical standards they set. CSR ensures that a company’s good practices aren’t just based on
one person’s values (like a CEO’s) but are embedded in how the whole company operates.
4. The challenge:
• Sometimes, codes of ethics are ignored in practice. While these codes are designed to ensure
ethical behavior, companies must actually live by them and show that their actions match their
promises.
In short:
• Business ethics is about how individuals within a company behave and make decisions.
• CSR is about a company’s overall responsibility to society.
• A company is truly ethical when its ethical values are re ected in both its management practices
and corporate actions.
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The Evolution of CSR:
1. History of CSR:
• CSR has been debated since the 1970s, but its growth really accelerated after the year 2000.
• Over time, CSR has become a more structured eld, with clear tools and strategies, and is
closely linked to public relations (PR).
2. Roots of CSR:
• Ancient Roots: Even before the term “CSR” existed, some companies were practicing it, often
without knowing it.
• Three Historical Roots of CSR:
1) Local Civic Virtues: Businesses thrive when they are part of a community with strong
relationships and trust. In places like Italy, local communities play an important role in business
success.
2) Institutionalism: This theory suggests that a company’s purpose is not just about making pro t
but also about serving a broader social mission. In the past, some businesses, like the company
Nord deutscher Lloyd (which worked on navigation along the Rhine River), prioritized social value
over pro t.
3) Catholic Social Doctrine: The Catholic Church has long discussed social responsibility, and its
teachings, like “Rerum Novarum” (1891) and “Laudato si’” (2015), emphasize a broader sense of
responsibility, not just for pro t but for workers, clients, and the environment.
3. CSR and the Catholic Church:
• Pope Francis’s “Laudato si’” (2015) addresses environmental and social responsibility, urging
businesses to go beyond just pro t and focus on “integral ecology” (a combination of
environmental, social, and economic concerns). He criticized companies that only use CSR for
marketing (greenwashing) rather than for real change.
4. Examples of Early CSR in Italy:
• Olivetti (1950s): A company focused on human development, creating jobs, better workspaces,
and welfare for employees.
• ENI (1950s): An energy company that prioritized education and worker welfare, along with fair
partnerships with other countries.
Criticism of CSR:
1. CSR as a Distraction:
• Some critics argue that CSR distracts companies from their main goal of making pro ts.
• There’s a concern that CSR is just a way for companies to appear responsible without actually
making signi cant changes (often referred to as greenwashing).
2. Governments and CSR:
• Some believe that CSR can reduce the government’s responsibility in solving social and
environmental problems. Companies might use CSR to avoid government regulations, claiming to
help, but not actually addressing the root issues.
• Robert B. Reich, a former U.S. Labor Secretary, said CSR is often just a “distraction” from real
government actions.
3. Importance of PR in CSR:
• PR professionals need to ensure that CSR e orts are credible and transparent.
• While some criticisms are exaggerated, they often come from the misunderstanding that
companies are only about making money, ignoring their social roles.
CSR Today:
• Two major resources for CSR professionals in Italy include:
1. CSR and Social Innovation Salon: The biggest event in Italy for sustainability-related issues.
2. CSR Manager Network: A group of professionals working on social and environmental
sustainability.
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Final Thoughts:
• CSR has evolved from an idea about community and social values to an organized system within
companies.
• However, it’s still criticized for being used for marketing rather than genuine social responsibility.
• Despite these challenges, CSR is considered vital, as it connects businesses with ethical, social,
and environmental issues that a ect everyone.
The Importance of Stakeholders in CSR:
1.
What is a Stakeholder?
A stakeholder is anyone who can in uence or be a ected by a company’s actions. This could
include:
• Employees
• Customers
• Suppliers
• Local communities
• Investors
• Governments
• Even the environment
The key di erence between stakeholders and publics is that stakeholders have a real interest in or
in uence on the company’s actions.
2. Stakeholders vs Shareholders:
• Shareholders are those who own stock in the company (i.e., they have shares).
• Stakeholders, on the other hand, include anyone with a broader interest in the company’s
operations, not just those who own shares.
3. Stakeholder-Based CSR:
The idea is that companies should focus not just on the interests of shareholders (those who own
stock), but also on all other stakeholders that are a ected by or can a ect the company.
• For example, a company should consider its impact on the environment, its workers, or the local
community when making decisions.
• Companies that adopt a stakeholder-based CSR strategy engage with these groups to
understand their concerns and incorporate them into their business practices.
4. Milton Friedman’s View (Traditional Model):
In contrast, Milton Friedman, a famous economist, believed that the only responsibility of a
company was to increase pro ts for its shareholders, as long as it followed the rules.
• According to this view, companies don’t need to worry about stakeholders like employees or the
environment unless it directly impacts pro t.
5. PR’s Role in CSR:
Public relations (PR) professionals play a key role in engaging with stakeholders. They help the
company:
• Understand stakeholders’ needs and expectations.
• Involve them in creating and implementing CSR programs.
• Make sure the company’s CSR e orts are aligned with stakeholders’ interests.
6. The Spread of Stakeholder-Based CSR:
The idea of focusing on stakeholders started in Western Europe, but over time it became more
popular in Anglo-Saxon countries (like the U.S. and the UK), which were initially more focused on
the traditional pro t-driven approach.
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Summary:
• Stakeholders are important groups or individuals that can a ect or be a ected by a company’s
actions, not just shareholders (those who own stock).
• Stakeholder-based CSR means companies must consider and address the interests of all those
who are a ected by their operations.
• PR professionals are essential in managing relationships with stakeholders, ensuring the
company’s CSR programs meet their needs and expectations.
• This approach contrasts with the older, pro t-only model proposed by Milton Friedman, who
argued that businesses should only focus on making money for shareholders.
Measuring the Impact of CSR:
1. Why Measuring CSR is Hard:
Just like other business activities, companies want to know if their CSR (Corporate Social
Responsibility) e orts are paying o . But it’s harder to measure the success of CSR compared to
things like production or advertising, where results are more directly visible. This makes it tricky
for businesses, especially smaller ones, to understand the bene ts of CSR and how much they
should invest in it.
2. Bene ts of CSR at a Macro Level:
After 20 years of experience with CSR, we can say it helps businesses in four key areas:
• Employees: CSR can improve employee motivation and make the company a more attractive
place to work, helping to retain and recruit talent.
• The Market: CSR can boost the company’s brand image, making it more appealing to
consumers, which can in uence their purchasing decisions.
• Local Communities & Institutions: CSR can improve the company’s relationship with the local
community and institutions, allowing the business to have a “license to operate” and make
people more open to listening to the company’s needs.
• Investors: CSR can make it easier for a company to access credit and attract investors,
especially those who focus on sustainable, long-term growth.
3. Advantages of Stakeholder Engagement-Based CSR:
A company that focuses on engaging its stakeholders (like employees, customers, local
communities, and investors) can gain several bene ts, including:
• Promoting Social Development: Engaging with stakeholders helps ensure that everyone’s
voice is heard and included in decision-making, leading to more sustainable outcomes.
• Better Risk Management: By listening to stakeholders, the company can identify and reduce
potential risks, while also improving its reputation.
• Collaboration for Problem Solving: Stakeholder engagement brings together resources like
knowledge, human skills, and technology, helping the company solve problems that it couldn’t
handle alone.
• Understanding the Market: Engaging with stakeholders helps the company better understand
the market and identify new opportunities for growth.
• Learning and Improvement: The company can learn from stakeholders, leading to
improvements in products and processes.
• Educating Stakeholders: CSR e orts can help in uence and educate stakeholders, leading to
better decisions that bene t both the company and society.
• Building Trust: Engaging with stakeholders builds trust, which is key to long-term success.
4. The Shift in Thinking About CSR:
The emerging trend is that CSR shouldn’t be seen as a separate department with its own budget
to measure return on investment (ROI). Instead, it should be a way of doing business that’s
integrated into every part of the company. CSR should become part of everyday operations, like
managing human resources, employee safety, and supplier relations. It’s not a standalone function
but a mindset that guides the company’s interactions with both internal and external stakeholders.
CSR as a Competitive Tool:
• Companies that successfully integrate CSR into their daily operations can become leaders in
their industry, both internally (with employees) and externally (in the market and with
stakeholders).
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Summary:
• Measuring CSR’s impact is challenging, but its bene ts are clear in areas like employee
motivation, market reputation, community relationships, and attracting investors.
• The real value of CSR lies in engaging with stakeholders (employees, customers, communities,
etc.) to create a more sustainable, trustworthy, and successful business.
• CSR should be integrated into every part of the business, not just a separate function, to truly
drive long-term growth and competitive advantage.
The Six Capitals Framework:
The Six Capitals Framework is a model used to help businesses understand and report on the
di erent kinds of value they create. It was developed by the International Integrated Reporting
Council (IIRC), which includes various experts like investors, companies, and NGOs.
What Are the Six Capitals?
This model recognizes that businesses don’t just create value with money and physical assets
(like factories). It also considers other kinds of value, especially in today’s world where businesses
are not just about big factories and machines. The six capitals are:
1. Financial Capital:
This is the money available to the company to run its business, produce products, and o er
services.
2. Manufactured Capital:
These are the physical things a company uses to operate, such as buildings, machinery,
equipment, and infrastructure like factories or warehouses.
3. Intellectual Capital:
This includes patents, copyrighted materials, and licenses, but also the knowledge and
experience within the company, such as the systems and processes that help it run smoothly.
4. Human Capital:
This refers to the skills, experience, and motivation of the people working in the company. It’s
about their ability to innovate and help the company grow.
5. Social and Relational Capital:
This is about the relationships a company has with its stakeholders (like customers, employees,
and local communities). It also includes the company’s license to operate in its social
environment, meaning how accepted and trusted the company is by the public.
6. Natural Capital:
This includes natural resources like land, water, air, and minerals that the company uses to create
products or services. These resources are essential to the company’s past, present, and future
success.
How the Six Capitals Work Together:
The idea is that businesses create value by increasing or transforming these six types of capital
over time. For example:
• A company might use nancial capital to invest in manufactured capital (like new machinery),
which helps increase human capital (by training employees) or improve its intellectual capital
(through new patents or technologies).
Role of Public Relations:
• The social and relational capital (relationships with stakeholders) heavily relies on public relations
(PR). PR helps build trust, manage the company’s reputation, and create positive relationships
with the public. This shows how communication is key to creating value in a company.
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The Shift Towards Intangible Assets:
• One important point is the growing importance of intangible assets—things that aren’t physical
or nancial but still create value. For example, knowledge, skills, and relationships are becoming
more valuable than physical assets (like factories or machines).
• A study from 2015 showed that in 1975, intangible assets made up only 17% of a company’s
value, but by 2015, they made up 87%. This shows how much more important things like
intellectual, human, and social capital are becoming in today’s economy.
Key Takeaways:
• The Six Capitals Framework helps businesses look beyond just money and machines to see
how they create value through various assets like knowledge, skills, relationships, and natural
resources.
• PR plays a big role in managing relationships, which is a vital part of the company’s overall
value.
• The growing importance of intangible assets (like knowledge and relationships) shows a shift
away from traditional, physical forms of capital.
In short, this framework helps companies understand that value is not just about money and
physical assets but also about the knowledge, skills, relationships, and resources they manage.
From CSR to CSV (Creating Shared Value)
• CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) was traditionally seen as companies doing good things
(like charity work) on the side, but it was often separate from their main business strategy.
• CSV (Creating Shared Value), introduced by Michael Porter and Mark Kramer, focuses on
connecting business success with social progress. It’s about nding ways to make both the
company and the community better at the same time.
• CSV is not about doing good just for the sake of it, but about improving the company’s
competitiveness while also bene ting society.
For example:
• Welfare programs for employees can make workers happier and healthier, which improves their
productivity and bene ts the company’s bottom line.
• CSV challenges the idea that helping society means losing pro t. In fact, companies that
contribute to social issues can see better results and higher pro ts.
Example of CSV in Practice
• Enel, an Italian energy company, uses the CSV model. They focus on making business decisions
that also help the local community. For example, in Italy, they partnered with an agricultural
company to create a smart, sustainable farming district.
• Nespresso’s “Our Choices” program in Ethiopia trains farmers to grow better co ee, increasing
their income and improving the quality of the product. This is bene cial for the farmers, society,
and Nespresso’s brand.
Bene t Corporations (B Corps)
• Some companies go even further by becoming Bene t Corporations, a special type of company
that is legally required to consider the social and environmental impacts of their decisions, not just
pro ts.
• In Italy, Chiesi Farmaceutici is an example of a company that switched to a Bene t Corporation
model, aiming to make a positive impact on society and nature.
The 3 P’s of Sustainability
• Sustainability is often described by three categories known as the 3 P’s:
1. Planet (environmental sustainability): Taking care of the planet’s resources.
2. Pro t (economic sustainability): Ensuring the company’s nancial health for the long term.
3. People (social sustainability): Focusing on social equity and improving people’s lives.
An example of environmental sustainability is the Ichnusa Beer campaign to reduce carbon
emissions by redesigning their bottles to be reusable.
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ESG (Environmental, Social, Governance)
• ESG refers to how a company manages its environmental, social, and governance
responsibilities.
• Environmental: How the company impacts the planet.
• Social: How the company interacts with and a ects people and communities.
• Governance: How the company is run, including ethical business practices and transparency.
ESG is gaining importance because investors want to know how companies are addressing these
issues in their long-term strategy.
Stakeholder Engagement
• Stakeholder engagement is about actively involving the people and groups that are a ected by
the company’s actions (employees, customers, local communities, etc.).
A good approach to engagement involves:
1. Identifying the most important issues for both the company and stakeholders.
2. Planning how to address these issues.
3. Building skills and tools for better cooperation.
4. Engaging stakeholders through meaningful actions.
5. Reviewing and reporting progress.
Example: A PR campaign called “Io non sclero” by Biogen worked with people with multiple
sclerosis and their caregivers to raise awareness about the disease. The campaign involved
creating a website, a web series, and an app to share their stories.
Materiality Matrix
• A materiality matrix helps companies decide which issues to focus on based on two factors:
• How important the issue is to the company (e.g., it a ects company strategy or operations).
• How important the issue is to stakeholders (e.g., it matters to customers, employees, or
communities).
The issues that are important for both the company and its stakeholders are placed in the topright corner of the matrix and should be prioritized.
Key Takeaways
• CSV is about creating value for both the company and society, blending social and business
goals.
• Sustainability involves balancing environmental, social, and economic needs (the 3 P’s).
• ESG refers to how companies address their environmental, social, and governance
responsibilities.
• Stakeholder engagement is crucial for building relationships and creating long-term value for
both the company and society.
The concept of “stakeholders” became widely known in the 1980s, largely thanks to R. Edward
Freeman’s work. Stakeholders are all the groups or people that are a ected by a company’s
actions, including customers, employees, communities, and investors.
A great early example of stakeholder engagement is the “Credo” document created by Johnson &
Johnson (J&J) in 1948. This document is still in use today, and it has been highly in uential in
shaping how companies think about their responsibilities. The “Credo” lays out the company’s
commitments to various groups, which can be considered its stakeholders. J&J identi ed four key
groups of responsibility:
1. Customers: J&J’s rst responsibility is to the people who use its products and services,
ensuring they are safe and e ective.
2. Employees: The company takes responsibility for its workers’ well-being, o ering fair
treatment, safety, and opportunity.
3. Communities: J&J commits to making positive contributions to local communities and the
world at large, showing concern for broader social impacts.
4. Shareholders: Lastly, J&J recognizes that business partners (investors or shareholders) should
have the chance to make a fair pro t, but this is secondary to the company’s commitment to its
customers, employees, and communities.
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What’s interesting is that J&J placed its responsibility to shareholders last, suggesting that a
company’s long-term success comes from being responsible to its other stakeholders rst. By
doing the right things for customers, employees, and communities, the company can create a
solid foundation for pro tability.
One of the most famous examples of J&J living up to its “Credo” is during a crisis in the 1980s,
when bottles of its Tylenol drug were found to be tampered with and made dangerous. Even
though there was no legal obligation for J&J to act, the company recalled all Tylenol bottles
worldwide—losing over $100 million. This decision was guided by the values in the “Credo,”
focusing on customer safety over immediate pro ts. This crisis response is still studied in
business schools because J&J’s actions strengthened its reputation and showed its commitment
to its core values.
In contrast, other companies, like Bristol-Myers, faced similar issues but didn’t recall all their
products worldwide. They only recalled them from the area where the problem occurred, showing
a more limited, less customer-focused approach.
In simple terms, the J&J “Credo” sets out a framework for how companies should consider the
needs of all the people they a ect, not just shareholders. By prioritizing customer safety,
employee welfare, and community responsibility, the company can ensure long-term success.
This approach is an early example of how businesses can build strong relationships with
stakeholders, which in turn helps ensure their sustainability and success.
Public Relations (PR) skills are crucial when developing a Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
strategy. It’s not just about communicating what the company is doing; PR and CSR are closely
connected and often overlap.
The “Stockholm Accords,” created by the Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communication
Management, outlines how PR plays a key role in CSR. According to the Accords, a company
should see sustainability (another term for CSR) as an opportunity to transform and improve. It
should communicate regularly with its stakeholders (like customers, employees, and communities)
about its sustainability goals and progress in areas like the economy, society, and the
environment. This helps the company build a strong reputation and stay competitive.
The Accords outline four main tasks for PR professionals when working on a CSR strategy:
1. Engage Stakeholders: PR professionals should involve key stakeholders not just in the
implementation of CSR programs, but also in de ning the company’s sustainability policies. This
helps ensure that the company is meeting both ethical standards and business goals, creating
shared value for everyone.
2. Interpret Societal Expectations: PR professionals need to understand what society expects
from companies in terms of sustainability. They use their skills to listen to stakeholders and
identify areas where the company can make a positive impact in economic, social, and
environmental areas, bene ting both the company and society.
3. Involve Stakeholders in Reporting: PR professionals also make sure that stakeholders are
involved in deciding what information should be shared with the public. This ensures transparency
and authenticity in the company’s communication about its sustainability e orts, giving
stakeholders a role in choosing what gets reported.
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4. Ongoing and Multichannel Reporting: Finally, PR professionals help ensure the company
regularly reports on its actions in all areas—economic, social, and environmental. This should be a
continuous process, not just a one-time report. They help create a system where the company
can track its progress over time and make adjustments as needed. This is similar to what’s done
in an integrated annual report, which combines nancial and non- nancial data, allowing everyone
(from stakeholders to top management) to see how the company is performing in a sustainable
way.
In simple terms, PR professionals are key to creating and communicating a CSR strategy. They
help make sure that stakeholders are engaged in de ning and implementing the company’s
sustainability goals, ensure transparency, and maintain regular communication about the
company’s progress in all areas of responsibility. This way, CSR is not just a marketing tool but a
long-term, evolving process that bene ts everyone involved.
This section is about the tools and methods companies use to communicate with their
stakeholders when it comes to Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Let’s break it down:
1. Choosing Communication Tools:
Companies have many communication tools at their disposal (like reports, interviews, social
media, etc.). The key is choosing the right tools based on the goals of engaging stakeholders and
the type of stakeholders involved. For example:
• Listening can be done through interviews, focus groups, or forums.
• Informing can be done through reports, conferences, or public presentations.
• The internet helps with both listening and informing.
2. Tools and Methods Should Be Stakeholder-Centered:
It’s important that the company doesn’t just choose communication tools unilaterally (without
stakeholder input). Companies should ask stakeholders what they need and want to make sure
the communication is e ective.
3. Innovative Engagement Tools:
Social media and Web 2.0 have created new ways for companies to interact with stakeholders.
Social media allows for strong two-way communication, where both the company and
stakeholders can engage and share ideas. An advanced approach in decision-making is called
“Consensus Decision-Making,” which focuses on inclusion and cooperation.
4. Empowering Stakeholders:
For e ective engagement, stakeholders need to actively participate. To make this possible,
companies may need to o er resources like training or opportunities for corporate volunteering,
where employees volunteer for social causes. This helps stakeholders develop skills and
resources that support shared value creation between the company and its stakeholders.
5. Corporate Volunteering:
Corporate volunteering is when a company encourages its employees to volunteer for social
causes, either through paid leave or other support. This strengthens the company’s connection to
the community and boosts employee engagement. For example:
• Novartis has a “Community Partnership Day” where employees volunteer at nonpro ts.
• KPMG runs “Volunteers for a Day,” a platform that connects companies with volunteer
opportunities.
These initiatives improve team-building, employee morale, and the company’s reputation.
6. The Role of Reporting:
Since World War II, companies have realized that nancial reports are an essential tool for
communication. Now, CSR reports are becoming more integrated with nancial data to show the
company’s overall performance. These reports may include:
• Environmental impact (pollution, waste, resource use)
• Social impact (employee well-being, community support)
• Economic sustainability (how well the company is performing nancially)
Some reports are called Environmental Reports, Social Reports, or Sustainability Reports and are
increasingly seen as a sign of a company’s commitment to CSR.
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7. Awards for Best CSR Reporting:
Reports that e ectively communicate CSR are recognized through awards like the Oscar di
Bilancio or the CR Reporting Awards. Companies that win these awards demonstrate good
practices in communicating their sustainability e orts. For example, Salvatore Ferragamo won an
award for creativity in CSR communication in 2019.
8. Use of Social Media for CSR:
Many companies use social media to communicate their CSR activities. However, research shows
that Italian companies struggle to match the engagement seen in other countries when it comes
to CSR. Still, some companies like Snam and Enel are doing a good job on platforms like
Facebook and Twitter by sharing information about sustainability, such as energy e ciency,
sustainable mobility, and diversity.
In summary, companies use various tools to engage stakeholders and communicate their CSR
e orts. These tools range from traditional methods like reports and conferences to newer
approaches using social media and online platforms. The goal is to involve stakeholders in the
CSR process, ensure transparency, and create shared value for both the company and society.
This section explains how companies report on their social responsibility (CSR) and sustainability
e orts. It focuses on standards and regulations for preparing these reports. Let’s break it down:
1. Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) Standards:
• GRI is the most recognized global standard for creating sustainability reports. It’s a non-pro t
organization that helps companies share their CSR activities in a standardized way. The United
Nations supports it, and it has become the benchmark for CSR reports, used by 93% of the
world’s top 250 corporations.
• The GRI standards are divided into 80 performance indicators that cover economic,
environmental, and social aspects of a company’s impact.
2. Four Key Principles of GRI Reporting:
When companies prepare a CSR report, the GRI standards guide them to follow four principles:
• Materiality: The report should focus on the most important issues that have a signi cant impact
on the company and its stakeholders.
• Inclusivity: The company must identify its stakeholders (such as employees, customers, or
communities) and engage them in the reporting process. The company should consider what
stakeholders want and expect from the report.
• Sustainability Context: The report should explain the company’s performance in relation to
broader sustainability issues, showing how the company contributes to economic, environmental,
and social conditions in the long term.
• Completeness: The report must cover enough topics to give a clear picture of the company’s
impact in all areas, allowing stakeholders to evaluate the company’s performance.
3. Sustainability Reporting as a Continuous Process:
• Sustainability reporting is not just about creating a document, but an ongoing process. The
report should not be seen as a one-time product but as part of a continuous dialogue with
stakeholders.
• Integrated Reporting: A more advanced form of reporting combines nancial data with
sustainability data in a single report, showing how the company’s nancial health is linked to its
social and environmental impact. Companies like Novo Nordisk were early adopters of this
approach, and in Italy, Unipol is a leader in this area.
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4. The Integrated Reporting Council (IIRC):
• The IIRC is an international group that supports the development of integrated reporting
(combining nancial and sustainability data). Their work is an essential guide for companies and
PR professionals on how to do integrated reporting.
6. Example of Good Practice:
• Intesa Sanpaolo, an Italian bank, has created a great example with its Consolidated Nonnancial Statement 2019. This document can be used as a model for other companies to follow
when preparing their own CSR reports.
In Summary:
• GRI standards provide a detailed guide on how to create a CSR report, focusing on economic,
environmental, and social impacts.
• These reports are important for keeping a continuous dialogue with stakeholders, and
integrating them with nancial reports can show how a company’s sustainability e orts connect to
its nancial performance.
• In Italy, the Legislative Decree 254/2016 makes it mandatory for larger companies to include a
non- nancial statement in their reports, which covers topics like energy use, emissions, and social
policies.
This section discusses two key topics related to corporate responsibility and legal compliance in
Italy: Legislative Decree 231/2001 and Codes of Ethics and Conduct. Ù
Here’s a simple explanation of both:
1. Legislative Decree 231/2001:
• What is it? This Italian law holds companies responsible for crimes committed by their
employees if the company didn’t have enough preventive measures in place. For example, if a
company’s general director commits bribery, the company itself could also face consequences,
unless it can prove it had proper systems to prevent such crimes.
• How does it a ect companies? Companies can face serious consequences under this law,
including:
• Fines: The amount of the ne depends on the company’s nancial situation.
• Debarment: This means the company could be temporarily banned from doing business,
signing contracts with the government, or advertising products and services.
• Why is it relevant to CSR? This law encourages companies to create structures and systems
that promote ethical behavior and prevent crimes, which aligns with the goals of Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR). By complying with this law, companies can ensure they are protected from
the consequences of wrongdoing by employees.
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2. Codes of Ethics and Codes of Conduct:
• What are they? These are documents that companies use to guide ethical behavior within the
organization. The Code of Ethics typically lays out general principles and values for how
employees should behave, while the Code of Conduct tends to be more speci c, providing
detailed guidelines about what is expected in di erent situations.
• Why are they important? Having a clear ethical framework helps employees make decisions
that align with the company’s values and avoid unethical behavior. These codes are also legally
important under Legislative Decree 231/2001, as companies can adopt them as part of their
organizational structures to prevent crimes.
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5. Legislative Decree 254/2016 (Italy):
• This Italian law requires large companies to add a non- nancial statement to their regular
nancial report. This new statement must include information on topics like:
• Energy use (renewable vs. non-renewable).
• Greenhouse gas emissions and pollution.
• Impact on the environment, health, and safety.
• Social aspects like gender equality, employee welfare, and worker rights.
• Human rights and anti-corruption policies.
• Companies don’t have to follow this law if they are smaller, but some smaller companies choose
to do it anyway to show their commitment to CSR.
• Role of Communication Professionals: PR and communication professionals play an essential
role in ensuring these codes are e ective. It’s not just about creating the codes, but also about
making sure they are communicated well to employees and other stakeholders (like suppliers).
The communication should guide people to act ethically and make responsible decisions.
In Simple Terms:
• Legislative Decree 231/2001 makes sure that companies take responsibility for preventing
crimes within the organization. If a crime is committed by an employee, the company can be held
responsible unless it proves it had enough preventive measures in place. This law encourages
companies to adopt systems that align with CSR values, helping the company avoid legal
problems.
• Codes of Ethics and Conduct are documents that help employees know what is expected of
them ethically. Communication professionals are key in creating and promoting these documents
so that employees understand and follow them.
Both of these topics are important for companies to maintain their reputation and ethical integrity.
This section discusses certi cations and international guidelines in Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR), as well as the concept of corporate activism, and concludes by tying CSR
and public relations (PR) together.
Here’s a simple explanation of each part:
1. Certi cations and International Guidelines:
• Third-party veri cation is important in CSR processes, meaning companies often need
independent checks to verify their commitment to sustainability.
• Some certi cations or guidelines help companies prove they are meeting international
sustainability standards:
• ISO Standards: These are globally recognized guidelines that companies can follow to show
they are sustainable:
• ISO 9001 and ISO 9004 focus on quality management and stakeholder expectations.
• ISO 14001 focuses on environmental sustainability (e.g., managing waste and emissions).
• ISO 20400 focuses on sustainable procurement, meaning buying goods and services
• SA 8000: This standard checks how companies handle labor rights and working conditions.
• ISO 26000: This is a key guideline for CSR that covers seven areas of responsibility, including
human rights, labor practices, and environmental impact.
• ISO 26000 is especially important because it aligns well with the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)
guidelines, which are used for sustainability reporting.
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2. Corporate Activism:
• Corporate activism refers to companies taking strong stands on social or political issues,
sometimes making controversial statements or actions to align their brand with a cause.
• A famous example is Nike’s campaign with Colin Kaepernick in 2018, where Nike supported the
athlete’s protest against racial injustice by using his image in ads. This caused both support and
backlash.
• Other companies have followed suit with their own campaigns:
• Levi Strauss supported gun control laws.
• HSBC opposed Brexit.
• Gillette took a stand against “macho” stereotypes.
• Patagonia supported environmentalist candidates during elections.
• Corporate activism can polarize consumers, but it is seen as an attempt by companies to
connect with younger generations or speci c consumer groups who care about social and
political issues.
3. Conclusions:
• CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) and PR (Public Relations) have evolved over time and are
now at the center of many business strategies.
• CSR is no longer just about philanthropy (donating money or supporting causes); it a ects all
parts of a company’s operations, focusing on economic, environmental, and social
responsibility.
• PR is not just about media relations anymore; it plays a role in internal and external
communications that support business goals.
• PR and CSR overlap in many ways:
• Both rely on stakeholder engagement, meaning involving and communicating with di erent
groups (employees, customers, communities, etc.).
• PR professionals help CSR by making sure the company communicates its social responsibility
e orts e ectively, through media, reports, and other channels.
• While CSR and PR should work together, they are still separate functions with di erent technical
aspects.
• Final image: Think of CSR and PR as two wings of the same bird. Together, they help a
company be more e cient, pro table, socially responsible, and forward-looking.
In simple terms:
• Certi cations help companies show they meet global standards for sustainability and ethical
practices.
• Corporate activism is when companies take bold stances on social or political issues to connect
with certain groups of consumers.
• CSR and PR are closely connected and should work together, but they have di erent roles in a
company. CSR focuses on responsibility and ethics, while PR focuses on communication and
managing the company’s reputation.
CH3
Sure! This chapter by Stefania Romenti talks about how public relations (PR) professionals
evaluate and measure the success of their communication e orts. Here’s a breakdown in simpler
terms:
1. Slow Adoption of Scienti c Measurement in PR
• Unlike elds like marketing or HR, PR professionals were slow to develop proper ways to
measure their success.
• In the past, many PR professionals used quick but unreliable ways to show that their work was
valuable. For example, they sometimes used misleading calculations of Return on Investment
(ROI) to justify spending on communication.
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2. Historical and Cultural Reasons for the Delay
• Early PR models (like Grunig and Hunt’s press-agentry/publicity model from 1984) focused only
on getting messages out without considering audience reactions.
• Because PR started as a professional practice rather than a scienti c eld, PR professionals
lacked strong research skills. Instead of using proven measurement techniques, they relied on gut
feelings and experience.
• This made PR measurement di erent from elds like marketing, which adopted scienti c
methods much earlier.
3. Growing Recognition of the Importance of Measurement
• Over time, PR professionals realized they needed proper measurement tools. The saying “you
can’t manage what you can’t measure” (Kaplan and Norton, 2002) became important in PR.
• Many organizations and experts have since worked to improve PR measurement, such as:
• The Institute for Public Relations (IPR) – A foundation that promotes research and even gives
awards for the best measurement projects.
• The Measurement Standard – A newsletter that focuses on social media measurement and
organizes conferences for professionals.
• The Association for Measurement and Evaluation of Communication (AMEC) – A group that
helps set standards for PR measurement.
4. Key Concepts and Approaches
• The chapter explains important ideas from two major research approaches:
• Evaluation Research – Studies the e ectiveness of communication e orts.
• Performance Measurement – Looks at how communication activities contribute to an
organization’s goals.
• The author suggests using a Performance Management approach, which combines both
methods to get a full picture of PR e ectiveness.
5. What PR Professionals Need to Know
• To measure communication properly, PR professionals need to develop research skills and use
standardized methods.
• The chapter also includes real-world examples to help readers understand how these concepts
apply in practice.
In short, PR measurement started o weak but has improved a lot over time. Today, professionals
are encouraged to use systematic and research-based approaches rather than just relying on
intuition.
Sure! This section explains why measuring the results of communication e orts is important and
how it has evolved in organizations. Here’s a simple breakdown:
1. Why Measurement in Communication Has Become Important
• As communication has become more recognized as a key function in big companies (especially
in developed countries like Italy), businesses are spending more money on it.
• Communication teams are now often directly accountable to the CEO, meaning they must show
the impact of their work in the same way other departments (like marketing or nance) do.
• Measuring results helps prove that communication contributes to achieving company goals,
which in turn helps justify more investment in this area.
2. Measurement Helps Communication Become More Professional
• The ability to evaluate and measure results shows that communication is a serious profession,
just like nance or HR.
• Companies that see communication as strategic use performance measurement to show how it
contributes to business success.
• At the same time, professionals use evaluation techniques to continuously improve their
methods.
3. Two Key Approaches to Measuring Communication
• Evaluation Research – This focuses on studying how e ective communication e orts are.
• Performance Measurement – This looks at how communication activities help the company
reach its goals.
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These two approaches work together to help communication become a well-established and
respected part of a company.
4. Understanding Key Concepts
Before explaining these two approaches in detail, the chapter clari es:
• The di erence between real e ects of communication and pseudo-e ects (things that might
seem like results but aren’t actually meaningful).
• Why it’s important to integrate evaluation into the whole communication process—starting from
planning, through execution, to measuring the impact.
• The di erent research methods and techniques professionals can use to measure
communication success.
In short, this section explains why measuring communication is essential for proving its value,
professionalizing the eld, and continuously improving strategies.
Sure! This section explains the di erence between real e ects and pseudo-e ects in
communication measurement. It also discusses di erent ways to evaluate media visibility. Here’s
a simpler explanation:
1. Di erence Between E ects and Pseudo-E ects
• Real E ects (Outcomes) – These are the actual changes in audience behavior, attitudes, or
opinions caused by communication e orts. They show the true impact on the audience.
• Pseudo-E ects (Outputs) – These are surface-level indicators that show how much
communication activity has happened but don’t prove if it had any real impact on people.
Think of it like this:
• If a company organizes a press event, the output is the number of journalists who attended.
• The outcome is whether people’s opinions about the company changed because of the media
coverage that followed.
2. What Are Communication Outputs?
Outputs are immediate and short-term results.
They include:
• Number of media mentions.
• Number of attendees at an event.
• Website visits.
• Social media likes, shares, or comments.
These numbers tell us how much exposure the company got, but they don’t tell us if people’s
attitudes or behaviors changed.
3. How Media Visibility is Measured
To understand the exposure a company gets in the media, PR professionals use di erent Key
Performance Indicators (KPIs):
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PR Value
• Measures the quality of media visibility.
• Factors that increase PR Value:
• The size of an article in a newspaper (bigger = better).
• The placement of the article (front page = better).
• How many times the company is mentioned.
• The tone of the article (positive mentions increase value).
• If the company is in the headline or title.
• If the article includes high-quality images related to the company.
Opportunity to See (OTS)
• Measures how many people could have seen the company’s message.
• Calculated by multiplying the media audience (e.g., newspaper readership) by the number of
articles mentioning the company.
• Example: If a newspaper with 1 million readers publishes 4 articles about a company, the OTS
is 4 million.
• But it doesn’t tell us if people actually read or paid attention to the message.
Share of Voice (SOV)
• Compares the media coverage of a company to its competitors.
• It answers: “How much of the total industry conversation is about our company?”
• If a company has 30% of all media mentions in its industry, it means it has a 30% Share of
Voice.
Advertising Value Equivalent (AVE)
• Calculates the cost of media coverage if it had been paid for as an advertisement.
• Example: If a newspaper article about a company takes up space that would cost $10,000 in
ads, the AVE is $10,000.
• Why AVE is problematic:
• It only measures quantity, not quality (a bad article still counts as “value”).
• It assumes that a news article is equal to an ad, even though ads are less credible.
• To adjust for credibility, some companies multiply AVE by 2 to 5 times (but this is not a
scienti cally valid method).
4. The Shift to Digital Media Measurement
As companies move online, they now also track:
• Website visits.
• Social media engagement (likes, shares, comments).
• Online media mentions.
• Video views and watch time.
These indicators help measure online presence but, like traditional outputs, they still don’t prove if
communication e orts changed public perception.
Summary
• Real e ects (outcomes) measure how communication changes people’s opinions or behaviors.
• Pseudo-e ects (outputs) only show exposure (e.g., media mentions, event attendees, social
media likes).
• PR professionals use KPIs like PR Value, OTS, SOV, and AVE to measure media impact.
• AVE is widely criticized because it equates unpaid media coverage with paid advertising,
ignoring quality and credibility.
• Digital media metrics are becoming more important for evaluating communication success.
These are di erent ways to measure online visibility, meaning how much attention a company or
brand is getting on digital platforms. Here’s a simple breakdown of each:
Website Metrics
1. Unique Visitors (Reach) – Counts how many di erent people visit a website within a speci c
time (e.g., a day, a week, or a month).
• Example: If 10,000 people visit a company’s website in a month, the reach is 10,000.
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2. Click-Through Rate (CTR) – Measures how many people click on a link after seeing it.
• Formula: (Number of clicks ÷ Number of times the link was shown) × 100
• Example: If an ad is shown 1,000 times and gets 100 clicks, the CTR is 10%.
3. Referral Tra c – Measures how many visitors come to a website by clicking on a link from
another site (e.g., social media, blogs, or news articles).
• Example: If a popular blog links to your company’s website and 500 people click the link, that’s
500 referral visits.
4. Views – Counts how many times a webpage, blog post, or social media post has been seen.
Can include:
• Page views (how many times a page is loaded).
• Average dwell time (how long visitors stay on the page).
• Comments (how much people engage with the content).
5. Bounce Rate – Shows the percentage of visitors who leave the site immediately without
interacting.
• Example: If 100 people visit a webpage but 60 leave within seconds, the bounce rate is 60%.
• A high bounce rate means people aren’t nding what they need.
Social Media & Video Metrics
6. Video Views – Measures how many times videos are watched or downloaded.
• Example: A promotional video on YouTube gets 50,000 views.
7. Live Chat Tra c – Measures the number of people who visit a site during a live event or chat
session.
• Example: A company hosts a live Q&A on its website, and 1,200 users join.
8. Subscriptions & Followers – Tracks how many people sign up for updates or follow a brand.
• Examples:
• Blog/newsletter subscriptions (people signing up for email updates).
• Facebook page fans (number of people who “like” the page).
• Twitter followers (number of people following the account).
• YouTube subscribers (number of people who follow the YouTube channel).
9. Comments & Engagement – Measures how interactive people are with posts.
• Example: If a Facebook post has 500 comments, it means high engagement.
10. Twitter Trends & Mentions – Tracks how often a brand is mentioned on Twitter and whether
it’s gaining or losing followers over time.
11. YouTube Video Ratings – Tracks how viewers rate videos (thumbs up, thumbs down, or star
ratings).
Search Engine & Blog Monitoring
12. Keyword Consistency – Checks if the words people search for match what the company
wants to promote.
• Example: A company selling organic co ee wants people to nd them by searching “best
organic co ee”.
13. Blogosphere Reactions – Measures what bloggers and online writers are saying about the
brand.
• Example: If multiple food bloggers review a company’s new organic co ee brand, that’s a
positive sign.
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14. Search Engine Ranking (Brand Positioning) – Measures how high a company appears on
Google when searching for key terms.
• Example: A company wants to appear on the rst page of Google when people search for “best
smartphones.”
Summary
These metrics help companies understand:
• How many people are seeing their content (reach, views, impressions).
• How well their website or ads are performing (click-through rate, referral tra c, bounce rate).
• How engaged their audience is (comments, shares, followers, video ratings).
• How visible they are online (search engine ranking, blogosphere mentions).
1. What Are Outcomes?
Unlike outputs (which measure what was done, like how many people saw an ad or attended an
event), outcomes measure what actually changed in people’s minds or actions because of the
communication.
Outcomes can be divided into three types:
A. Cognitive Outcomes (What people think and remember)
These measure whether people got the message and how well they understood or remembered it.
• Reception – Did the audience see, hear, or read the message?
• Understanding – Did they comprehend what it meant?
• Memory (Recall & Retention)
• Recall – Can they repeat the message exactly as they heard it?
• Retention – Do they remember the key themes but in their own words?
• Immediate Reaction – Did they take a small action, like visiting a website after seeing an ad?
Example:
A company sends out a yer about a new product. If people remember the yer and visit the
website, that’s a cognitive outcome.
B. A ective Outcomes (What people feel and prefer)
These measure changes in emotions, opinions, interests, and attitudes.
• Opinion Change – Did people express new thoughts about the topic?
• Attitude Change – Did their deep-seated beliefs or feelings about the brand change?
• Interest Level – Did people become more or less interested in the brand or issue?
Example:
After watching an ad about environmental sustainability, someone who didn’t care before might
start feeling positive about eco-friendly brands.
C. Conative Outcomes (What people do)
These measure actual behavior changes, which are the hardest to achieve.
• Did people start a new habit? (e.g., buying a product regularly)
• Did they stop a harmful habit? (e.g., quitting smoking after a health campaign)
• Did they take a meaningful action? (e.g., donating to a charity after a campaign)
Example:
A public health campaign tells people about the dangers of smoking. If someone actually quits
smoking, that’s a conative outcome.
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2. The “Substitution Error” (Common Mistake in Measurement)
A big mistake in communication evaluation is confusing outputs with outcomes.
• Example of an Output (Mistake): “10,000 people attended our event.”
• Example of an Outcome (Correct): “People at the event changed their opinions about climate
change.”
Just because an event had a big audience doesn’t mean it had a real impact.
3. Measuring Outcomes at Di erent Stages
There are three ways to measure outcomes:
1. Ex-ante (Before the activity starts) – Measure what people already know or think before the
campaign begins.
2. In itinere (During the campaign) – Measure how opinions and behaviors are changing over
time.
3. Ex-post (After the campaign ends) – Measure long-term e ects to see if the campaign had a
lasting impact.
Summary
• Outputs = What was done (e.g., number of ads, website visits, event attendance).
• Outcomes = What changed in people’s thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.
• Cognitive (Thinking & remembering)
• A ective (Feeling & opinions)
• Conative (Actual behavior change)
• Common mistake: Counting outputs as success when only outcomes show true impact.
• Best practice: Measure outcomes before, during, and after a campaign to understand its full
e ect.
Integrating Planning and Evaluation in Communication
To ensure that a communication activity is successful, it is important to plan and evaluate it at the
same time. This means that evaluation should not be an afterthought but should be included
throughout the process of designing and managing communication.
1. Why is Continuous Evaluation Important?
• It helps make ongoing improvements to the communication strategy.
• It reduces the risk of failure by identifying issues early.
• It ensures that the communication activity stays aligned with its goals.
2. The Three Phases of Evaluation
1. Ex-ante evaluation (Before the campaign starts)
• Checks if the initial research and communication plan make sense.
• Ensures the plan is realistic and aligned with the organization’s goals.
2. In-itinere evaluation (During the campaign)
• Tracks progress to see if objectives are being met.
• Allows for adjustments if needed.
3. Ex-post evaluation (After the campaign ends)
• Determines if the campaign was successful or not.
• Measures long-term impact on the audience and organization.
3. How to Set Clear Communication Goals?
The rst step in evaluation is to de ne clear communication objectives that can be measured. One
common approach is using the SMART framework:
• Speci c – Goals should clearly de ne what needs to be achieved and who is involved.
• Measurable – Goals should include numbers to track progress (e.g., “increase website tra c by
20%”).
• Achievable – Goals should be realistic based on available resources.
• Relevant – Goals should align with the organization’s overall mission.
• Time-based – Goals should have a deadline (e.g., “achieve this within six months”).
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To improve clarity, organizations often:
• Break down big goals into smaller sub-goals.
• Prioritize objectives from most to least important.
• Assign responsibility to speci c team members.
4. Short, Medium, and Long-Term Evaluation
Evaluation should not just focus on immediate results. It should also look at the long-term bene ts
for the organization.
• Short-term evaluation – Measures immediate responses, like social media engagement or
website visits.
• Medium-term evaluation – Looks at changes in attitudes and opinions over time.
• Long-term evaluation – Determines if the campaign had a lasting impact, such as increased
customer loyalty or behavior change.
Summary
• Evaluation should be built into the communication process, not done separately.
• There are three phases of evaluation: before (ex-ante), during (in-itinere), and after (ex-post).
• Goals should follow the SMART method to ensure they are clear and measurable.
• Evaluation should measure both short-term results and long-term impact on the organization.
Case Study: Volvo XC90 Launch Evaluation
In 2002, Volvo launched its new XC90 SUV to compete with Mercedes and BMW in the 4x4
market. Since this was a major investment, Volvo hired a public relations agency (Millward Brown
Precis) to create a communication and evaluation plan for the UK market.
How Volvo Measured the Success of the Launch
1. Measuring Outputs (Media Coverage and Visibility)
• Volvo tracked media coverage (articles in newspapers and magazines) from the Detroit Motor
Show (Jan 2002) to the car’s o cial release.
• They created a PR Impact Index to measure how much media attention the XC90 received
compared to competitors.
• The results showed that Mercedes and BMW’s visibility declined, while the XC90’s visibility kept
increasing.
• Over 15 months, the XC90 launch made up 45% of all Volvo brand visibility.
• People’s perception of the car was mostly positive, especially for its design and safety, but some
negative feedback was about its steering.
• 85% of UK adults saw at least one advertisement, and for potential buyers, this increased to
96%.
What this means: Volvo successfully kept people talking about the XC90, generating strong
media attention compared to competitors.
2. Measuring Outcomes (Customer Knowledge & Opinions)
• Volvo didn’t just track visibility but also measured how well customers understood the car.
They focused on two key areas:
• Cognitive outcomes (knowledge): Did people know about the XC90? Did they remember its
features?
• A ective outcomes (opinions): Did they like the XC90? Did they view it as better than
competitors?
What this means: Volvo wanted to know not just how many people saw their ads, but whether
they actually remembered and liked the car.
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3. Measuring Behavioral Outcomes (Customer Actions)
Volvo tracked real customer actions, such as:
• Website visits – Did more people check out Volvo’s website?
• Dealer visits – Did more people visit showrooms to see the XC90?
• Pre-orders – Did people start buying the XC90 before it was o cially available?
• When Volvo opened orders for the XC90, demand was higher than expected.
What this means: The marketing campaign successfully convinced customers to take action
(visiting dealers, placing orders).
The Big Decision: Cancelling the Advertising Campaign
• Volvo had planned a big advertising campaign, but since demand was already high, they tested
its impact on sales.
• After one month, sales didn’t increase from advertising, so Volvo stopped the campaign.
• This decision saved the company £2.5 million.
What this means: By monitoring results in real-time, Volvo avoided wasting money on
unnecessary advertising.
Why Volvo’s Evaluation Was Successful (SMART Goals)
Volvo’s success was because their evaluation was based on SMART objectives:
• Speci c → Focused on whether customers knew about the XC90 and liked it.
• Measurable → Compared results with competitors’ performance.
• Achievable → Set realistic goals.
• Relevant → Aligned with Volvo’s main goal: selling the XC90.
• Time-based → Measured results between the Detroit Motor Show and the UK release.
Final Takeaway:
• Volvo used a data-driven approach to track its launch success.
• By evaluating visibility, customer knowledge, opinions, and behavior, they ensured smart
marketing decisions.
• By adjusting their strategy early, they avoided unnecessary costs and maximized their impact.
Understanding Evaluation Methods in Communication
Before diving into di erent theories on evaluation and performance measurement, it’s important to
understand the basic research methods used in public relations and corporate communication.
This section explains di erent research techniques that communication professionals use to
evaluate campaigns.
1. Two Types of Research: Primary vs. Secondary
• Primary Research → Collecting new data through direct observation, experiments, surveys, or
interviews.
• Example: Conducting focus groups to understand how customers feel about a new car model.
• Secondary Research → Using existing data from past studies, reports, or industry benchmarks.
• Example: Checking old customer surveys to see trends in car preferences over time.
Why it matters: Primary research gives fresh and accurate insights, but secondary research helps
identify trends and set benchmarks.
2. Types of Primary Research
A. Qualitative Research (Understanding Feelings & Motivations)
Used to explore opinions, emotions, and experiences. The results are not always generalisable
but provide deep insights.
• Focus Groups → A small group discussion (8-10 people) led by a moderator to generate ideas
and feedback.
• Individual Interviews → One-on-one conversations for detailed opinions (but time-consuming).
• Projective Techniques → Used in psychology to uncover deep emotions (e.g., word
association, storytelling).
• Netnography → Studying online behaviors (e.g., social media discussions about a product).
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Why it matters: Qualitative research explores people’s thoughts but doesn’t always represent a
larger population.
B. Quantitative Research (Measuring & Analyzing Data)
Focuses on numbers and statistics to analyze customer behaviors and trends.
• Surveys → A structured questionnaire given to a large sample of people to collect data.
• Sampling → Choosing the right group of people to ensure results represent the target audience.
Why it matters: Quantitative research allows data-driven decisions, but it can be expensive.
C. Experimental Research (Testing Cause & E ect)
Used to test the impact of communication e orts.
• Experimental Group → A group exposed to a message or campaign.
• Control Group → A group not exposed to the message (for comparison).
• Before-and-After Technique → Measuring opinions before and after exposure to a campaign.
Why it matters: Helps prove if a campaign actually changed people’s behavior or opinions.
3. Other Evaluation Methods
• Trend Analysis → Measuring actual vs. predicted performance (e.g., comparing expected vs.
actual car orders).
• Expert Estimation → Asking experts or employees to estimate how much a campaign
in uenced behavior.
• Monetary Value Conversion → Assigning nancial value to communication results (e.g., How
much is a 1% improvement in employee relations worth to a company?).
Volvo used multiple research methods to evaluate the XC90 launch:
Media Monitoring (Quantitative) → Tracked visibility and compared it to competitors.
Surveys (Quantitative) → Measured customer awareness and opinions.
Website & Dealer Visits (Behavioral) → Checked if people took action after seeing the
campaign.
Trend Analysis → Monitored order trends to measure campaign impact.
Big Takeaway: When Volvo saw that demand was high, they canceled a planned advertising
campaign, saving £2.5 million.
Final Thoughts
• Good research combines multiple methods (qualitative + quantitative + experimental).
• Measuring communication impact helps companies make smart decisions (e.g., cutting
unnecessary ads).
• Understanding customers’ thoughts and behaviors is key to successful campaigns.
Di erence Between Process Evaluation and Performance Measurement
Both evaluation and measurement help organizations understand how well their communication
e orts are working. However, they serve di erent purposes and are used by di erent people
within a company.
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1. What is Evaluation?
Evaluation focuses on how and why a communication process achieved (or failed to achieve) its
goals.
Purpose: To help communication professionals improve their strategies and methods over time.
Key Questions Answered:
• Did the communication campaign achieve its goal?
• Why did it work (or not work)?
• What can we learn for the future?
Example: A company launches a new employee newsletter. Evaluation would analyze whether
employees found it useful, what topics they liked, and how it could be improved.
2. What is Performance Measurement?
Performance measurement focuses on quantifying the contribution of communication e orts to
overall business success.
Purpose: To show top management how communication e orts impact the company’s
performance in measurable terms.
Key Questions Answered:
• How much did communication e orts increase sales or brand awareness?
• What are the key performance indicators (KPIs) that show communication success?
Example: A company tracks how many customers saw an ad and then bought a product. This
quanti es the impact of communication on sales.
3. Key Di erences Between Evaluation & Measurement
Feature
Evaluation
Performance Measurement
Focus
Understanding why
communication worked or
didn’t work
Measuring the impact of
communication on business
results
Who Uses It?
Communication teams &
managers
Executives & top management
Timeframe
One-time analysis after a
campaign
Ongoing tracking over time
Methods
Surveys, interviews, case
studies
Data analysis, KPIs,
dashboards
Cost
More expensive (requires a
separate budget)
Less expensive (part of routine
business tracking)
4. Evaluation Research: Understanding What Works
Evaluation comes from sociology and social sciences.
It requires careful research to:
• Analyze what worked and what didn’t
• Understand audience reactions
• Improve future communication e orts
Example: A company sponsors a sports event. Instead of using the same method to evaluate it
every time, they analyze each event separately, considering its speci c audience, location, and
goals.
Key challenge: Many public relations professionals rely on intuition rather than data, making
evaluation less scienti c. However, using structured methods improves accuracy and removes
bias.
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5. Performance Measurement: Tracking KPIs Over Time
Unlike evaluation, performance measurement is continuous and standardized.
Key aspects:
Uses consistent metrics (KPIs) like engagement rates, ad impressions, and sales.
Integrated into business reporting systems for long-term tracking.
Less costly because it doesn’t require new resources for every campaign.
Example: A company sets up a marketing dashboard to track social media engagement, website
visits, and conversion rates every month.
Final Thoughts
• Evaluation helps improve communication strategies by studying past campaigns.
• Performance measurement translates communication success into business language (numbers
and KPIs).
Both are important: Companies need evaluation to learn and improve, and measurement to
prove value to executives.
Understanding Performance Measurement in Simple Terms
Performance measurement is about tracking and quantifying how well communication activities
contribute to an organization’s overall success. Unlike evaluation, which focuses on learning and
improving, performance measurement is used to monitor progress, control outcomes, and ensure
accountability to stakeholders.
1. What is Performance Measurement?
Performance measurement comes from business strategy, management, and accounting. It uses
economic and managerial data to show the impact of communication on an organization’s
success.
Purpose:
Helps management monitor progress and ensure communication activities are e ective.
Quanti es success using measurable indicators like revenue growth, customer satisfaction, or
employee engagement.
Ensures accountability by checking if communication e orts match company goals.
Example: A company runs a marketing campaign. Performance measurement tracks sales
growth, customer feedback, and return on investment (ROI) to see if the campaign was
successful.
2. Performance Measurement & Accountability
Performance measurement helps businesses take responsibility for their actions, a concept called
“accountability.”
It checks:
• Did we achieve our goals?
• Are we using resources e ciently?
• Are we meeting expectations of stakeholders (investors, employees, customers, community,
etc.)?
Example: If a company promises investors a 10% increase in revenue after a branding campaign,
performance measurement veri es if that goal was met.
3. The Role of Financial Performance
Traditionally, companies focused mostly on economic and nancial results, such as:
• Attracting investors and improving nancial stability
• Increasing revenue, productivity, and reducing costs
• Managing risks and using company resources e ciently
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However, in today’s business world, nancial success is not the only measure of performance.
Organizations also evaluate other factors, like employee well-being, customer satisfaction, and
community impact.
Example: A company investing in sustainability initiatives will measure not just pro t but also its
environmental and social impact.
4. Expanding Performance Beyond Finance: The Balanced Scorecard
The Balanced Scorecard is a tool used to measure communication success in multiple areas
beyond just nancial results. It covers:
Performance Area
What It Measures
Examples
Customer Satisfaction
Meeting customer needs
through quality products &
services
Market share, customer
loyalty, customer satisfaction
ratings
Community Impact
Relationship between the
company and the local
community
Environmental impact,
corporate social responsibility
initiatives
Internal Processes
E ciency & e ectiveness of
business operations
Workplace safety, project
completion rates, employee
suggestions for improvements
Employee Performance
Productivity, engagement, and Employee satisfaction,
retention
turnover rates, absenteeism
Learning & Growth
Innovation and company
development
Employee skill improvement,
motivation, leadership
development
5. Why Performance Measurement Matters
1) Helps businesses make better decisions (e.g., choosing where to invest resources)
2) Ensures transparency with stakeholders
3) Encourages accountability and continuous improvement
4) Provides data for strategic planning
Final Thoughts
Performance measurement is about tracking progress, ensuring accountability, and making datadriven decisions. While nancial performance is important, companies today also measure
customer satisfaction, employee well-being, and community impact to create long-term success.
Understanding the Communication Performance Management Model in Simple Terms
The Communication Performance Management Model is about combining two important
approaches to evaluating communication: Evaluation Research and Performance Measurement.
Scholars have found that managing both together, rather than separately, has many bene ts.
Here’s a breakdown of the key ideas:
1. Why Combine Evaluation Research and Performance Measurement?
• Evaluation Research helps us understand how communication works and the impact it has on
the audience (the results). It focuses on learning and improving.
• Performance Measurement tracks whether communication e orts are achieving speci c goals
and quanti es the results (using data like sales, customer satisfaction, etc.).
If you use only evaluation without measuring performance, you might miss understanding how
valuable your communication e orts were for the company. On the other hand, just measuring
performance without evaluating the process won’t tell you why certain results were achieved or
how to improve future communication e orts.
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Combining both is helpful because:
• Evaluation shows you why things worked or didn’t work in your communication strategies.
• Performance measurement helps track progress and show results in ways other business
functions (like nance or management) understand.
2. Four Types of Complementarities Between Evaluation and Measurement
Rist (2006) outlines four ways that evaluation and performance measurement complement each
other:
1. Sequential Complementarity
• What it means: Measurement can raise important questions that need to be answered through
evaluation. For example, you might notice from measurement that sales are up after a campaign,
but you need evaluation to explain why it happened.
• On the ip side, evaluation can give insights that require ongoing performance monitoring. For
example, an evaluation might suggest a speci c communication approach, but performance
measurement is needed to see how well it works over time.
2. Information Complementarity
• What it means: Both evaluation and measurement often use the same data sources. For
example, you might gather data from customer surveys or website tra c. However, the purpose
of the data is di erent:
• Evaluation looks at why certain outcomes occurred.
• Measurement looks at how much of an outcome occurred.
So, even though you’re gathering similar information, you’re using it for di erent purposes.
3. Organizational Complementarity
• What it means: In many organizations, evaluation and performance measurement are managed
by the same team or department. This is e cient because both activities are connected in helping
the organization improve communication e orts and understand their value.
4. Methodological Complementarity
• What it means: Both evaluation and performance measurement share similar tools and methods
for planning, collecting data, and analyzing results. This means that the techniques used to gather
and process data are often the same for both. The di erence is in how the data is used:
• Evaluation focuses more on understanding and improving communication.
• Performance measurement focuses on tracking success and providing data to management.
3. Why is This Combination Important?
• Combining evaluation and measurement makes communication management more strategic.
• It allows communication teams to learn from both successes and failures (from evaluation) and
demonstrate concrete results (from performance measurement).
• This approach helps ensure that communication e orts are both e ective (achieving goals) and
e cient (using resources wisely).
In Simple Terms:
Imagine you’re running a marketing campaign.
• Performance Measurement will help you see if you increased sales, how many people interacted
with your ads, and what the ROI (return on investment) was.
• Evaluation Research will help you understand why certain messages resonated with customers,
what could have been improved, and how external factors (like timing or media) a ected the
results.
By combining these approaches, you get a complete picture: You not only know what worked,
but you also understand why it worked, and how to make it even better next time.
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Simpli ed Explanation of the Principles in the Communication Performance Management
Model
This section talks about a model for managing and improving communication processes, blending
both evaluation and performance measurement into one system. It’s based on four key principles
that guide how to evaluate and measure communication e ectively:
1. Theory Drives Practice
• What it means: To evaluate communication e ectively, professionals need to understand how
communication works (the theory behind it). This knowledge guides the evaluation process.
• How it works: A logic model helps visualize how communication processes work. It shows how
the resources used (inputs) lead to activities, and how those activities generate results (outputs). It
also connects these results to the bigger goals (outcomes).
• For example, if a company spends money on a marketing campaign (input), the activities might
be creating ads (activity), which lead to customer engagement (output), which then hopefully
increases sales or improves brand awareness (outcome).
• Why it’s important: By understanding how communication works (theory), you can more
e ectively evaluate whether it’s working as expected, and how it can be improved.
2. Decision-Making Orientation
• What it means: The goal of evaluation is to inform decisions. The results of the evaluation
should be used to make better choices in the future, whether that’s improving communication
strategies or deciding how to allocate resources.
• How it works: Before starting an evaluation, you must know who will use the results and what
information they need. These stakeholders (such as managers or clients) in uence what gets
evaluated, how resources are allocated, and how the results are shared.
• Why it’s important: Ensuring that the results help the people who will be using them makes the
evaluation more relevant and impactful.
3. Situationality
• What it means: Evaluation and measurement must take the context into account. They are not
one-size- ts-all and can be in uenced by many factors, such as the company’s environment or
the speci c audience being targeted.
• How it works: Evaluating communication is not just about applying tools and techniques; it’s
about understanding the speci c situation. The evaluator needs to adapt their methods to the
context and be sensitive to the factors that might a ect the results.
• Why it’s important: If you don’t consider the context, the results of your evaluation might not be
accurate or useful. For example, a marketing campaign might perform di erently in di erent
regions or during di erent seasons.
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4. Relationality
• What it means: Evaluation and measurement involve many di erent stakeholders, and
relationships with these stakeholders are key. You need to involve the right people at the right
times to ensure the evaluation is e ective and useful.
• How it works:
• Stakeholders are the people or groups that have an interest in the evaluation results (like
decision-makers, customers, team members, etc.). It’s important to listen to them from the start to
understand their needs and expectations.
• Champions of evaluation: These are people who actively support and promote the evaluation
process, helping to create a positive culture around it.
• Workshops and discussions: The results of the evaluation can be shared through group
discussions, allowing for di erent perspectives on the ndings and how to use them.
• Why it’s important: If you involve the right people and maintain good relationships with
stakeholders, the evaluation process will be more successful, and the results will be more likely to
lead to positive change.
This approach ensures that communication e orts are evaluated comprehensively and are
relevant to the speci c needs of the organization. Would you like more details on any of these
principles?
Simpli ed Explanation of the Stages in the Communication Performance Management
(CPM) Model
The Communication Performance Management (CPM) model helps business communicators
improve their communication e orts by considering both evaluation and measurement. The CPM
model is divided into four stages that guide how to manage and assess communication
e ectively:
1. Involving the Users of the Results
• What it means: Before you start the evaluation or measurement process, it’s important to
involve the people who will use the results (like managers or team members). These people
should be part of the planning process so you can understand what they need and expect from
the evaluation.
• Why it’s important: By involving users early on, you ensure that the evaluation focuses on what
matters most to them and that the results will be useful in decision-making later.
2. Choosing the Level of Evaluation
• What it means: You need to decide how deeply you want to evaluate the communication
process. This step involves determining the scope of the evaluation. Are you evaluating the whole
communication strategy or just a speci c part (like an individual campaign)?
• Why it’s important: Choosing the right level of evaluation helps to focus your e orts and
resources on the most important aspects of the communication process. You don’t need to
evaluate everything in detail—just what’s most important for achieving your goals.
3. Implementing the Evaluation Plan
• What it means: Once you’ve made the decisions about what to evaluate and who to involve, it’s
time to actually carry out the evaluation. This involves collecting data, measuring the success of
communication e orts, and analyzing how well the goals were met.
• Why it’s important: This stage puts your plan into action and allows you to gather the
information needed to understand the e ectiveness of your communication e orts.
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4. Engaging and Communicating the Results
• What it means: After the evaluation is complete, you need to share the results with the
stakeholders who were involved. This communication step ensures that everyone understands the
ndings, what worked well, and what could be improved.
• Why it’s important: Sharing results helps everyone involved to learn from the evaluation and
take action based on the ndings. It’s also a chance to foster transparency and improve
relationships with stakeholders.
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In Simple Terms:
Imagine you’re running a company and you want to evaluate the e ectiveness of your
communication (like marketing campaigns or internal communications).
• Theory drives practice means you need to understand the theory behind how communication
works. By knowing how things should function, you can gure out if they actually worked and
why.
• Decision-making orientation means that the goal of your evaluation is to help make better
decisions. You want to know what worked, but also use that info to improve future decisions.
• Situationality means you can’t just use the same method every time. Each situation is di erent,
and you need to adapt your evaluation to t the speci c context.
• Relationality means involving the right people and maintaining good relationships with them.
They need to be informed and involved for the evaluation to be successful and to ensure the
results lead to real change.
In Simple Terms:
The CPM model is about making sure that communication e orts in a business are evaluated and
measured in a way that helps improve performance. The four stages guide you through the
process:
1. Involve the people who will use the results from the start, so the evaluation meets their needs.
2. Decide how deeply you want to evaluate the communication e orts (i.e., do you look at the
whole picture or focus on a speci c part?).
3. Carry out the evaluation by collecting data and analyzing the results.
4. Share the results with everyone involved, so they can learn from the ndings and improve future
e orts.
These stages help ensure that the evaluation and measurement are relevant, useful, and lead to
real improvements in business communication. Would you like more details on any stage?
Involving the Users of the Results (Simpli ed Explanation)
This step focuses on making sure the right people are involved in the evaluation process and that
everyone’s expectations are aligned. It’s one of the most important and complex stages of
evaluating communication activities, and it can heavily impact how satis ed top management is
with the results.
Here’s how it works:
What is Involved in this Step?
1. Identify the Users of the Results:
• These are the people who will use the results of the evaluation, like managers or decisionmakers. It’s important to know who they are from the beginning.
• You need to understand their motivations: Why do they want the evaluation done? What do they
expect to learn from it?
2. Align Expectations:
• You need to make sure that the people involved (like top management) understand and agree on
the goals of the evaluation. What do they want the evaluation to show? What decisions will they
make based on the results?
• If there’s a misunderstanding about what the evaluation will achieve, it can lead to
dissatisfaction later.
3. Understand the Decision-Making Process:
• The communicator (the person in charge of the evaluation) needs to understand what decisions
will be made based on the evaluation. What outcomes are expected from communication
e orts, and how will those results be translated into actions or strategies?
4. Address Unreasonable Requests:
• Sometimes, users might have unrealistic expectations or requests for the evaluation. The
communicator needs to assess whether these requests are practical or not and discuss them if
necessary.
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5. Reconstructing the Logic Model:
• In this stage, the communicator might work with the users to reconstruct the “logic model” of
the communication process. This means mapping out how the communication e orts are
supposed to work, from resources and activities to outputs and results.
• By doing this, it helps everyone understand what e ects the communication is expected to have
and what might in uence those e ects (like external factors).
Why is This Important?
• Alignment of Expectations: If everyone is on the same page about what the evaluation should
show, it avoids confusion or frustration later on.
• Clear Understanding: Knowing who is using the results and why helps the communicator tailor
the evaluation to provide the most useful information for decision-making.
• Improved Results: Involving the right people and getting their input early on makes the process
smoother and ensures the evaluation will truly measure what’s needed.
In Short:
This stage is about getting the right people involved, understanding what they need from the
evaluation, and making sure everyone’s expectations are clear. By doing this, the evaluation
process is more likely to meet the needs of those who will use the results, and it helps make the
evaluation more useful and accurate.
Choosing the Level of Evaluation (Simpli ed Explanation)
In this step, you determine the type of evaluation to do based on the decisions you want to make.
The goal is to ensure that the evaluation process provides useful information to help make
important decisions, not just to collect data for the sake of it.
Why is this important?
Evaluations are not just about gathering data or writing big reports. They should help make
decisions. The question to ask is: Who will use the results, and what decisions will they need to
make from it?
Typical decisions might include:
• Should we keep doing this activity, or stop it?
• How can we improve the way we’re working?
• Should we use a di erent strategy or technique?
• Where should we allocate resources?
• Should we try this approach elsewhere, or not?
The level of evaluation you choose depends on what decisions you want to make with the results.
The Four Levels of Evaluation:
1. Cognitive Level:
• Purpose: To gather information that helps you understand the context and the target audience.
• Use: This level helps design the communication plan and can be used for similar activities in
di erent situations. For example, understanding what the audience wants and what factors
a ect your communication.
2. Formative Level:
• Purpose: To improve communication e orts during or after they happen.
• Use: This level looks at how to adjust the strategies and tactics used during communication to
make them more e ective. It’s about ne-tuning the process as it unfolds.
3. Summative Level:
• Purpose: To determine whether communication goals were achieved.
• Use: It helps decide whether to continue or stop a project, whether speci c strategies worked,
or whether a certain approach should be changed or discarded. It helps in deciding what
worked and what didn’t.
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4. Accountability Level:
• Purpose: To measure the impact of communication e orts on overall organizational goals.
• Use: This level is especially important when deciding how to allocate resources. It helps
determine how well the communication activities contributed to the organization’s goals.
In Simple Terms:
You choose the evaluation level based on the decisions you need to make. The levels are:
1. Cognitive – Understanding your audience and context.
2. Formative – Improving communication while it’s happening.
3. Summative – Checking if goals were achieved to decide whether to continue or change things.
4. Accountability – Measuring the overall impact on the organization, especially for resource
allocation.
By knowing what decisions need to be made, you can choose the right level of evaluation to help
you make the best choices.
Cognitive Level: Simpli ed Explanation
At the cognitive level, the main goal is to gather useful information before you design a
communication plan. This helps you understand your audience, the context, and how to set clear
goals for communication.
Here’s how it works:
1. Understanding Context and Target Audience:
The cognitive level is focused on getting the right information about the situation and the
audience before you create a communication strategy. This information will guide everything you
do, like:
• What does the audience need?
• What are the goals?
• What is the best strategy to achieve those goals?
2. Communication Needs Assessment:
A communication needs assessment helps you gure out what’s missing or what’s not working in
the current communication. You analyze the current situation and see where there are gaps in the
way you communicate with your audience. This helps you design better plans and avoid wasting
resources.
There are two types of assessments:
• Reactive: Happens when something has already gone wrong (e.g., poor customer satisfaction).
• Proactive: Happens before a problem arises, helping you plan ahead for future needs.
You can use qualitative methods (like interviews) or quantitative methods (like surveys) depending
on your needs.
3. How to Collect Information:
To understand communication needs, you can:
• Conduct interviews with a small group of people.
• Run focus groups to dig deeper into people’s thoughts.
• Use surveys if you have a larger group.
For example, if you’re working inside a company, you might use a survey to assess how
employees feel about internal communication.
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4. Understanding What Drives Behavior (Audience Behavior):
The cognitive level helps you understand what in uences your audience’s behavior. For example:
• South West Airlines used cognitive assessment to gure out how to improve its website so that
potential customers could nd it easily through search engines.
• Ericsson wanted to understand what in uences people to buy phones, and they found that
brand awareness was a key factor, so they focused their communication on building the brand’s
image.
5. Setting Benchmarks:
You can use benchmarks (standards or points of reference) to compare and measure your
communication success. These could be:
• Past performance (How did you do before?)
• Competitor comparison (What are others doing?)
• Scienti c research (Studies on best practices)
6. Cost-Bene t Analysis:
A cost-bene t analysis helps you gure out whether a communication project is worth doing. You
calculate the costs of the project and compare them to the expected bene ts. If the bene ts are
greater than the costs, it’s a good project to pursue. If not, you may need to reconsider it.
A positive bene t-cost ratio means you’re likely to earn more from the project than you spent. If
the project doesn’t meet the minimum acceptable cost-bene t ratio, it should not be chosen.
Summary in Simple Terms:
At the cognitive level, you focus on gathering the right information before you start creating your
communication plan. This involves:
• Understanding your audience’s needs.
• Assessing how communication is currently working.
• Using interviews, surveys, or research to get the information.
• Setting measurable goals based on benchmarks.
• Running a cost-bene t analysis to make sure your project is nancially worthwhile.
This stage helps you make informed decisions and set a clear direction for your communication
e orts.
Communication Quality Audit Model (Vos, 2009) - Simpli ed Explanation
The Communication Quality Audit Model created by Marita Vos (2009) is used to evaluate the
quality of communication in organizations, especially public organizations. The model involves a
questionnaire with 18 questions that help assess di erent aspects of how an organization
communicates internally and externally. The main areas assessed are:
1. Transparency:
This checks how clear and understandable the organization’s communication is. It asks how well
the organization explains its priorities and activities, and whether its messages are easy to
understand.
• Example Question: “How clear are the organization’s priorities and policies?”
2. Accessibility:
This evaluates how easy it is for people (employees, citizens, stakeholders) to nd relevant
information and contact the organization’s leaders. It looks at whether the organization’s systems
and procedures are easy to access.
• Example Question: “How easy is it for people to access the organization’s procedures and
contact the right people?”
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3. Publicity through the Media:
This measures how well the organization uses di erent media channels (like TV, newspapers,
social media) to share important information. It checks whether the organization takes initiative in
using the media to spread messages.
• Example Question: “How often does the organization use the media to share new
communication policies?”
4. Accountability:
This checks how committed the organization is to responding to feedback from its stakeholders
(like citizens or employees). It looks at whether there is a system in place for receiving and using
feedback to improve services.
• Example Question: “How well do local o ces answer questions from citizens without needing
to transfer them to a central o ce?”
5. Interactivity:
This checks how well the organization engages with its stakeholders (especially citizens) and
involves them in decisions, like designing new services or improving existing ones. It looks at how
open the organization is to feedback and suggestions.
• Example Question: “How well does the organization involve key publics (like citizens) in
de ning policies?”
6. Policy:
This evaluates how clearly de ned the organization’s communication policies are. It looks at
whether the organization has clear guidelines on how it communicates and whether
communication processes are structured and regularly followed.
• Example Question: “How recognizable are the messages communicated by the organization?”
7. E ectiveness and E ciency:
This checks whether the organization regularly evaluates the e ectiveness of its communication
programs. It also looks at whether resources are used e ciently when implementing
communication activities.
• Example Question: “How often are the messages shared through internal communication tools
evaluated?”
Summary in Simple Terms:
This audit model looks at how well an organization communicates in key areas like:
• Clarity of messages (Transparency)
• Ease of access to information (Accessibility)
• Use of media for communication (Publicity)
• Responsiveness to feedback (Accountability)
• Engagement of stakeholders (Interactivity)
• Clear communication rules (Policy)
• Evaluation and e cient use of resources (E ectiveness and E ciency)
Each area is assessed using questions that ask respondents to rate how well the organization is
doing, usually on a scale from 1 to 5.
Formative Level – Simpli ed Explanation
The formative level of evaluation is all about improving communication during the planning and
execution stages. The goal is to get feedback and make adjustments to ensure the
communication strategy is e ective and appropriate.
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Key Points to Understand:
1. Purpose of Formative Evaluation:
• Before and After Feedback: It helps improve how the communication program is set up (before
it starts) and how it’s carried out (after it starts).
• Improvement Focus: It’s about getting feedback that helps make changes to improve the
implementation of the communication strategy.
2. Adequateness:
• Strategic Fit: Adequateness focuses on whether the communication plan aligns with the overall
strategy and the needs of the target audience.
• Example: Imagine a healthcare company wants to encourage people to cancel unused medical
appointments. The communication strategy needs to be suited to the speci c audience. If the
local community has high in uence (power) but low interest in the issue, then just giving them
information (like yers or a website) might not work. Emotional involvement, like a community
event, could be more e ective.
• Approach: This is about making sure the strategy ts the problem and the people you’re
communicating with.
3. Appropriateness:
• Tactical and Practical Side: Appropriateness focuses on how the communication plan is
actually implemented. It’s about checking if the strategy has been put into action in the right way.
• Two Types:
• Ex Ante (Before): This is when you evaluate or test certain elements before implementing the
full plan. For example, you might test key messages on a small group to see how they react.
• Ex Post (After): This happens after the communication is done. It’s about checking how well the
actual execution worked by asking the target audience if they were satis ed with the event or
communication tools (e.g., Was the event venue good? Did the participants like the speakers?).
In Simple Terms:
• Adequateness is about making sure the communication plan is strategically sound and aligns
with the needs of the audience.
• Appropriateness is about making sure the execution (how it’s carried out) is done well, both
before and after it happens.
So, the formative level helps improve the plan before it starts (is it a good t?) and during or after
it’s implemented (did it work well with the audience?).
Model for Evaluating the Relational Orientation of a Website (Kent & Taylor, 1998) –
Simpli ed Explanation:
This model helps evaluate how well an organization’s website supports dialogue and interaction
with its audience. It focuses on ve key principles that guide e ective online communication. The
website is scored based on the presence (1 point) or absence (0 points) of certain elements that
support these principles.
Key Principles of the Model:
1. Ease of the Interface:
• This principle looks at how easy and pleasant it is to use the website. It’s about making sure
visitors can nd what they need without hassle.
• What makes it easy?
• Information is organized clearly into categories (like sections for news, products, etc.).
• There’s a search engine or navigation map on the homepage to help visitors nd things easily.
• The website has a clean and simple design, with text being the main focus (too many images
can slow down navigation).
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2. Usefulness of Information:
• This principle ensures that the website provides relevant, useful, and diverse information for
di erent types of visitors (media, customers, investors, etc.).
• What should the website include?
• General info about the company (e.g., history, activities, products).
• Information divided into sections for di erent audiences (e.g., news for customers, press
releases for the media).
• Data like reports, nancial results, and other updates about the company.
3. Generation of Return Visits:
• This principle is about making the website attractive and engaging enough to bring visitors
back.
• How to generate return visits:
• Links to other interesting sites or blogs.
• External links to related resources.
• Invitations for visitors to return to the website (e.g., updates or new content).
• Keeping the homepage up-to-date with fresh news.
4. Conservation of Visitors:
• This principle is about keeping visitors engaged and interested in spending more time on the
website.
• How to keep visitors interested:
• Keep the information on the website updated regularly.
• O er options like downloading materials or reading FAQs (Frequently Asked Questions).
• Provide an events calendar to show upcoming activities.
• Avoid annoying pop-up ads or banners, which can drive visitors away.
5. Creation of Dialogic Loops:
• This principle focuses on creating two-way communication, allowing visitors to ask questions
and interact directly with the organization.
• How to encourage dialogue:
• Include contact information for easy communication.
• Allow visitors to comment or engage with content (like blog posts or news).
• O er tools like Skype or chat for instant conversations, making it easy to get in touch with the
company.
In Simple Terms:
This model measures how well a website allows for communication and interaction with visitors.
The ve principles ensure the site is easy to use, o ers helpful information, brings visitors back,
keeps them interested, and encourages two-way conversations. Each principle has speci c
features that can be checked to see if they are present or missing.
Summative Level - Simpli ed Explanation
The summative level is used to evaluate the overall success of a communication project. It looks
at the nal results to determine if the communication objectives were achieved and whether the
e ort was worth the cost. Here’s a breakdown of what it involves:
Key Concepts:
1. Output:
• This refers to the work done in the communication activity (e.g., how many ads were created,
how many emails were sent, etc.).
2. Outcome:
• This focuses on the results or e ects that the communication had on the audience (e.g., did
people take the action we wanted, such as buying a product or attending an event?).
3. E ectiveness:
• E ectiveness answers the question: Did the communication achieve the goals we set? For
example, if the goal was to increase product sales, did the communication lead to more sales?
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4. Cost-e ectiveness:
• Cost-e ectiveness looks at whether the communication e ort was worth the money spent. It
compares the costs (e.g., money and time spent) to the results (e.g., how much more money was
made or how many people were reached).
Measuring Success:
1. Technical E ciency (Productivity):
• This measures how well resources were used. It’s the ratio of inputs to outputs. For example, if a
campaign cost $10,000 and resulted in 500,000 impressions, technical e ciency helps
understand how much was achieved for the money spent.
• It’s useful for comparing similar campaigns, like checking if one project used resources better
than another.
2. Cost-e ectiveness:
• This measures the relationship between costs and outcomes. If the communication activity cost
$5,000 but led to a major increase in sales, it’s considered cost-e ective.
• It’s a way of checking if the bene t of the communication activity is worth the cost.
In Simple Terms:
The summative level evaluates the nal results of communication activities. It checks if the goals
were met, how e ciently resources were used, and whether the e ort was worth the money
spent.
Two key measures are:
• E ciency (how well resources like time and money were used).
• Cost-e ectiveness (whether the communication results were worth the costs).
Accountability Level - Simpli ed Explanation
The accountability level is all about measuring how e ective communication is in helping the
overall performance of an organization, especially in terms of nancial and business results. One
of the key parts of this evaluation is calculating the Return on Investment (ROI) for communication
activities, which helps determine if the e orts were worth the costs.
Key Concepts:
1. Key Performance Indicators (KPIs):
• KPIs are the actions or factors that will drive future success. These are non-monetary measures
and are things that communication professionals focus on and track regularly.
• Example: If the goal is to improve relationships with key clients, the number of exclusive events
held or communication initiatives launched could be KPIs.
2. Performance Indicators (PIs):
• PIs are similar to KPIs but are not as important in terms of directly driving success. They are
more numerous and cover other areas of performance.
• Example: The number of emails sent or the number of social media posts made could be PIs.
3. Key Results Indicators (KRIs):
• KRIs focus on past performance. They show results that have already happened and are
typically measured at longer intervals (monthly, quarterly).
• Example: Market share is a KRI because it’s a result of multiple factors (including
communication e orts) over time.
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Application in Communication:
1. Intangible Assets:
• Communication plays a key role in developing a company’s intangible assets like brand image,
reputation, and relationships with clients. Measuring how communication contributes to these
assets is part of the accountability level.
2. Balanced Scorecard:
• The Balanced Scorecard (BSC) is a tool that helps organizations track their performance through
speci c objectives and measurable indicators. This can be applied to communication strategies.
• It looks at performance in four areas (called perspectives):
• Economic/Financial Perspective:
• Focuses on the e ciency of communication activities and cost reduction.
• Example indicators: The cost of producing a company magazine or how much was spent
compared to the budget.
• Customer Perspective:
• This looks at how communication helps clients, such as employees, by providing timely and
useful information.
• Example indicators: How quickly information is shared with employees or how useful it is for
their work.
• Internal Processes Perspective:
• This evaluates the impact of communication on improving the e ciency and timing of internal
work processes.
• Example indicators: How communication a ects the speed and e ectiveness of daily tasks.
• Learning and Growth Perspective:
• This measures how communication contributes to the development of employees’ knowledge
and skills.
• Example indicators: Training programs or initiatives that improve employee skills in
communication.
In Simple Terms:
The accountability level focuses on measuring how well communication activities are contributing
to the success of the organization, especially in terms of nancial performance and business
goals.
It involves tracking:
• KPIs (actions to drive future success),
• PIs (performance measures),
• KRIs (measuring past results).
Tools like the Balanced Scorecard are used to measure communication performance in areas like
cost, customer satisfaction, internal e ciency, and employee development.
Grunig and Hon’s Stakeholder Relationship Quality Assessment model (2000) focuses on
measuring the quality of relationships between an organization and its stakeholders. The model
identi es four key dimensions of relationship quality:
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1. Control Mutuality
• What it means: This refers to how much the organization listens to and considers the needs and
opinions of stakeholders when making decisions.
• Simple example: If you’re a customer, do you feel that the company listens to your concerns
and adjusts based on what you say?
• How it’s measured: Stakeholders are asked how much the organization listens to them. A
question could be, “To what extent does this organization listen to my needs?” (Scored from 1 to
7)
2. Trust
• What it means: This is about how con dent stakeholders are in the organization’s integrity,
reliability, and competence. Do they believe the organization will do what it says?
• Simple example: If you’re a customer, do you trust that the company will deliver on its promises
and be honest with you?
• How it’s measured: Stakeholders are asked how much they trust the organization. A question
could be, “To what extent does this organization treat people like me honestly and fairly?” (Scored
from 1 to 7)
3. Satisfaction
• What it means: This is the degree to which the stakeholder’s expectations of the relationship
with the organization are met.
• Simple example: Are you happy with the service or relationship you have with the company?
• How it’s measured: Stakeholders are asked how satis ed they are with the relationship. A
question could be, “To what extent are you satis ed with the relationship you have with the
organization?” (Scored from 1 to 7)
4. Commitment
• What it means: This refers to the amount of resources the organization is willing to invest in
maintaining the relationship, as well as its willingness to nurture the relationship over time.
• Simple example: Is the organization willing to put in the e ort to keep a long-term, positive
relationship with you?
• How it’s measured: Stakeholders are asked how much the organization seems interested in
maintaining the relationship. A question could be, “To what extent does the organization want to
maintain a relationship with me?” (Scored from 1 to 7)
Exchange vs. Communal Relationship:
• Exchange Relationship: This type of relationship is based on mutual bene ts. Both the
organization and the stakeholder get something out of it.
• Example: A company provides you with a product or service, and you pay them in return.
• Communal Relationship: This type of relationship is based on the organization’s desire to do
what’s best for the stakeholder, even if they don’t get anything in return.
• Example: A company might go out of its way to help you, even if there’s no immediate bene t
for them.
In Simple Terms:
Grunig and Hon’s model helps measure how good an organization’s relationship is with its
stakeholders (like customers, employees, or investors) by focusing on these four things:
1. How much the organization listens to stakeholders (Control Mutuality).
2. How much stakeholders trust the organization (Trust).
3. How satis ed stakeholders are with the relationship (Satisfaction).
4. How much e ort the organization puts into maintaining the relationship (Commitment).
The quality of the relationship is then measured by whether it’s based more on mutual exchange
(where both sides bene t) or on a communal approach (where the organization genuinely cares for
the stakeholder).
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The Economic Return on Investment (ROI) concept helps businesses gure out if a
communication project is worth the money spent. It’s about seeing if the company is getting more
bene ts from the project than what it spent, or if it can achieve the same results with less
spending.
In simpler terms:
• Economic evaluation looks at whether you can get more bene ts for the same cost, or if you can
get the same bene ts but at a lower cost.
• ROI is a speci c way to measure how much money the company makes from a communication
project compared to how much they spent on it.
Steps to calculate ROI:
1. De ne what you’re measuring: First, you gure out what part of the organization the
communication activity has a ected. For example, it could be employee productivity, sales, or
customer satisfaction.
2. Measure the change: Next, you measure how much this thing (like productivity or sales) has
changed due to the communication activity. For instance, if it’s an employee training course, you
could ask workers, “How much has your productivity improved since the course?”
3. Turn the change into money: Once you know how much the thing you’re measuring has
changed, you turn it into a monetary value. For example, if productivity increased by 10%, you
calculate how much that 10% improvement is worth in terms of revenue or cost savings.
4. Compare bene ts with costs: Finally, you compare the money made or saved (the bene ts)
with how much you spent on the communication activity (the costs). This shows you whether the
project was a good investment.
Example:
Imagine your company runs a training course for employees to improve their productivity.
1. You measure productivity (Step 1).
2. After the training, you send a survey to workers to see how much their productivity improved
(Step 2). Let’s say they report a 10% improvement.
3. Then, you calculate the money saved or made from that 10% improvement (Step 3).
4. Finally, you compare the monetary bene t with the cost of the training to see if it was worth the
investment (Step 4).
A Few Important Points:
• ROI isn’t always as simple as it seems. For example, a 120% ROI isn’t always better than a 90%
ROI. The context matters! For example, during an economic crisis, companies might prefer
investments with a quicker payback period.
• ROI is a ected by time. For long-term projects, you need to think about how quickly you can
recover your investment (the payback period) and how soon you start seeing a return.
Why is ROI hard to measure?
• It’s not just about measuring the bene ts; it’s also about guring out how to calculate the costs
of communication activities, especially when they span over a long time or involve intangible
factors (like brand reputation).
In short:
ROI is a way to measure how much value a communication project brings to the company
compared to what it cost. While the steps for calculating it are simple, understanding and
interpreting the results can be complex and depend on many factors.
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The implementation of the evaluation plan and the communication of results are the nal steps in
managing the e ectiveness of a communication strategy. Here’s what these two steps mean in
simpler terms:
1. Evaluation Plan Implementation:
• Purpose: This phase is about deciding how and when you will evaluate your communication
e orts.
• Steps:
• Methods: You choose how to evaluate (for example, through surveys, interviews, or
experiments).
• Timing: You decide when to measure the success of the plan (e.g., after 3 months, 6 months).
• Considerations: When planning the evaluation, you have to consider any limitations (e.g., lack of
support from stakeholders, missing data) and the resources available (e.g., money, time, and
skills).
2. Communicating Results and Engagement:
• Purpose: Once the evaluation is complete, the results need to be shared with everyone involved
in the process and used to improve future actions.
• Steps:
• Final Report: A nal report is created to summarize everything. The report should be:
• Concise and Clear: Easy for di erent audiences to understand.
• Includes:
• Methodology: Explains the steps taken during the evaluation.
• Strengths and Weaknesses: Discusses what worked well and what didn’t.
• Summary of Results: Highlights what was achieved.
• Suggestions for Improvement: O ers ideas for how to improve things in the future.
• Debate/Discussion (Arena): In addition to the report, another way to communicate the results
is by creating a discussion space (called an “arena”). This is a place where stakeholders can
discuss the evaluation, o er feedback, and share opinions. It’s also a chance to manage
disagreements and build a consensus about what was learned.
In Simple Terms:
• First: You plan how to measure the success of your communication strategy (methods, timing,
resources).
• Then: You evaluate the results, create a clear report summarizing the process, and share the
results with everyone involved. You also hold discussions to get feedback and suggestions for
future improvements.
This process ensures that the communication e orts are analyzed properly and that feedback is
shared to improve future actions.
The section explains the skills needed by public relations professionals to e ectively evaluate and
measure communication outcomes. Here’s a simpler explanation:
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1. Knowledge of Research Methods and Techniques:
• Why It’s Important: PR professionals need to know how to use both qualitative (descriptive) and
quantitative (numerical) research methods to fully understand and control the communication
process.
• Combining Methods: A good PR professional doesn’t just use one type of research; they use
both qualitative (e.g., interviews, focus groups) and quantitative (e.g., surveys, data analysis)
methods together to get a better picture of how communication is working.
• Choosing the Right Method: To choose the best research method, PR professionals need to
understand the strengths and weaknesses of each method. They need to know which method
works best depending on the goal of the evaluation.
2. Understanding Situational Factors:
• Resources Matter: The choice of research methods also depends on the resources available
(money, time, and people). More complex and expensive methods give more accurate results, but
simpler methods might be quicker and cheaper, but less reliable.
• Cost vs. Accuracy: If the research is critical and will heavily in uence decisions, PR
professionals must be careful about using methods that might not provide reliable results, even if
they are quicker and cheaper.
3. Understanding Audience Behavior and Communication Theories:
• Knowledge of How Communication Works: PR professionals need to understand how
audiences behave and how communication processes work. This helps them choose the right
indicators to measure success (e.g., awareness, engagement).
• Acting as Consultants: PR professionals should advise senior management about which
methods or tools work best for measuring communication, and help identify aws in methods that
don’t fully capture what’s happening.
4. Avoiding Outdated Methods:
• Bad Methods to Avoid: Some outdated methods (like Advertising Value Equivalence, which
tries to measure media value by comparing it to advertising costs) should be avoided. Instead,
professionals should focus on more accurate tools to evaluate communication e orts.
• Focusing on Real Impact: It’s important to focus on real e ects of communication activities,
not just surface-level results that don’t re ect true impact.
5. Communication Skills:
• Using Communication Skills in Evaluation: A PR professional’s communication skills are key
in interpreting research results and applying them to the speci c organizational situation. They
must be able to adapt research methods to t the organization’s needs.
• Listening and Responding to Stakeholders: They need to listen to stakeholders (those
involved in the process) to understand their expectations and viewpoints, which might suggest
new ways to interpret the results or propose improvements.
• Clear Communication: When communicating results, the PR professional must make sure the
information is clear, concise, and uses the right language for the audience (e.g., senior managers,
other team members).
In Simple Terms:
PR professionals need a mix of skills:
• Research skills: Know how to use both types of research (qualitative and quantitative) and pick
the best one based on the situation and available resources.
• Understanding communication theories: Know how communication works and choose the
best ways to measure its success.
• Advising management: Act as consultants, suggesting the best methods for evaluation and
pointing out aws in outdated methods.
• Communication skills: Be able to clearly explain research results and listen to others’ views to
improve the evaluation process.
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1. Limitations of GDP as a Measure of Wealth:
• Problem with GDP: GDP is often used to measure the wealth of a nation, but it has aws. It
doesn’t show if the wealth is being used for the bene t of citizens or if it’s coming from harmful
activities, like producing weapons or damaging the environment.
• Short-term Focus: GDP tends to encourage activities that boost wealth quickly, but not
necessarily in ways that are sustainable or bene cial in the long term.
2. Importance of Choosing the Right Indicators:
• Choosing the Right Metrics: Choosing the right indicators (measures of success) is very
important. These indicators guide decision-making in organizations. If they are well-chosen and
accepted, they can help improve or scale up projects.
• Context Matters: The choice of indicators should be based on the organization’s situation,
available resources, and the people who will use the results. It’s not just about using the easiest or
most common methods—it requires careful thought and understanding of the context.
3. Evaluation vs. Measurement:
• Evaluation: Evaluation focuses on understanding if and how well the communication process
worked, and how to improve it. It’s about assessing the e ectiveness of communication.
• Measurement: Measurement looks at understanding what actions or strategies need to be
adjusted to improve the communication’s impact on organizational performance.
• These two concepts serve di erent purposes and require di erent methods.
4. Integrating Evaluation and Measurement:
• Combining Approaches: Instead of treating evaluation and measurement as separate, the
chapter suggests combining them in an integrated approach called Communication Performance
Management (CPM). This approach brings together both methods to get the best results.
• CPM’s Key Principles: The CPM approach is based on four general principles and involves four
main phases that communicators should follow to improve performance. It emphasizes the
importance of understanding the organization and the communication processes.
5. Role of Communicators:
• Knowledge and Skills: For communication to play a strategic role in an organization,
communicators must have the right combination of methodological knowledge (understanding
research and evaluation techniques) and organizational understanding (knowing how the
organization works and what its goals are).
• Helping Decision-Makers: Communicators should provide reliable and relevant information that
can help decision-makers in the organization make informed choices. This information will guide
decisions in both organizational planning and communication strategies.
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In Short:
• GDP is not a perfect measure of wealth because it doesn’t always show long-term, sustainable
bene ts.
• Choosing the right indicators is key for improving projects and guiding decisions.
• Evaluation looks at how well communication worked, and Measurement helps identify what to
change for better results.
• The Communication Performance Management (CPM) approach combines both evaluation and
measurement to improve communication strategies and their impact on organizational goals.
• Communicators need to be knowledgeable about research methods and organizational goals to
provide the best advice and support decision-making.
This text discusses how communication within organizations has become more important in
today’s fast-paced and ever-changing world. Here’s a simpli ed breakdown of the key points:
1. Organizations Facing Constant Change: Organizations today operate in a highly competitive
and unpredictable environment. To survive, they need to constantly adapt and change, staying
exible to address both expected and unexpected challenges (referred to as “black swans”).
2. The Growing Role of Communication: As organizations deal with these changes,
communication becomes increasingly vital. It’s not just about passing information but also about
creating value and supporting the organization’s strategy. Innovative companies make
communication central to their operations.
3. Internal Communication is Key: Internal communication isn’t just a specialized area like
public relations; it’s a core part of how organizations function. It helps organizations manage
change, maintain their identity, and engage their employees. E ective internal communication
ensures everyone in the organization is aligned with its goals and values.
4. Communication Connects People: As organizations face more complex external
environments, the lines between “internal” and “external” communication are blurring. For
example, social media has made it harder to separate what’s shared within the company from
what’s shared with the public. Internal communication tools can help departments (like HR,
Finance, or IT) share information with employees, contributing to a stronger company culture.
5. Communication Shapes Organizational Success: Internal communication plays a crucial role
in shaping the company’s culture, identity, and ability to innovate. The most advanced
technologies are only e ective if the people in the organization know how to use them creatively
and productively.
6. Internal-Organizational Communication: The chapter introduces the idea that internal
communication is closely linked to overall organizational communication. It’s not just about
informing people within the organization; it’s about using communication to help both individuals
and the organization grow and succeed in a competitive environment.
7. Four Key Dimensions: The chapter outlines four important areas of internal communication
that contribute to the development of both the individuals in the organization and the organization
itself. These include strategies and tools that help implement e ective communication to achieve
these goals.
In short, internal communication is now more than just sharing information; it’s a critical part of
how an organization adapts, innovates, and connects its people to achieve success in a rapidly
changing world.
This section discusses the role and importance of internal communication within organizations,
how it’s evolving, and the key trends shaping it today. Here’s a breakdown in simple terms:
What is Internal Communication?
Internal communication is the way an organization communicates with its employees. It helps
guide employees to achieve the organization’s goals while also giving them a chance to express
their creativity and ideas. The goal is to balance the need for the organization to maintain control
with the need for employees to feel valued and self-ful lled.
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Four Key Objectives of Internal Communication
Internal communication has four main goals:
1. Promoting Innovation and Change: This involves helping the organization adapt and evolve to
stay successful in a changing environment.
2. Building and Sharing Identity and Values: It helps de ne and spread the organization’s core
identity, principles, and values among employees.
3. Empowering Employees: It provides employees with the tools, knowledge, and support they
need to do their jobs e ectively and grow within the organization.
4. Engaging Internal Stakeholders: It involves creating a sense of involvement and commitment
among employees, making them active participants in achieving organizational goals.
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How These Objectives Are Connected
Innovation and change are at the heart of internal communication, but they are connected to the
other objectives. For example, to drive change, the organization needs to communicate its identity
and values clearly, empower employees, and engage them in the process.
Blurring the Lines Between Internal and External Communication
The boundary between internal communication (communication within the company) and external
communication (communication with the public) is becoming less clear. In today’s world,
companies need to communicate both internally and externally in a uni ed way. Employees are
often the rst ambassadors for a company, so internal communication plays a key role in shaping
how the public sees the company.
Key Trends in Internal Communication
1. No Clear Separation Between Internal and External Communication: The lines between
internal and external communication are disappearing. Today’s businesses are “social
businesses,” and they communicate openly with both employees and the public.
2. Open, Two-Way Communication: People want to give and receive feedback. Communication
is no longer just top-down (from management to employees); it’s becoming more interactive, with
employees also having a voice.
3. Multiple Communication Channels: There are now many ways to communicate, from emails
and newsletters to social media. Companies need to keep up with new communication tools and
use them e ectively to stay connected with employees.
4. Personalized Communication: Instead of using the same approach for everyone, internal
communication is becoming more tailored to the needs and preferences of individuals. Employees
can choose the best way to communicate, whether it’s through WhatsApp, Facebook, or other
channels.
Roles in Internal Communication in Europe
A study conducted in several European countries found that the role of internal communication is
becoming closely tied to the overall business strategy. Internal communicators are increasingly
involved in shaping the company’s strategy and helping achieve business goals.
Here are four types of roles internal communicators might have:
1. Operational Supporter: Focuses on managing daily communication activities but doesn’t
directly in uence the company’s strategy.
2. Strategic Facilitator: Helps plan communication activities that align with the company’s
strategy and goals.
3. Business Adviser: Plays a key role in adapting and adding a communication perspective to the
company’s overall strategy.
4. Isolated Expert: When internal communication is disconnected from the company’s strategy, it
operates in isolation and has less impact on the business.
Conclusion
Internal communication is evolving and becoming a central part of how organizations manage
change, connect with employees, and achieve their goals. It is no longer just about informing
employees; it’s about creating a collaborative, innovative, and engaged work environment.
This section talks about how organizations handle change, which has become a constant factor in
the way they operate. Here’s a simpler explanation:
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Change as a Constant in Organizations
Change is no longer something that happens only occasionally in an organization. Instead,
change has become an ongoing reality that organizations must continuously manage if they want
to stay competitive. Successful organizations need to be always prepared for change and ready
to respond to it.
What is Organizational Change?
Organizational change refers to any planned or unexpected change that a ects the whole
organization or just part of it. This change can happen because the organization wants to improve
(planned change) or because it happens unexpectedly (emerging change).
Planned Change (Change Management)
Planned change is when top management intentionally decides to make a change in the
organization. This could be in response to changes in the market, competition, or the internal
structure of the organization. To handle this change e ectively, organizations often use a process
called change management. This process involves guiding the organization through the change in
a structured way.
One popular model for managing planned change is Kurt Lewin’s 3-Step Model:
1. Unfreezing: Recognizing that change is needed and destabilizing the current state to prepare
for change.
2. Moving: Designing and implementing the change to establish a new, better state.
3. Refreezing: Stabilizing and consolidating the new state to make the change permanent.
Emerging Change
Not all changes are planned. Emerging change happens naturally and spontaneously as the
organization faces new situations or challenges. These changes can’t always be anticipated or
controlled, and they involve the organization adjusting in response to these unpredictable events.
The process of change is ongoing, with the organization constantly adapting and nding new
ways to operate.
In an environment of continuous change, organizations may not have a clear starting point for
change or a de ned plan for it. Instead, they continuously rede ne and adapt their strategies,
culture, and operations. Change becomes a way of life for the organization, involving everyone
and everything as the company seeks to achieve its goals.
Change as Part of Organizational Culture
In this view, change isn’t just about improving processes or “how things are done.” It also a ects
the organization’s very culture—its values, beliefs, and ways of thinking. Change touches every
part of the organization, from its people to its processes, and is essential for success in a
constantly evolving world.
In simple terms, organizations need to see change as an ongoing journey, not a one-time event.
Whether it’s planned or happens unexpectedly, they must stay exible, continuously adapt, and
align their people and processes to succeed.
Why is Change Di cult for Organizations?
Change can be a big challenge for any organization because people are often resistant to it. Many
employees might think, “We’ve always done it this way, why change?” or “This has always
worked, why try something new?” This mindset can create barriers that make change harder to
implement.
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Fear of the Unknown
When organizations try to change, it often causes anxiety and frustration among employees.
People are uncomfortable leaving their familiar routines and comfort zones. Change can feel risky
because the results aren’t guaranteed, which creates fear of failure. People don’t know what
might happen, and this uncertainty can make them nervous.
Uncertainty and Lack of Information
Uncertainty about the change process itself can make employees feel confused and powerless.
When people don’t have enough information or understand the reasons behind the change, they
can become distrustful. They might feel that they can’t make e ective decisions because the
future is unclear.
Resistance to Change
In general, people don’t like things that disrupt their usual way of doing things. They feel safer
sticking with what they know. This leads to resistance, which can be active or passive:
• Active resistance: Employees may ght the change directly. For example, they might refuse to
work, go on strike, or vote against the proposed changes.
• Passive resistance: Employees may not actively protest but still resist in subtler ways. They
might ignore information about the change, or avoid putting e ort into making it happen.
Summary
In short, change is di cult because people fear the unknown, feel uncertain about the results, and
often resist anything that disrupts their established routines. These barriers make it harder to
introduce new ideas or ways of working in an organization.
This section explains how internal communication can help reduce uncertainty during times of
change in an organization. Here’s a simpler breakdown:
Why Communication is Important in Times of Change
When an organization goes through change, employees often feel uncertain and unsure about
what will happen next. Communication plays a vital role in reducing this uncertainty. If change is
not explained clearly, employees might get confused or even resist it. Therefore, how change is
communicated is a key factor in making it successful.
If employees aren’t given clear information about why the change is happening and what the
goals are, they might feel uneasy, lose trust in leadership, or become disengaged. However, if the
organization openly shares the reasons for the change, keeps everyone informed, and involves
employees in planning, it can reduce uncertainty and build trust.
The Role of Strategic Dialogue
Good communication during change should be focused, clear, and e ective. It should:
1. Be Focused on Key Decisions: Avoid confusing or irrelevant information. Focus on what’s
important for employees to know.
2. Adapt to Di erent Audiences: Use communication that matches the needs of di erent people
in the organization, so the message is clear and actionable.
3. Be Led by the Right Communicator: The person delivering the message (like a leader) should
be someone who can inspire con dence and guide employees through the change.
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Di erent Communication Strategies for Change
There are several communication strategies managers can use to guide employees through
change, depending on the amount of information shared and the level of involvement from
employees:
1. Spray and Pray: This strategy involves giving employees all available information about the
change, hoping they’ll understand everything. However, it can overwhelm employees with too
much information, making the change harder to understand and causing confusion.
2. Tell and Sell: In this strategy, management picks out the most important information to explain
the change and tries to get employees to accept it. It’s better than “spray and pray” because it’s
more focused, but it’s still not as participatory.
3. Underscore and Explore: This is the most e ective strategy. It involves managers sharing
information and working with employees to discuss the reasons for change and explore its
outcomes together. It encourages participation and collaboration, making employees feel involved
in the process.
4. Identify and Reply: This strategy focuses on understanding employees’ concerns and
questions about the change. It starts by listening to their worries and then providing information
and responses tailored to their needs.
5. Withhold and Uphold: This strategy involves keeping information from employees, with the
belief that keeping control over information helps manage change. However, this can create
resistance and distrust, as employees feel left out of the process.
The Shift Toward More Participatory Communication
In today’s competitive environment, communication strategies are shifting away from one-way,
top-down approaches like “tell and sell” and “underscore and explore.” More organizations are
adopting participatory communication, where employees are encouraged to give feedback, ask
questions, and contribute ideas. This two-way communication helps employees feel more
involved and supported during the change process.
Summary
For change to succeed, organizations must communicate clearly and involve employees in the
process. Open, two-way communication helps reduce uncertainty, builds trust, and encourages
everyone to actively participate in the change.
This section discusses how internal communication can encourage participation in the change
process by understanding di erent employee attitudes and e ectively engaging them. Here’s a
simple breakdown:
Why Participation is Key in Change
Change in an organization is a process that requires active participation from employees. For the
change to be successful, people must be willing to cooperate and contribute. It’s not enough for
employees to just understand why change is happening — they also need to feel motivated and
engaged, knowing what role they will play in making the change happen.
Segmenting Employees Based on Their Attitudes Toward Change
Since people react to change di erently, it’s important to understand how employees feel about it
so that communication strategies can be tailored to their needs. One way to do this is by
segmenting employees into di erent groups based on their attitudes and willingness to participate
in change. Here are four categories:
1. Slow Burners: These employees are not motivated to participate in the change and don’t
understand its goals. They need extra support to understand the reasons for change and why it’s
important.
2. Refuseniks (Dissidents): These employees understand the goals of the change but resist it.
They may disagree with the change and actively oppose it.
3. Unguided Missiles: These employees are eager to make changes and are proactive, but they
lack a clear understanding of the long-term goals or direction of the change. They need guidance
to align their actions with the organization’s overall objectives.
4. Hot Shots: These are the employees who are most enthusiastic about the change. They fully
support the change and are in line with the organization’s goals. They are highly participatory and
can be leaders in the change process.
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Change Agents (Champions)
Hot shots are the key players in the change process. They are the ones who champion the
change, leading and inspiring others. These individuals have developed a “change mindset” —
they are open to new ideas and are willing to break old habits. They play a crucial role in helping
others embrace the change and seeing the organization’s future from a new perspective.
Summary
To successfully manage change, it’s important to understand how di erent employees feel about
it and tailor communication to meet their needs. By identifying those who are most likely to
support the change (the “hot shots” or change agents), organizations can empower these
individuals to lead and inspire others in the change process.
This section talks about how internal communication can help organizations overcome resistance
to change and encourage innovation. Here’s a simple breakdown:
Change Agents and Innovation
Change often starts with “change agents” — individuals who are passionate about innovation and
generate new ideas that can improve work practices. For change to succeed, it’s essential to
develop people, supporting them in gaining the knowledge and skills needed to perform their jobs
better.
Internal communication plays a major role in helping employees develop a positive attitude
towards change. It encourages learning, experimentation, and continuous improvement. The goal
is to foster an environment where employees are proactive about change and innovation.
Communication for Innovation
Internal communication can be used as a tool to promote innovation. This means actively sharing
and discussing new ideas, developing new skills, and learning from each other’s experiences. The
aim is to create an atmosphere where employees feel encouraged to innovate and improve how
they do their jobs.
Creating Expert Teams
In today’s fast-changing business world, companies need highly coordinated teams of experts
who can drive innovation. Building these teams takes time, so organizations must invest in
training, team-building, and creating a culture that values innovation. Employees should have
clear goals and the freedom to contribute their ideas.
Facilitating New Ideas and Connections
E ective internal communication helps employees form relationships across di erent departments
and teams. This leads to new ideas and creative solutions that might not have been possible
within isolated groups.
Fiat’s Communication Strategy During Change
The section also discusses a real-world example of how Fiat used internal communication to
support major changes within the company under CEO Sergio Marchionne starting in 2005. Fiat
wanted to create a culture focused on leadership during change.
The company’s internal communication was a central part of this transformation. They used
various tools to engage employees, such as:
• Training programs for workers to align their behaviors with the company’s strategies.
• Family involvement in the change process, such as social events and educational programs for
employees’ children.
• Internal television to keep employees updated on corporate events.
• Interactive web portals for managers to develop their leadership skills and engage in selfdevelopment.
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They also provided tools to help employees understand and support the company’s new
leadership culture and changes in their employment contract. These tools included printed
materials, videos, online resources, and a helpline to answer questions.
The Outcome
The e orts to engage employees through clear and supportive communication helped improve
participation in the company’s strategic plans. This approach was especially important in the
competitive and constantly changing automotive industry. By involving everyone in the process,
Fiat was able to ensure its employees played an active role in the company’s growth and success.
Summary
In short, internal communication is essential for supporting change and innovation within
organizations. It helps employees understand, engage with, and contribute to change initiatives.
By creating an environment that encourages learning and idea-sharing, companies can stay
competitive and thrive in a constantly changing world.
This section talks about how internal communication helps shape and share an organization’s
identity, which is made up of di erent elements like its values, mission, and visual appearance.
Here’s a breakdown in simple terms:
What is Organizational Identity?
Organizational identity refers to what makes an organization unique and how it de nes itself. It
includes:
1. Visual Identity: The look and design elements like logos, colors, and graphics that represent
the company.
2. Corporate Identity: The distinct features that de ne an organization and set it apart from
others.
3. Organizational Identity: How the company sees itself internally and how employees perceive
the company.
4. Corporate Brand Identity: The company’s promises and values communicated to the public
and stakeholders.
De ning an Organization’s Identity
To de ne its identity, an organization asks key questions like:
• “Who am I?”
• “What role do I play?”
• “What do I want to become?”
Answering these questions helps the organization understand what makes it special, both in the
present and for the future.
Using Internal Communication to Share Identity
One of the main tools to share an organization’s identity is the intranet, which acts as a “door” to
communicate with everyone within the company. It helps to keep all employees informed about
the company’s values, vision, mission, and philosophy.
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Visual Communication
Visual communication, which includes images, designs, and graphics, is a powerful tool for
internal communication. It’s often easier and quicker for people to understand information through
visual means, so companies pay special attention to how they use visual elements in the
workplace.
For example, companies use:
• Noticeboards: These are physical boards in common areas where employees can quickly see
important news and updates.
• Posters, Totems, and Photographs: These are visual materials placed around the o ce to
reinforce the company’s identity and communicate messages.
• Corporate TV: In larger companies, internal TV systems can broadcast news, updates, and key
messages from management to everyone in the organization.
All these visual elements need to be consistent with the company’s overall identity, including
using the same colors, fonts, logos, and layout styles.
Intranet as a Key Communication Channel
The intranet is a central hub for internal communication where the company can share updates,
important decisions, and messages with everyone. It’s like a “digital door” to help employees stay
connected to the company’s identity and updates.
Summary
In simple terms, this section explains how internal communication helps de ne and share a
company’s identity, using things like visuals and the intranet to make sure everyone in the
organization understands the company’s values, vision, and mission. By managing visual
elements carefully, the company creates a consistent image that communicates its story to
employees in a clear and engaging way.
This section explains how the intranet is an important tool for internal communication within
organizations. Here’s a simpler breakdown:
What is the Intranet?
The intranet is a private, internal platform used by companies to communicate with their
employees. It’s a central space where employees can:
• Learn about what’s happening in the company
• Access company resources, documents, and forms
• Share information and collaborate with colleagues
• Stay updated on company projects, results, and guiding principles
In other words, it’s a “knowledge hub” for the company’s information and culture. The company
can also use other tools like Facebook, LinkedIn, or WhatsApp for internal communication to
boost employee engagement.
Goals of the Intranet
The intranet serves several purposes, and it’s important to measure its e ectiveness. Here are
some key objectives of the intranet:
1. Informing Employees:
• Objective: To keep everyone informed about what’s happening in the company, both internally
and externally.
• Measurement: You measure how well employees feel informed by the content shared.
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2. Encouraging Communication:
• Objective: To promote two-way communication among employees.
• Measurement: This is measured by how much and how well employees communicate with
each other on the platform.
3. Supporting Company Culture:
• Objective: To encourage behaviors and attitudes that align with the company’s values and
strategy.
• Measurement: This looks at how much employees use the intranet to share and participate in
culture-building activities.
4. Sharing Knowledge and Innovation:
• Objective: To help employees exchange ideas and learn from each other.
• Measurement: This looks at how much employees participate in groups, share ideas, and
collaborate.
5. Providing Easy Access to Work Documents:
• Objective: To ensure employees can quickly nd the documents they need.
• Measurement: This is measured by how easily employees can search for and access
documents.
6. O ering Online Services:
• Objective: To provide useful online services for employees.
• Measurement: This looks at how often employees use these services and their satisfaction with
them.
7. Improving Internal Processes:
• Objective: To make internal processes more e cient.
• Measurement: This is measured by how much faster and cost-e ective processes become after
using the intranet.
Trends in Intranet Use
A study in 2018 (Workplace Intranet Trends by Nielsen Norman) found some important trends
about intranets:
1. Better Integration with Mobile Devices:
Intranets need to work well on smartphones and tablets, allowing employees to stay connected
whether they are working on-site or remotely.
2. Increased Social Features:
Modern intranets now have more social features like:
• Blogs
• Live chats
• Videoconferences
• Data sharing
These features help improve the company’s culture by making it easier for employees to interact.
3. Personalized User Experience:
Intranets should be customizable to t the needs of di erent employees. Employees should be
able to personalize the interface to make it easier to use and more enjoyable, which can increase
engagement.
4. Simpli ed Collaboration:
Intranets today make it easier for teams and departments to collaborate, o ering tools that help
employees work together more e ectively.
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Summary
In simple terms, the intranet is a central, private space within the company where employees can
access important information, communicate, and collaborate. It’s becoming increasingly
important to make the intranet mobile-friendly, social, and personalized to meet employees’
needs and improve communication. The goal is to make work easier, faster, and more engaging
through e ective use of technology.
This section explains the link between an organization’s culture and identity, and how
organizations communicate their values to employees to guide their behavior and actions. Here’s
a simpler explanation:
Culture and Identity in an Organization
• Culture is like the set of shared beliefs, values, and behaviors that everyone in the organization
understands and follows. It shapes how people work together and what they consider important.
For example, culture de nes “who we are” and “what we do.”
• Identity refers to the unique traits that make an organization di erent from others. It’s about
answering the questions: “Who are we?” and “What makes us special?”
• Guiding values are the principles or rules that help steer the company towards its goals. They
act like a map, showing employees the right direction to follow to help the company succeed.
Strategic Culture
• The strategic culture is a combination of values, beliefs, and behaviors that management sets up
to guide employees in achieving the company’s long-term goals. It’s not just about what the
organization believes but also about how employees should behave to make the company
successful.
• Culture plays a huge role in an organization’s success. In fact, Fortune’s 100 Best Companies to
Work For ranks companies based on employee satisfaction with their workplace culture.
Sharing and Communicating Culture and Identity
Organizations have di erent strategies and tools to share their culture and identity with
employees. Here’s how they do it:
1. De ning the Organization’s Identity:
• Companies de ne who they are by explaining what makes them di erent from others. This helps
employees understand the unique traits of the organization and builds a shared sense of
community.
2. Guiding Values and Ethical Principles:
• Companies share their values, which are the beliefs and behaviors they expect from their
employees. These values guide how people should behave within the organization and help them
align their actions with the company’s goals.
• Stories and myths about the company’s past also play a role in teaching employees about the
organization’s values and behaviors.
3. Using a Speci c Vocabulary:
• Companies use special language to communicate their values. This vocabulary helps employees
understand what’s important in the organization and what drives its success. It motivates them to
align their actions with the company’s goals.
4. Innovative Tools for Communicating Identity:
• Some companies use creative tools to share their identity. For example, Medtronic uses a radio
channel to tell the company’s story and share its values with employees.
• When employees strongly identify with the company’s culture, they act in ways that support the
company’s goals. They feel like part of the organization, which leads to stronger cooperation and
success.
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Summary
In simple terms, an organization’s identity is shaped by its culture, and the company uses various
methods to communicate its values, beliefs, and goals to employees. By de ning what makes the
company unique, sharing guiding values, and using speci c language and tools, companies help
employees understand what is expected of them and align their actions with the organization’s
objectives. This creates a sense of unity and helps the company achieve its goals.
Cascade Communication
• Cascade communication is a way of sharing information in an organization. It’s mostly a topdown communication method, meaning that the information starts at the top (from management)
and ows down through the hierarchy, reaching everyone in the organization.
• The process works like a cascade of water: management shares information with department
heads, who then pass it on to their teams, and so on until every employee gets the message.
• The strength of cascade communication is that it involves people and allows them to ask
questions and give feedback. It’s not just a one-way ow of information; it also encourages some
bottom-up communication, where employees can share their thoughts, often through surveys
after meetings.
• This method is useful for sharing important information like company values or guiding
principles.
Medtronic’s OnAir Radio Initiative
• Medtronic, a large medical company, used a creative way to share its company culture. They
created a radio program called Medtronic OnAir to help employees understand the company’s
identity and values.
• The radio program included things like music, interviews, storytelling, and discussions about the
company’s four key identity traits (e.g., being a community, showing courage). These traits were
explained in a fun, engaging way, such as through music playlists or live radio shows.
• This initiative was a huge success. Many employees listened to the broadcasts, even while
driving, and it became a regular method of internal communication. It also allowed employees in
di erent locations (like those working remotely or on the road) to stay connected and informed.
Aligning Employee Objectives with Company Goals
• The idea of subject-organization identi cation means that when employees understand and
connect with the company’s values and goals, they are more likely to align their personal
objectives with those of the company.
• This alignment helps ensure that everyone in the organization is working towards the same
purpose, leading to better teamwork and greater success in achieving the company’s goals.
• When employees understand the company’s goals and feel a connection to them, they are more
motivated to contribute to those goals, creating a synergy of e orts. This makes the whole
organization more e cient and successful.
Summary
Cascade communication is a structured way of sharing information, where it starts at the top and
moves down through the organization. Medtronic used a creative radio program to engage
employees and communicate the company’s identity, which became a very popular way to share
information. Additionally, aligning the personal objectives of employees with the organization’s
goals ensures that everyone works together to achieve success.
Identi cation Process Between the Individual and the Organization
• Individual identity: When someone joins an organization, they bring their personal beliefs,
values, preferences, and habits with them. These personal traits are what make them who they
are.
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• Organizational identity: The organization also has its own identity, which is de ned by its
values, beliefs, and vision for the future. The goal is for the employee to understand, embrace,
and connect with the organization’s identity.
• The challenge for the organization is to create a strong and cohesive culture that employees can
share and feel a part of. This shared identity makes employees more likely to support the
organization’s goals and act in ways that align with those goals.
• When employees strongly identify with the organization, they will work together, stay motivated,
and contribute to the organization’s success.
The Role of Internal Communication in the Identi cation Process
• Internal communication helps employees understand and connect with the organization’s
identity. It allows employees to learn about the company’s history, rules, and values. This makes
them feel like they belong and know what is expected of them.
This process happens in two ways:
• Visible elements: These are things like company dress codes, leadership styles, or behaviors
that are rewarded. For example, if a leader behaves in a certain way that re ects the company’s
values, employees are likely to follow that example.
• Invisible elements: These include deep, sometimes unconscious beliefs and values that the
organization holds. These beliefs shape the culture and what is considered important in the
company.
• Through internal communication, employees learn how they should behave, what the company’s
goals are, and how they can contribute to those goals.
Aligning Personal Objectives with Organizational Goals
• Personal and organizational alignment: When employees’ personal values and motivations
align with the organization’s values, they become more committed and focused on the
company’s goals. This helps everyone work toward the same purpose, creating synergy (a
stronger combined e ort).
• Internal communication’s role: It helps ensure that employees understand the company’s
objectives and how they t into them. This alignment ensures that employees are dedicated to
achieving common goals and driving the company’s success.
Summary
• The process of identi cation between an individual and an organization happens when
employees connect with the company’s culture, values, and goals.
• Internal communication helps employees learn about and understand these values, beliefs, and
behaviors, guiding them in their role within the company.
• When employees’ personal objectives align with the organization’s strategic goals, it creates
synergy, where everyone works together toward shared success. Internal communication plays a
key role in making this alignment happen.
Corporate Brand Identity: Transparency for Two-Way Communication
• Old vs. New Approach: In the past, brands often promoted themselves with exaggerated or
misleading messages. However, companies are now embracing transparency, which means being
honest about their products, including their aws or areas where they don’t fully meet
expectations.
• Building Trust: Transparency helps build trust between the company and its customers.
Companies are now openly communicating with customers, addressing issues before they
become problems (this is called “stealing thunder”).
• Authenticity: Companies are choosing to be honest, even in times of crisis, by revealing their
issues and plans openly and truthfully. This approach is about building a reliable reputation based
on openness and trust.
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Documents That De ne the Company
• Identity Manual: This is a guide that shows how the company’s visual elements (like its logo,
fonts, and colors) should be used. It ensures consistency in how the company presents itself
visually.
• Communication Rules Manual: This document explains how to communicate e ectively within
the company. It provides guidelines for employees on how to deliver messages clearly and
consistently.
• Code of Ethics: This is a set of rules about what is acceptable behavior within the organization.
It helps de ne the company’s identity and its ethical standards, both internally and externally.
• Corporate Publishing: These are publications (like newsletters or online posts) that represent
the company’s voice. Whether it’s a message from the CEO or holiday greetings, the style and
tone should always re ect the company’s identity and values.
Gefran’s Corporate Identity
Gefran is a multinational company that specializes in industrial automation and process control
systems. To strengthen its brand, Gefran worked on improving how people perceive and
experience its identity. The process involved three main steps:
1. Analysis of Existing Documents and Media: They started by reviewing the company’s
reports, website, and media presence to understand how Gefran was currently presenting itself.
2. Listening to Stakeholders: They conducted interviews with top management, customers,
suppliers, and others to understand how people perceive the company.
3. Focus Groups and Workshops: They held focus groups to dive deeper into their brand and
communication methods.
Through this process, Gefran focused on:
• Human Capital: They recognized the importance of their employees’ passion and commitment.
• Technological Innovation: They combined human values with a strong focus on technology
and future growth.
The outcome was a clearer de nition of what Gefran stands for, which was summarized in a new
slogan: “Beyond Technology”. This new identity emphasizes both the human side of the company
and its technological innovations.
In short, Gefran worked on aligning its internal culture and external communication to build a
stronger, more consistent brand identity.
Enablement and Empowerment of Employees
1. Old vs. New Views on Employee Contribution:
• Traditional View: In the past, employees were mainly judged based on how well they performed
their speci c job tasks.
• New View: Today, organizations value employees for their ability to think creatively, take
initiative, and contribute beyond their job descriptions. Employees are expected to solve
problems and adapt to challenges, using their skills and independence.
2. Employee Characteristics:
• The ideal employee is now someone who balances their personal and work life while staying
aligned with organizational goals. It’s no longer just about doing tasks e ciently but also about
contributing in a way that drives innovation and success, especially with the rise of remote work
and digital collaboration.
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3. Enablement:
• Enablement is about creating a work environment that helps employees perform their roles well.
This includes providing the right physical spaces and organizational climate for them to thrive. The
organization needs to design spaces that support the ow of work and enable better
collaboration.
• The organizational climate is shaped by how employees feel about the work environment,
management style, and their relationships with colleagues. Positive perceptions contribute to a
healthy climate, while negative ones can hinder productivity.
Tools to Measure the Work Environment
1. Climate Surveys:
• These surveys assess how employees feel about their work environment. They cover topics like
job satisfaction, relationships with coworkers and managers, and the overall quality of work life.
The goal is to identify any issues so the company can improve the environment and make
employees happier and more productive.
• These surveys should be done regularly to track how the organizational climate changes over
time.
2. Communication Audits:
• A communication audit is a tool used to evaluate how well communication is owing within the
organization. It looks at questions like:
• Are the right messages being sent?
• Are the messages reaching the right people?
• Do employees have enough information?
• The audit helps identify areas where communication could be improved. It ensures that
messages are clear, relevant, and e ective.
Summary
In today’s workplace, employees are valued not just for completing their tasks but for their ability
to think creatively, work autonomously, and contribute to the company’s success in a broader
way. Organizations need to create environments and cultures that enable and empower their
employees to perform at their best, which involves providing the right spaces, managing the work
atmosphere, and using tools like surveys and audits to ensure everything is working well.
Empowerment of Employees
Empowerment is about giving employees the tools, authority, and con dence to take control of
their work, make decisions, and contribute meaningfully to the organization. It can be understood
in two main ways:
1. Structural Empowerment:
• This refers to changing the organization’s structure to give employees more control and
responsibility over their work.
• It involves giving employees access to resources, involving them in decision-making, and
allowing them to share their ideas and opinions.
• In other words, structural empowerment is about creating a work environment where employees
can take initiatives and have a say in what happens at work. It can be achieved by making the
workplace more collaborative and less hierarchical, meaning employees are encouraged to
contribute to decisions and processes.
2. Psychological Empowerment:
• This is about how employees feel about their work and their ability to perform it. It refers to their
belief in their own abilities and how important they feel their work is to the organization.
• When employees feel they are making a meaningful contribution, they become more motivated
and con dent in their roles.
• For example, if employees believe their work matters and that they have the ability to in uence
outcomes, they are more likely to feel empowered and motivated.
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How Empowerment Works Together
Both structural and psychological empowerment need to work together:
• Structural empowerment helps provide the tools, access, and environment for employees to
perform well.
• Psychological empowerment ensures that employees feel capable and valued for their
contributions.
When both these aspects are in place, employees are more likely to feel motivated to go beyond
their regular duties, which can bene t the whole organization. Empowered employees tend to be:
• More satis ed with their work
• More creative
• More productive
• More e ective in teams
Why Empowerment Matters
Empowerment can lead to a better work environment, higher job satisfaction, and improved
overall performance in an organization. It encourages employees to take proactive steps, improve
processes, and innovate, which ultimately bene ts the company.
The Role of Internal Communication in Empowering Employees
For employees to feel empowered and be able to perform their roles e ectively, internal
communication plays a critical role in helping create both structural and psychological conditions.
It helps ensure that employees understand their role, know how to do it well, and feel motivated to
improve the way work is done. Here’s how communication supports enablement and
empowerment:
1. Creating the Right Environment (Structural Conditions):
• The physical work environment plays a big role in how employees interact and communicate
with each other. It’s not just about having a functional space; it’s about creating spaces that allow
for easy communication and encourage collaboration.
• For example, workspaces designed with open areas or exible, recon gurable meeting spaces
encourage people to interact, share ideas, and work together. This physical environment supports
better communication and helps employees work more e ectively.
• With the rise of digital work, exible and remote working options (like smart working) are
becoming more common, where employees can work from anywhere. This means
communication must also adapt to digital tools and methods to keep people connected and
informed, regardless of where they are.
2. Supporting Smart Working:
• Smart working (also called agile work) refers to working without strict time or location
constraints. Employees can work based on tasks, cycles, and objectives, rather than set working
hours. This type of work allows employees to better balance work and personal life while still
being productive.
• Internal communication helps promote this type of work by making sure everyone understands
how to use digital tools e ectively and how to stay connected with the team while working
remotely.
3. Internal Communication’s Role:
• Internal communication is key to ensuring that employees understand the organization’s values,
goals, and their own role within the company. It also helps create a culture where employees feel
motivated and capable to contribute ideas and improve work processes.
• This type of communication should be clear, two-way, and supportive, meaning employees not
only receive information but also feel heard and involved in shaping decisions.
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In summary, communication supports the environment (space, tools, and digital systems) and the
mindset (employee knowledge, con dence, and motivation) to ensure that employees are
empowered to do their jobs well, contribute ideas, and feel valued within the company.
The Communicational Climate as Part of the Organizational Climate – Simpli ed
Explanation
1. What is the Communicational Climate?
The communicational climate is a part of the overall organizational climate and refers to how
employees perceive communication within the organization. It includes their beliefs, expectations,
and experiences regarding how well communication happens at work.
Organizations need to regularly check and improve their communication climate by asking
employees about:
• Support from managers – Do employees feel valued by their bosses?
• Participation in decisions – Are employees involved in making important decisions?
• Openness of communication – Can employees freely share their opinions?
• Credibility and trust – Do employees believe the information they receive?
• Clarity of goals – Do employees understand the company’s objectives and their role in
achieving them?
2. Why is Communication Important for Employees?
Employees have basic information needs at work, such as:
• What is my job? (Role clarity)
• How does my work contribute to the company’s goals? (Purpose)
• Do my managers care about my work? (Recognition & support)
Clear and open communication helps employees understand their roles, feel connected to the
company’s mission, and stay motivated.
3. How Internal Communication Works Today
Traditionally, internal communication was just about passing down information from management
to employees (one-way communication). However, modern organizations focus on two-way
communication, meaning:
• Employees don’t just receive instructions; they also share ideas and feedback.
• Communication channels (like meetings, open-door policies, and digital tools) allow employees
to express their thoughts and in uence decisions.
• Managers encourage active discussions rather than simply giving orders.
4. The Role of Employees in Decision-Making
Employees are not just passive workers; they are co-decision makers.
This means:
• Their ideas and feedback matter and should be listened to.
• Strict control over employees can limit their creativity and ability to contribute.
• A good communication system helps balance individual freedom and company goals.
5. How Internal Communication Helps the Organization
For a company to bene t from its employees’ ideas and e orts:
• It must have clear communication channels that allow feedback from all levels.
• Employees should be encouraged to take initiative while staying aligned with company goals.
• Open discussions help resolve con icts between individual creativity and organizational limits.
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Bottom Line
A strong communicational climate helps employees feel heard, valued, and involved in company
decisions. When employees understand their role and feel empowered to contribute, they are
more motivated, creative, and committed to the organization’s success.
The RINA Ambassador Network – Simpli ed Explanation
What is RINA?
RINA is a global company that provides services in Consulting Engineering, Testing, Inspection,
and Certi cation across di erent industries like energy, marine, and transportation.
Why Did RINA Create an Ambassador Network?
RINA realized that good communication is essential for a strong company culture. They wanted to
improve how information ows within the company, ensuring that:
1. Employees receive important updates from management.
2. Employee voices are heard by leadership.
3. Communication is more interactive and engaging, rather than just top-down instructions from
management.
To achieve this, they created an Ambassador Network—a group of employees from di erent parts
of the company who help with communication.
What Do Ambassadors Do?
• Collect and share feedback – They listen to their colleagues and pass their thoughts,
concerns, and suggestions to management.
• Spread information – They ensure that employees in their regions or departments are wellinformed about company updates.
• Create content – They write articles, conduct interviews, and contribute to the company’s blog,
RINA Soul.
• Encourage interaction – They help manage discussions, respond to employee questions, and
keep communication engaging.
What Skills Do Ambassadors Need?
To be an ambassador, an employee must:
• Know their department well.
• Be good at listening, writing, and communicating clearly.
• Be enthusiastic and credible.
• Be comfortable conducting interviews and creating content.
Before starting, ambassadors go through special training to learn about communication trends,
company strategies, and content creation.
How Does RINA Support the Ambassador Network?
• The company uses Microsoft Teams as a tool for ambassadors to coordinate and share
information.
• The RINA Soul blog serves as a key platform for publishing content.
• New ambassadors are added each year to expand the network and improve communication
across di erent locations and business areas.
Why Is This Important?
By creating a two-way communication system, RINA ensures that employees stay informed, feel
heard, and can actively contribute to the company’s culture and decision-making process. This
approach strengthens employee engagement and makes internal communication more e ective.
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Understanding Internal Stakeholder Engagement – Simpli ed Explanation
What is Internal Stakeholder Engagement?
It’s about getting employees actively involved and emotionally connected to their organization.
Employees who feel engaged care about their work, their colleagues, and the company’s success.
They don’t just do their jobs—they put in extra e ort because they feel a strong connection to the
organization.
Why Is It Important?
Engaged employees are a huge advantage for a company. When people feel motivated and
connected to their work, they:
• Perform better.
• Come up with new ideas.
• Work well with their colleagues.
• Stay committed to the company’s goals.
This helps the organization become more e ective and competitive.
How Does Engagement Work?
Engagement happens on three levels:
1. Cognitive (Thinking) – Employees are mentally engaged in their work. They think about how to
improve processes and solve problems.
2. A ective (Feeling) – Employees feel emotionally connected to their colleagues and work. They
care about teamwork and relationships.
3. Behavioral (Doing) – Employees show engagement through actions, working hard and putting
in extra e ort to achieve goals.
Can Engagement Be Forced?
No. Engagement is a personal decision—it can’t be forced by the company. However,
organizations can create the right conditions that encourage employees to feel engaged.
What Motivates Employees to Engage?
Employees feel engaged when they:
• Trust their organization and leaders.
• Feel valued and supported.
• See that their work has a real impact.
• Share the company’s values and goals.
• Feel a sense of belonging and pride in their workplace.
A Simple De nition of Engagement
Engagement is not just about happiness or job satisfaction—it’s about emotional commitment.
Engaged employees don’t just work for a paycheck; they care about the company’s success and
are willing to go the extra mile.
A Model for Engagement (Methodos Model)
One framework for understanding engagement includes:
• Commitment to work – Employees take their job seriously and stay motivated.
• Trust between employees and the company – There is open and honest communication.
• Advocacy – Employees believe in and support the company’s values and initiatives.
• Belonging – Employees feel like the company is an important part of their future.
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Final Thought
Employee engagement is one of the most important factors for a company’s success. The key is
to create a work environment where employees feel valued, trusted, and motivated to contribute.
When employees are engaged, both they and the company bene t.
The Bene ts of Employee Engagement – Simpli ed Explanation
What Does Employee Engagement A ect?
Employee engagement doesn’t just impact physical resources or nancial assets (things that can
be easily measured).
Instead, it a ects intangible assets like:
• Employee skills and knowledge
• Workplace relationships and teamwork
• The company’s reputation and brand
Even though these things are not directly measurable, they have a huge impact on business
success. For example, in 1975, 83% of a company’s value was based on physical assets. By
2015, 84% of a company’s value came from intangible things like brand reputation, employee
skills, and innovation.
How Does Engagement Bene t Employees?
When employees are engaged, they experience:
1. Higher motivation – They genuinely want to help the company succeed.
2. More involvement – They take their job seriously and are mentally invested.
3. Stronger commitment – They feel a connection to the company and want to stay.
4. Greater job satisfaction – They feel proud and ful lled in their work.
How Does Engagement Bene t the Company?
1. Lower employee turnover – Engaged employees stay longer and don’t frequently change
jobs.
2. Better talent retention – Companies that engage their employees can attract and keep top
talent.
3. Higher productivity – Engaged employees work harder and smarter, increasing performance.
4. More innovation – 59% of engaged employees say their job inspires creative ideas, compared
to just 3% of disengaged workers.
5. Better nancial results –
• Companies with high engagement have 22% higher pro ts.
• Companies with low engagement see pro ts drop by 28%.
6. Better sales – Engaged teams generate more revenue than disengaged teams.
7. Healthier work environment – Engaged employees have fewer absences, less stress, and
fewer workplace accidents.
Engaged Employees = Happy Customers
When employees are engaged, they provide better service, leading to higher customer
satisfaction. Happy employees create happy customers.
The Reality: Most Employees Are Not Engaged
Even though engagement is so important, many companies fail to encourage it.
• According to a 2018 Gallup study of 155 countries:
• Only 15% of employees worldwide feel engaged.
• 67% are not engaged (they do the bare minimum).
• 18% are actively disengaged (they dislike their jobs and may even harm company culture).
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Final Thought
Companies that focus on engaging their employees will see better performance, higher pro ts,
and happier customers. But engagement is not automatic—it must be nurtured by leadership and
company culture.
Internal Communication as a Tool for Employee Engagement – Simpli ed Explanation
Why Can’t Companies Force Engagement?
Companies cannot force employees to be engaged, but they can create a work environment that
encourages engagement. One of the best tools for this is internal communication—the way a
company shares information with its employees.
Good internal communication helps employees feel:
• Connected to the company
• Valued in their role
• Motivated to contribute
How Can Internal Communication Improve Engagement?
1. Understand Employee Needs
• Companies should listen to employees and create communication strategies that make them
feel supported.
• Communication should focus on work conditions, breaks, and career development
opportunities.
• Employees feel engaged when they see the company values their well-being and professional
growth.
2. Trust in Colleagues & Peers
• People trust their colleagues more than top management. Employees are more likely to believe
“people like them” than o cial company statements.
• Companies should encourage peer-to-peer communication to build trust and engagement.
3. Strong Communication Between Leaders & Employees
• Managers play a key role in engagement. Employees feel more engaged when their boss:
• Communicates openly
• Listens to their needs
• Provides feedback
• Recognizes their contributions
• Leaders should be trained in e ective communication skills to inspire and engage their teams.
4. Regular Meetings & Updates
• Team meetings, brie ngs, and events allow employees to:
• Stay informed about company plans
• Ask questions and give feedback
• Build stronger relationships with colleagues and managers
• Leaders should share company goals openly instead of keeping employees in the dark.
Engagement Is a Long-Term Process
• Employee engagement doesn’t happen overnight—it builds over time.
• Employees should have positive experiences at every stage—from job interviews to daily work.
• Negative experiences (lack of communication, lack of recognition) can harm engagement.
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Three Levels of Internal Communication for Engagement
1. Alignment with the Company
• Employees understand the company’s goals, culture, and values.
• They feel loyal to the company and see how their work contributes to success.
2. Building a Sense of Community
• Employees share knowledge and work together.
• Team collaboration leads to innovation and better problem-solving.
3. Employee Advocacy
• Engaged employees support the company and help improve its reputation.
• They promote the company to customers, new hires, and business partners.
The Importance of Manager-Employee Communication
• Employees prefer to hear important news directly from their boss, especially about critical
company issues.
• Direct communication allows employees to:
• Ask questions
• Give feedback
• Express opinions
• Frequent open conversations between managers and employees create trust and a positive
work environment.
Key Communication Methods
1. Daily conversations between managers and employees
• Helps employees feel valued and recognized.
2. Team meetings
• Encourages teamwork and new ideas.
3. Meetings with top management
• Allows employees to hear about company goals and plans directly from executives.
Final Thought
Good internal communication makes employees feel informed, valued, and connected. When
companies focus on open and e ective communication, they create a more engaged and
motivated workforce.
Types of Communication Channels & Their Objectives – Simpli ed Explanation
Every company needs di erent ways to communicate with employees based on its goals. Here
are six types of communication channels, each with a di erent purpose and the best tools to use
for each.
1. Push Communication – One-way information sharing
Goal: Keep employees informed, whether they ask for it or not.
Examples of tools:
• Emails – Company updates sent to inboxes
• Pop-ups – Messages appearing on computer screens
• Web ads – Internal advertisements or banners on company sites
• Printed materials – Posters, newsletters, yers in common areas
• TV screens – Info displayed in break rooms
• Intranet news – Updates posted on the company’s internal website
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2. Pull Communication – Helping employees nd information when they need it
Goal: Make it easy for employees to access important details when required.
Examples of tools:
• Intranet / SharePoint – Online hubs for company news and documents
• Videos – Training videos or company updates
• Blogs – Company leaders sharing insights and updates
• Mobile apps – HR apps for things like checking vacation days
• Reports & DVDs – Detailed information available for employees to review
3. Talk Communication – Encouraging discussion and dialogue
Goal: Allow employees to ask questions, give feedback, and discuss topics.
Examples of tools:
• In-person meetings – Face-to-face discussions with managers
• Webchats & video calls – Virtual meetings for remote workers
• “Ask the CEO” sessions – Direct Q&A sessions with leadership
• Team meetings & discussion tables – Employees sharing thoughts on projects
4. Community Communication – Creating a sense of belonging
Goal: Make employees feel part of a team or workplace community.
Examples of tools:
• Social networks – Internal company platforms (e.g., Yammer, Slack)
• Online team spaces – Group chats or project collaboration tools
• Virtual team meetings – Remote workers staying connected
5. Engage Communication – Encouraging participation and involvement
Goal: Get employees actively involved in company initiatives.
Examples of tools:
• Competitions & prizes – Fun contests to boost engagement
• Posters & campaigns – Encouraging employees to join activities
• Online discussions & blogs – Spaces for employees to share their opinions
6. Intelligence Communication – Encouraging feedback and improvement
Goal: Show employees that their input matters and impacts the company.
Examples of tools:
• Surveys – Annual or online surveys to measure engagement
• Focus groups – Small group discussions for honest feedback
• One-on-one feedback sessions – Managers checking in with employees
• Periodic team meetings – Reviewing progress and performance
Final Thought
Each type of communication has a speci c purpose. Companies should use a mix of channels to
keep employees informed, engaged, and connected while making sure their voices are heard.
Internal Communication & Smart Working: A Culture Shift Towards New Ways of Working –
Simpli ed Explanation
Smart working (or agile working) isn’t just about working from home. It’s about changing the way
we work in a broader sense. Many companies are adopting New Ways of Working (NWoW) that go
beyond remote work.
These changes don’t just involve:
• Working from home or di erent locations (like a café or co-working space).
• Redesigning o ce spaces (like open-plan desks).
• Upgrading technology (better tools for remote collaboration).
• Updating company policies (new rules that support exibility).
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Instead, New Ways of Working means rethinking everything about work—how employees interact,
where they work, how they use technology, and even company culture.
How Smart Working A ects the Employee Experience
The employee experience includes everything from commuting to work to using o ce technology
and collaborating with colleagues. Companies need to ask:
• How do people get to work? (Are they commuting, or working remotely?)
• How do they enter and move around the o ce? (Are there exible spaces?)
• How do they communicate and collaborate? (Are the right tools in place?)
• Is the work environment helping employees do their best work?
Smart working should improve both the employee experience and company performance at the
same time.
The Role of Internal Communication in Smart Working
To make these changes successful, internal communication plays a key role. It helps by:
Explaining the changes – Why is the company shifting to smart working?
Setting expectations – What are the new rules, policies, and ways of working?
Keeping employees informed – When will changes happen, and how?
Collecting feedback – What do employees think about these changes?
Helping employees adapt – Providing support and resources.
Without good internal communication, employees might feel confused or disconnected.
Technology & the Future of Internal Communication
Technology is changing how people communicate and collaborate at work. Some examples:
• Chatbots – Automated assistants help employees nd information or solve issues.
• Remote collaboration – Teams work together from di erent locations using video calls and
online tools.
• AI-powered tools – Arti cial Intelligence (AI) helps manage work and security.
However, these changes raise new questions, like:
• How do we balance privacy and transparency in the workplace?
• How do we protect employee data while allowing easy communication?
• What is the right balance between human interaction and technology?
The next generation of internal communicators will need to think about these challenges and nd
solutions that support both employees and the company.
Final Thoughts
Smart working isn’t just about where we work—it’s about how we work. Companies must rethink
technology, o ce spaces, policies, and culture to create a more exible, e cient, and engaging
work environment. Good internal communication is essential to guide employees through these
changes and ensure they feel informed and supported.
Torre Generali: A New Way of Working – Simpli ed Explanation
Torre Generali is the modern headquarters of the Assicurazioni Generali Group in Milan. It is
located in CityLife, one of the biggest urban redevelopment projects in Europe. The tower is not
just a new o ce building—it represents a major cultural change in how employees work.
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The Goal of the Move
The company wanted the move to be more than just a change of location. It was a chance to
introduce a New Way of Working (NWoW) by:
Promoting smart working ( exible work arrangements).
Redesigning the workplace to match the company’s vision.
Using advanced technology to improve communication and collaboration.
Taking a holistic approach, involving Human Resources (HR), IT, and Facility Management.
How Generali Prepared for the Move
Since moving to a new o ce is a big change, Generali created a detailed communication plan to
help over 2,200 employees adjust smoothly. The goal was to make sure everyone understood and
embraced the transformation.
The move was organized into three phases:
1. Pre-move: Getting employees ready for the transition.
2. Move: Helping employees settle into the new building.
3. Post-move: Supporting employees after they moved in.
To keep everyone informed, the company used:
Videos – Interviews with architects and employees who worked on the project.
Intranet updates – A special “Generali Tower” section in the internal portal “Come Noi”.
Direct communication – Employees could ask questions and share feedback.
Key People Who Helped with the Move
Generali created two special teams to help employees adapt:
Forerunners – These were HR business partners who:
• Explained the new workplace rules.
• Helped employees adjust to the changes.
• Acted as role models, showing a positive attitude during the transition.
Facilitators – A team of employees who:
• Explored the new o ce before the move to understand how things worked.
• Answered questions and solved problems.
• Helped colleagues navigate and settle in.
The Impact of the Move
Thanks to strong internal communication, the transition was successful.
Employees felt:
• Well-informed and prepared.
• Part of the change, not just a ected by it.
• Proud to belong to the company.
By carefully planning and communicating the move, Generali made the new headquarters feel like
“the place to be”, reinforcing a sense of belonging and a new workplace culture.
4.6 Conclusions – Simpli ed Explanation
This chapter highlights the importance and complexity of internal communication within
organizations. It is not just about sharing information inside a company but also about how
internal communication connects with external communication to form a broader concept called
organizational communication.
Key Points:
Internal communication is essential for success – It helps an organization adapt to change
while also preserving its identity and long-term goals.
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Balance between change and stability – Companies need to constantly evolve to stay
competitive, but they also need to keep their core values and strengths. Internal communication
plays a key role in maintaining this balance.
Motivating and engaging employees – Employees need to feel involved, prepared, and
motivated to contribute to the company’s success. Good internal communication ensures that
they:
• Understand their role in the organization.
• Feel empowered to make a di erence.
• Are engaged and committed to the company’s goals.
Internal communication is a powerful tool – It is not just about sending emails or
announcements. It shapes the company’s culture, strategy, and future direction.
The new approach: Organizational Communication – Since internal communication is now so
deeply connected to the company’s overall strategy, it is better understood as organizational
communication, which strengthens the company’s:
• Competitive advantage.
• Market position.
• Long-term success.
Final Thought
Internal communication is not just about keeping employees informed—it is a strategic function
that helps the company grow, adapt, and remain strong in a competitive world. This is why the
chapter is titled “Internal-Organizational Communication”, showing its evolution from a simple
internal process to a key element of business success.
CH5
Sure! This section of the book talks about how companies deal with crises and manage
communication during di cult situations. Here’s a simpler breakdown:
1. What is a Crisis in Business?
A crisis is any serious problem that can harm a company’s reputation, operations, or nances.
Some crises are major disasters, like factory res or bridge collapses, where people lose their
lives. Others are smaller but still harmful, like customer complaints, product defects, bad press, or
negative social media attention.
2. Why is Crisis Communication Important?
With social media and news spreading fast, companies must react quickly and carefully to control
the message. If a company handles a crisis poorly, the public may lose trust in them. On the other
hand, if they respond well, they can maintain or even improve their reputation.
3. The Role of the Media
The media (news channels, newspapers, and social media) plays a huge role in shaping public
opinion about a crisis. They highlight what happened, suggest causes, and sometimes even
propose solutions. They often focus on ethics—asking whether the company acted responsibly.
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4. How Companies Can Prepare for a Crisis
To handle crises e ectively, companies should:
• Identify potential risks (like safety issues or product recalls).
• Create crisis communication plans.
• Train employees on how to respond.
• Have a clear strategy to protect their reputation.
5. How Companies Are Judged During a Crisis
People don’t just judge a company based on what happened—they judge how the company
responds. Leadership, honesty, and responsibility matter. For example, when BP had the massive
oil spill in 2010, the public focused on how the company managed the crisis, not just on the
disaster itself.
6. Problems in Crisis Management
Even though many companies have crisis plans, most don’t train their employees well or test their
plans in real situations. This makes it harder to respond e ectively when a real crisis happens.
7. Phases of Crisis Communication
Companies go through four key steps when dealing with a crisis:
1. Prevention & Risk Analysis – Identifying potential crises before they happen.
2. Crisis Planning – Creating strategies and preparing response plans.
3. Crisis Response & Communication – Managing the crisis and communicating with the public,
media, and employees.
4. Post-Crisis Evaluation & Learning – Reviewing what happened and improving future
responses.
Final Thought
Good crisis communication is essential for companies to survive di cult situations. Businesses
must be prepared, act responsibly, and learn from past crises to improve their future responses.
What is a Crisis?
A crisis is an unexpected event that can harm a company’s reputation, disrupt its normal
activities, and hurt its nancial performance. Crises can vary in size, but even smaller ones can
damage a company’s reputation. Some crises, like accidents or natural disasters, happen
suddenly and unexpectedly, making it hard for companies to respond immediately. Others, like
worker strikes or product problems, may develop over time but still need attention before they
become major crises.
Two Key Aspects of a Communication Crisis:
1. Exceptionality (Unexpected Nature):
Crises are usually rare and can have a huge impact. For example, an accident, sabotage, or a
natural disaster may happen suddenly and require immediate action. However, some crises, like
employee con icts or product issues, develop more slowly, and can be anticipated or managed
with proper planning. By keeping an eye out for warning signs—like complaints from employees
or social media posts—companies can prevent these smaller issues from becoming big problems.
2. Visibility (Public Attention):
Crises attract attention from the media, customers, employees, politicians, and other groups. The
event itself, its consequences, and the company’s role are all highlighted. Sometimes, a company
might be introduced to new audiences who have never heard of it before, and they only learn
about it in the context of the crisis. For example, a company may not be well-known, but when it’s
involved in a crisis, it can gain attention because of its association with a bigger brand, making
the crisis more visible.
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The Importance of Perception:
What really matters in a crisis is how people perceive the situation, not necessarily what actually
happened. If the public believes the company failed to handle the situation well, it can harm the
company’s reputation. Even if the company did nothing wrong, if people think it didn’t meet their
expectations, that’s what will a ect its image. So, understanding how di erent audiences view the
crisis and managing those perceptions is crucial for companies to handle it successfully.
Preventive Measures:
Not all crises become public, and some can be managed quietly. Companies can use tools to
monitor for early warning signs of potential crises, so they can address them before they blow up
into bigger problems.
In summary, a crisis is about the unexpected event and its visibility to the public. The key to
managing it is understanding how people perceive the crisis and responding accordingly.
Understanding Crisis Emotions:
When a crisis happens, di erent groups of people (called “publics”) will react with di erent
emotions. These reactions are important because they help determine how companies should
respond. Companies need to understand the emotions of their audience and adjust their crisis
response to meet those emotional needs.
The Need for a Crisis Mapping System:
To help companies understand how people feel during a crisis, researchers have created a system
called Integrated Crisis Mapping (ICM). This system maps out the di erent types of crises based
on the emotions people feel and how they react to them. This helps businesses plan their crisis
management strategies in a way that aligns with what people are feeling.
The Two Key Axes in Crisis Mapping:
1. X-axis (Reaction Strategy):
This axis shows how the public reacts to the crisis. There are two main ways people respond:
• Cognitive strategy (thinking strategy): People mentally process the crisis, think about it, and
interpret it in a way that helps them handle the situation better.
• Behavioral strategy (action strategy): People take action to solve or change the situation, or at
least they try to.
2. Y-axis (Level of Engagement):
This axis shows how involved the organization is in managing the crisis. It goes from low to high
involvement.
The Four Quadrants of Crisis Mapping:
The ICM model creates four quadrants based on the x and y axes, and each quadrant represents
di erent types of crises. It helps companies understand:
• How people are emotionally reacting (anger, fear, sadness, etc.).
• How much the company is doing to address the crisis.
Dominant Emotions in Crises:
The ICM model identi es four main negative emotions that people typically feel during a crisis:
1. Anger – People feel angry when they believe the company is responsible for the crisis.
2. Fear – People are afraid about what might happen as a result of the crisis.
3. Anxiety – People feel anxious about the uncertainty surrounding the crisis.
4. Sadness – People are sad or upset about the consequences of the crisis, especially if it harms
others.
Why is this Important for Companies?
By mapping out the emotions that people feel during a crisis, companies can gure out the best
way to respond. For example:
• If the public feels angry, the company might need to apologize and take responsibility.
• If the public feels fearful, the company might need to o er reassurances and solutions.
• If people feel anxious, the company might need to provide clear, calm communication.
• If people are sad, the company might need to express empathy and show that they care.
Understanding these emotions helps businesses create a response that connects with the public
and manages the crisis more e ectively.
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Certainly! Here’s a simpli ed explanation of the four main emotions (anger, sadness, anxiety, and
fear) that people experience during a crisis and what causes them:
1. Anger:
• Cause of Anger: People get angry when they feel that something or someone has attacked or
harmed them, their property, or their well-being.
• How it A ects the Public: When anger arises, people often react aggressively towards the
organization, blaming it for the problem.
• Crisis Examples: Crises that cause anger include things like workers protesting against
company policies, safety problems in products, or con icts between employees and the
company. These crises are tough to manage because they can explode quickly and cause strong
reactions.
2. Sadness:
• Cause of Sadness: Sadness happens when people experience a deep loss that they feel
cannot be xed or undone.
• How it A ects the Public: People who feel sad usually want comfort and relief. They may not
criticize the company immediately but look for solutions to cope with the loss.
• Crisis Examples: Crises that cause sadness include things like natural disasters, sudden
accidents, or hostile takeovers where a company is taken over by another. These events often
make people feel like they’ve lost something important and can’t change it.
3. Anxiety:
• Cause of Anxiety: Anxiety comes from feeling like something dangerous is about to happen or
is already happening. People feel overwhelmed and unsure of what to do.
• How it A ects the Public: When people are anxious, they often seek an immediate solution to
feel safer or more in control. However, they may avoid taking direct action because they are
unsure how to deal with the situation.
• Crisis Examples: Crises that cause anxiety include accidents with company transportation (like
plane crashes or car accidents) or bad decisions made by the company that make people worry
about their future. People feel anxious because they fear these things might happen again, even
after the company reassures them.
4. Fear:
• Cause of Fear: Fear arises from uncertainty and a sense of existential threat, meaning people
feel their safety or well-being is at risk, and they don’t know how to handle it.
• How it A ects the Public: People in fear don’t know how to deal with the crisis or how the
company will respond. They may try to ignore the situation or avoid it altogether.
• Crisis Examples: Crises that cause fear include things like terrorist attacks, rumors spreading
about the company, or a CEO leaving the company. Fear can spread widely but is usually nonviolent, and it can slowly damage the company’s reputation over time as people lose trust.
Summary:
• Anger is caused by feeling attacked or harmed.
• Sadness comes from feeling a loss that can’t be undone.
• Anxiety happens when people are unsure how to deal with a looming danger.
• Fear occurs when people are uncertain and feel threatened.
Each of these emotions requires a di erent response from the company, which is why it’s
important to understand what the public is feeling during a crisis.
Here’s a simpli ed breakdown of how a crisis can be an opportunity for a company:
1. Crisis as an Opportunity:
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When a crisis happens, it’s a turning point for a company. The way the company reacts can either
limit the damage or use the crisis as an opportunity to grow and improve.
Crisis can be turned into a positive force by:
• Learning from it
• Making changes to improve
• Building a stronger reputation
This allows the company to move forward in a stronger position, turning a negative situation into a
source of growth.
Four Opportunities from a Crisis:
a. Strengthening the Company’s Reputation:
• If a company handles a crisis well, it can actually build trust, credibility, and respect from its
stakeholders (customers, employees, investors, etc.).
• For example, if a company shows that it’s in control during a crisis and is genuinely working to
protect those a ected, it boosts its reputation.
b. Making Changes and Adopting New Strategies:
• A crisis provides an opportunity to make changes that would have been hard to achieve in
normal times.
• People often resist change, but during a crisis, the urgency and disruption make it easier to
adopt new strategies and practices faster than usual.
c. Strengthening Employee Commitment:
• Going through a crisis together can unite employees, creating a stronger sense of belonging and
teamwork.
• Employees often become more committed to the company after overcoming a tough crisis
because they feel like they’re part of something bigger, and they identify more with the company’s
goals.
d. Reducing the Chance of Future Crises:
• After a crisis, a company can learn valuable lessons from the experience, helping to avoid similar
problems in the future.
• By reviewing what went wrong and making improvements, companies can prevent future crises
and handle potential risks more e ectively.
Example of a Company Turning a Crisis into an Opportunity:
• Barilla, the pasta company, is a good example. During a crisis, Barilla used the media attention
to its advantage, turning it into an opportunity for positive exposure and improving its public
image.
Summary:
A crisis can be di cult, but with the right approach, it can also be a chance to:
• Build trust and a stronger reputation
• Make necessary changes
• Strengthen employee loyalty
• Learn and reduce the chances of future crises
In short, handling a crisis well can lead to growth, improvement, and better overall performance
for a company.
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Here’s a simpli ed breakdown of the Barilla case and how the company used the crisis to
strengthen its reputation:
What Happened:
In September 2013, Guido Barilla, the president of Barilla (a pasta company), gave an interview
where he said that his company would never make an advertisement featuring a homosexual or
non-traditional family. He explained that Barilla preferred to portray the “traditional family” in their
ads. His comment sparked immediate backlash, especially from LGBTQ+ groups, who were
o ended by the statement. The response was loud, with people calling for a boycott of Barilla’s
products, especially in the U.S., where the company had been investing heavily.
How Barilla Responded:
Initially, Barilla’s response seemed weak, but later, the company made a stronger and more
sincere e ort:
1. Apology: Guido Barilla recorded a video (in both Italian and English) where he apologized for
his remarks and said he understood the mistake he made. He acknowledged that he had a lot to
learn from the conversation about the evolving de nition of family.
2. Meeting with LGBTQ+ Groups: He also promised to meet with LGBTQ+ representatives to
hear their concerns.
3. Action: Barilla took several concrete steps to address the issue, such as:
• Engaging with a ected communities, including the LGBTQ+ community.
• Launching a Diversity & Inclusion program within the company.
• Holding training for employees to reduce discrimination.
• Donating to LGBTQ+ organizations.
• Continuing to publicly apologize and express regret.
What Worked Well in Barilla’s Crisis Response:
1. Engagement: Barilla actively engaged with the LGBTQ+ community, showing that they took
the criticism seriously and wanted to make amends.
2. Concrete Actions: They didn’t just apologize – they took real actions like changing their
advertising approach and supporting LGBTQ+ groups.
3. Diversity as a Value: Barilla started promoting diversity and inclusion as core company values.
This allowed them to reach a wider range of consumers and update their advertising style to
re ect more inclusive and modern values.
The Outcome:
• In 2015, Barilla received an award for being the Best Place to Work for LGBT Equality.
• They turned a potentially damaging crisis into a chance to improve their reputation and
strengthen their relationship with more diverse groups of consumers.
Summary:
Even though Barilla faced a signi cant backlash, their apology and the actions they took to
address the issue (such as working with the LGBTQ+ community, supporting diversity, and
changing their internal culture) helped restore and even strengthen their reputation. The company
learned from the crisis and turned it into an opportunity to align more closely with modern values.
Here’s a simple explanation of the shift from crisis management to crisis leadership and how it
works:
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Crisis Management vs. Crisis Leadership:
• Crisis Management is about planning and reacting to prevent or handle crises when they
happen. It involves analyzing risks, having a plan in place, and taking action to minimize damage
when a crisis strikes.
• Crisis Leadership, however, goes a step further. It’s not just about reacting, but leading through
the crisis by making smart decisions, guiding the company through the crisis, and learning from it
to improve in the future. It’s a more proactive and leadership-driven approach.
What Crisis Management Involves:
Crisis management is a continuous process that includes:
1. Preventing a crisis – Doing everything possible to stop a crisis before it happens.
2. Preparing for crises – Having plans and actions ready for when a crisis does occur.
3. Managing the crisis – When a crisis happens, making sure that the response follows the plan
to minimize harm.
4. Learning from the crisis – After the crisis is over, analyzing what happened and using the
lessons to avoid future crises.
The Importance of Communication in Crisis Management:
• Communication is key in crisis management. When a crisis happens, people are uncertain and
worried, which leads to negative emotions. Clear, consistent communication helps reduce these
emotions and keeps stakeholders informed and calm.
• Crisis communication is handled by public relations professionals and is essential to manage
how the organization responds and how the public views the crisis.
The Phases of Crisis Management:
Crises often evolve over time, and each stage requires speci c actions. Here are the main phases
of crisis management:
1. Forecasting a Crisis:
• This phase involves anticipating potential crises by assessing risks. Companies need to identify
possible dangers that could harm their business.
• A crisis audit system helps monitor potential issues so they can act before a crisis fully occurs.
2. Planning and Preparation:
•This phase is about creating crisis plans and preparing procedures for action. This includes
having speci c processes, roles, and training in place so that everyone knows what to do if a
crisis strikes.
3. Communicating and Managing the Crisis:
• When a crisis happens, the company needs to communicate quickly and clearly to reduce
damage. This involves internal communication (with employees) and external communication
(with customers, media, and other stakeholders).
• The goal is to manage the crisis, protect the company’s reputation, and minimize the negative
e ects.
4. Managing Post-Crisis:
• After the crisis is over, the company needs to evaluate how it handled the situation.
• This phase involves reviewing the e ectiveness of the actions and communication during the
crisis and making improvements for future crisis management.
• Recovery plans are also put in place to repair the company’s reputation if it was damaged.
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Summary:
• Crisis management is the process of planning and responding to crises, while crisis leadership is
about leading through a crisis with good decisions and learning for the future.
• A crisis unfolds in stages, and each stage requires di erent actions, including forecasting
potential problems, planning responses, managing communication during the crisis, and
reviewing and recovering afterward.
• The key to handling a crisis successfully is having clear plans, communicating well, and learning
from the experience to improve for the future.
Here’s a simpli ed explanation of the forecasting crises and the audit activity phase in crisis
management:
Forecasting Crises:
The rst step in crisis management is forecasting potential crises before they happen. This is
done through an audit, which helps an organization identify risks, weaknesses, and possible
threats that could lead to a crisis. The goal is to spot problems early on (before they turn into
major issues) and take action to avoid them.
Why Crises Can Be Predicted:
Crises don’t just happen suddenly; they usually show early signs before they get worse. These
early signals are called premonitory signals, and by listening and paying attention to these signals,
an organization can act quickly to prevent a disaster.
Steps to Forecast Crises:
To forecast and manage crises, the organization needs two key things:
1. Risk Assessment: Identify and evaluate potential risks to the business.
2. Monitoring Early Warning Signs: Continuously watch for early signals of problems.
Risk Assessment:
Risk assessment is about understanding what could go wrong and how bad the impact might be.
It involves:
• Identifying Risks: Find out what risks the company faces, such as nancial, legal, or
reputational risks.
• Prioritizing Risks: Evaluate which risks are most likely to happen and which could cause the
most damage. This helps the company focus on the most serious threats.
The Costs of Crises:
Crises come with costs, not just in terms of money but also in the company’s reputation, trust,
and relationships. The costs happen in three stages:
1. Short-Term Costs:
• These are the immediate costs of handling the crisis, such as paying for repairs, assisting
victims, and communicating with stakeholders.
• It also includes costs for legal help or public relations agencies to manage the situation.
2. Medium-Term Costs:
• These are the ongoing e ects of the crisis, like falling sales or losing customer trust (e.g.,
boycotts).
• There’s also a loss of investor con dence, making it harder for the company to get loans or raise
funds.
3. Long-Term Costs:
• These are the lasting consequences, such as a loss of competitiveness, a decrease in employee
morale, and a decline in productivity.
• The company may also lose its ability to innovate or perform well in the market.
Reputation and Relationships:
The long-term costs are mainly caused by damage to the company’s reputation and the
relationships it has with customers, investors, and partners. These intangible assets are crucial for
the company’s survival and success, and if they’re damaged, it will hurt the business’s
performance and competitiveness in the long run.
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Restoring Trust:
To overcome a crisis, the company must rebuild trust with the people and organizations it relies
on. This involves re-legitimizing itself as a trustworthy and competent organization.
Summary:
The rst phase of crisis management focuses on forecasting and preventing crises through risk
assessment and monitoring for early warning signs. Crises can cause immediate (short-term),
ongoing (medium-term), and long-lasting (long-term) costs, especially when a company’s
reputation and relationships are damaged. The key to recovery is rebuilding trust and repairing the
company’s reputation.
Here’s a simpli ed explanation of risk assessment and monitoring for early warning signs:
What is Risk Assessment?
Risk assessment is the process of identifying and evaluating potential risks that a company might
face. These risks can lead to crises, and not all industries face the same level of risk. For example,
industries like chemicals, food, energy, and transportation face higher risks because their
operations can impact public health, the environment, or key services.
Why is Risk Assessment Important?
• Empowers Managers: Risk assessment gets all managers involved in identifying and
discussing potential problems in their areas of responsibility and across the entire organization.
• Builds a Prevention Culture: By understanding and identifying risks early, the company can
create a culture of prevention. This culture helps the organization avoid or reduce the impact of
crises, making it more responsive and e ective when issues do arise.
Monitoring for Early Warning Signs
After identifying potential risks, the next step is to monitor early warning signs—the small signals
that indicate a crisis might be coming. By catching these signals early, the organization can take
action to prevent the crisis from escalating.
There are two types of monitoring:
1. Internal Monitoring: This focuses on what’s happening within the company, like:
• Problems with production or equipment
• Complaints from employees or customers
• Con icts within the company, like disagreements with unions
• Negative things employees might post online (e.g., on social media or YouTube)
Tip: Social media is especially useful for detecting early signs, as many companies now listen to
customer feedback online to detect problems.
2. External Monitoring: This focuses on what’s happening outside the company, such as:
• Media coverage (newspapers, TV, online news)
• Competitors’ crises or problems
• Changes in laws or regulations
• Issues raised by interest groups, activists, or other public groups that might in uence public
opinion
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Why is Early Warning Important?
• More Public Conversations: Today, people share their thoughts more publicly, especially on
social media, which makes it easier to detect early signs of a crisis. However, there’s a lot of
information to sift through, so it’s not always easy to spot what’s truly important.
• Increased Speed: These signals often come very quickly and in large amounts, making it harder
to sort through everything. It can feel like a “cacophony of opinions” (a lot of noise), but it’s still
important to listen carefully and spot key warning signs.
Who Should Be Involved in Monitoring?
Monitoring should not be left to chance. It’s essential for public relations professionals and
management to make sure there’s a clear system in place to detect risks and take action.
Sometimes, the rst signs of a problem come from the people who are closest to the action—like
front-line sta or employees who are in direct contact with customers. For example:
• The receptionist might get a call from a journalist.
• An employee might see something wrong with a product and post about it online.
• Sta might overhear customers complaining.
In Summary:
Risk assessment is about identifying and prioritizing risks, while monitoring early warning signs
helps the organization spot problems before they escalate into full crises. It involves both looking
inside the company (internal monitoring) and paying attention to what’s happening outside the
company (external monitoring). Both managers and employees should be involved in this process
to make sure potential problems are caught early.
Here’s a simpli ed explanation of Issue Management vs. Crisis Management:
What is Issue Management?
Issue management is about identifying and dealing with emerging trends or problems before they
escalate into bigger issues. It’s a proactive strategy that helps companies respond to changes in
society, politics, or regulations that could potentially a ect the company.
For example, an issue could be a social trend like growing awareness of healthy eating or a
possible new law that might impact the business. Issues are often related to recurring trends
within a company’s industry, like environmental concerns in the chemical industry or food
traceability in the food sector.
Why is Issue Management Important?
• Stakeholder Relationships: The goal of issue management is to maintain or repair relationships
with the company’s important stakeholders (like customers, investors, or regulators), especially
when there’s potential for a sensitive situation.
• Proactive Approach: Instead of waiting for a problem to become a crisis, issue management
allows companies to handle concerns early and prevent them from escalating.
Issue Management in the Digital Age:
With the rise of the internet and social media, issue management has become even more
important. Companies need to keep an eye on what’s being said about them online, because
issues can spread quickly through platforms like Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, and blogs.
Key Points:
• Monitoring the Web: Companies need to invest in resources to monitor social media, even if
they don’t have a direct presence there. Sometimes, issues arise when a company isn’t actively
involved online.
• Company Presence: It’s important for companies to have an active online presence, like a
company blog or pro les on platforms like LinkedIn and Facebook. This helps the company stay
transparent, show it’s open to dialogue, and respond quickly if an issue arises.
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What is Crisis Management?
Crisis management happens when an issue has already escalated into a crisis, and the company
must respond quickly to manage the situation. Crisis management is more reactive—it’s about
dealing with the immediate fallout from a problem that’s gone public.
Challenges with Social Media:
• Di cult to Control: Social media is unpredictable and di cult to manage because it’s userdriven, meaning anyone can share information (positive or negative) about the company.
• Public Perception: When a problem goes viral, it’s hard to control the narrative or stop the
spread of negative information. The company needs to act fast and be transparent to manage the
crisis.
Key Di erences Between Issue and Crisis Management:
• Issue Management: A proactive approach where the company identi es potential problems
early and addresses them before they escalate into a full-blown crisis.
• Crisis Management: A reactive approach that kicks in when an issue has already turned into a
crisis, and the company needs to handle the situation quickly to minimize damage.
In Summary:
• Issue management is about spotting and managing potential problems early, before they turn
into major crises. This helps keep the company’s reputation intact and ensures good relationships
with stakeholders.
• Crisis management is about responding when an issue has already turned into a crisis. The key
challenge today is that social media can quickly amplify problems, making it essential for
companies to manage their online presence and act quickly when crises arise.
Here’s a simpler explanation of Planning and Preparing to Manage a Crisis:
Why Prepare for a Crisis?
Every organization faces the possibility of a crisis, which can harm its reputation, operations, or
nances. To reduce the impact of such crises, it’s important to prepare in advance. This
preparation involves creating a crisis plan and running exercises to make sure everyone knows
what to do when a crisis occurs.
The goal of a crisis plan is to help the company respond quickly and e ciently to minimize
damage and control the situation. The plan includes:
• Procedures to follow
• Communication tools and channels
• Equipment and personnel needed
• Tasks and responsibilities
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Five Steps to Set Up a Crisis Plan:
1. Set up the Crisis Management Team (CMT): A group of people responsible for handling
crises.
2. Set up a Crisis Room: A space where the team can work during a crisis.
3. Training Activities: Teach people the skills they need to handle crises.
4. Prepare the Crisis Communication Plan: Plan how to communicate with stakeholders during
a crisis.
5. Create a Crisis Manual: A guidebook that details the steps to take during a crisis.
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How Social Media Impacts Crisis Management:
The rise of social media has dramatically changed how crises can spread:
• Fast Spread of Information: With people constantly online, a small issue can become a global
crisis in a matter of minutes. For example, a complaint about a product in Asia can quickly go viral
worldwide through a tweet or YouTube video.
• Visibility: Information on social media spreads rapidly, which means a company’s reputation can
be damaged much faster than before. If a crisis happens, it can escalate and go global very
quickly.
1. Setting Up the Crisis Management Team (CMT):
A crisis is complex, so it’s important to have a dedicated team to handle it. The Crisis
Management Team (CMT) is a special group of people within the company tasked with managing
crises, particularly in terms of communication.
What does the CMT do?
• During a crisis, the CMT guides the company on how to respond.
• In normal times, the CMT updates risk assessments, trains sta , and prepares for potential
crises.
• The CMT also monitors possible risks and gathers reports about any emerging issues.
Composition of the Crisis Management Team (CMT):
• The team must be exible and t the speci c needs of the company and the types of crises they
might face.
• The team usually includes both permanent and temporary members:
• Permanent Members include:
• The team manager (often the CEO or senior manager)
• Chief communications o cer
• HR director
• Head of internal communications
• Legal department head
• Head of public a airs
• Temporary Members include:
• Heads of departments a ected by the crisis (e.g., nance, production, etc.)
• External experts or consultants (e.g., legal or medical advisors)
How Does the CMT Work?
• Regular meetings are held to make sure the team is prepared and up to date.
• The CMT must be always available, day or night, to respond quickly in case of a crisis.
• The CMT’s decision-making power is crucial. They have full authority to make decisions during a
crisis, and this must be clearly communicated to all company sta .
• Choosing a spokesperson is also important. This person is the only one allowed to speak to the
media or public about the crisis to avoid confusion or mixed messages.
• In larger organizations with o ces around the world, the CMT is often duplicated at regional
o ces to handle crises locally.
In Summary:
The preparation for crisis management is about creating a clear and detailed plan before a crisis
happens. The Crisis Management Team (CMT) plays a central role in organizing the response,
making key decisions, and coordinating communication during the crisis. It is essential that the
CMT is well-trained, has a clear structure, and is ready to act at any time to protect the company
and manage the crisis e ectively.
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Why Choose a Spokesperson?
During a crisis, it’s important for the company to have one spokesperson to speak to the media
and the public. Having multiple people saying di erent things can confuse the public and hurt the
company’s reputation. The spokesperson is there to show that the company knows what’s
happening, can handle the situation, and is doing everything to x it.
What Makes a Good Spokesperson?
The spokesperson should be:
• Well-trained and know what’s happening inside and outside the company.
• Good at public speaking and dealing with the media.
• Able to connect with people emotionally, show empathy, and gain their trust.
• Comfortable apologizing on behalf of the company if needed, and o ering support to those
a ected by the crisis.
Usually, the head of public relations or a manager who is experienced in talking to the public is
chosen as the spokesperson.
Who Else Can Help with Media Relations?
The Chief Press O cer or Communication O cer typically handles the company’s relationship
with journalists. In some cases, the company might hire an external consultant to help. The
consultant brings in outside expertise, provides an objective view of the crisis, and is available
24/7, allowing the company to focus on solving the crisis.
Can the CEO Be the Spokesperson?
Sometimes, the CEO can be the spokesperson, but this decision should be carefully considered
for a few reasons:
1. The CEO might be too busy managing the company to handle media relations.
2. The CEO’s involvement may be saved for later if the crisis gets worse.
3. Having the CEO speak too soon can sometimes make things worse. For example, the BP oil
spill incident in 2010.
The BP Oil Spill Example:
In April 2010, BP’s oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico exploded, causing a huge oil spill. BP’s CEO,
Tony Hayward, tried to downplay the situation, calling the spill “tiny” and a “disruption” for locals.
He also went on a sailing trip just days after being criticized. His actions angered many people,
including the U.S. government and environmental groups, who felt he wasn’t handling the crisis
well.
As a result of his actions, Tony Hayward faced huge public backlash. In the end, he was replaced
as CEO by Bob Dudley in July 2010.
In Summary:
Choosing the right spokesperson is crucial during a crisis. The spokesperson needs to be wellprepared, empathetic, and trusted to deliver the right messages. The CEO might not always be
the best choice, especially if their involvement could make things worse, as shown in the BP oil
spill example.
Here’s a simpler explanation of Setting up a Crisis Room:
Why Do You Need a Crisis Room?
A crisis room is a special space where the crisis management team (CMT) can work together
when a crisis happens. This room is important because it provides a central location for the team
to discuss how to handle the emergency and make quick decisions without distractions.
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What Should the Crisis Room Have?
The crisis room should be equipped with everything the team needs to manage the crisis
e ectively. These are the key things it should include:
1. Communication Tools:
• Phones: Direct lines to communicate quickly, without going through a switchboard.
• Computers: Connected to the internet for fast access to information.
• Printers, Faxes, and Photocopiers: To print or send documents if needed.
• Cable TV, Radio, Video Equipment: To stay updated on news or broadcast updates.
• Video Conferencing Tools: For remote meetings with other people involved in managing the
crisis.
2. Important Information:
• Up-to-date Information: Everything about the company, such as organizational charts, details
about products and services, facilities, etc.
• Crisis Plans and Emergency Procedures: Clear instructions on what steps to take during an
emergency.
• Contact Lists: A list of journalists, stakeholders, emergency services (like hospitals and re
departments), and other important contacts that might be needed during the crisis.
What is the Role of the Crisis Room?
• Before the Crisis: The crisis room is used for planning, risk analysis, and keeping an eye on any
warning signs that a crisis might be coming.
• During the Crisis: The crisis room becomes the main control center where the team gathers to:
1. Get information about the crisis.
2. Understand the situation.
3. Make decisions about what actions to take.
4. Start communication e orts with the public, media, and other key stakeholders.
5. Monitor how the crisis is unfolding and adjust the response as needed.
In Summary:
The crisis room is a dedicated space with all the tools and information the crisis management
team needs to handle an emergency. It’s used for planning before a crisis, coordinating during a
crisis, and evaluating the situation after it’s over. It helps the team stay organized and e ective
when responding to a crisis.
Here’s a simpler explanation of Training Activities for Crisis Management:
Why is Training Important?
Crisis management requires speci c knowledge, skills, and techniques. These are not always
naturally held by employees, so training is needed to prepare everyone, especially those who will
handle crises. The goal is to create a culture where everyone understands the risks and knows
how to respond to a crisis e ectively.
What Should the Training Focus On?
1. Crisis Management Skills: Training is aimed at people who will directly handle crises, as well
as all employees who need to be aware of crisis situations. The training helps:
• Build a sense of responsibility and belonging to the company.
• Raise awareness about critical factors and risks the company faces.
• Help employees recognize early signs of a crisis, including signals from social media.
2. Developing Crisis Awareness: Training focuses on building a “crisis prevention culture,”
where employees understand the importance of managing and preventing crises.
How Does the Training Happen?
• Seminars and Workshops: Training can be done through seminars either led by the company
itself or external experts. These seminars teach participants how to handle critical events,
especially communication during a crisis.
• Practical Simulations: The training often includes hands-on exercises where employees face
simulated crisis situations. This helps them learn how to react in real-world stressful situations.
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Why Use Simulations?
• Simulations are important because they put employees in realistic crisis situations. This allows
them to practice how they would respond without the actual stress of a real crisis.
• The training helps employees manage stress, make decisions under pressure, and improve their
negotiation skills when things are tense.
• It’s especially important for top management to participate in training and be surprised by the
simulated crisis, which helps them practice decision-making and handling stress.
Focus Areas in Training:
• Stress Management: Learning how to stay calm and manage stress during a crisis.
• Decision-making and Negotiation: Developing skills to make quick, e ective decisions and
communicate under pressure.
• Understanding Risk: Every person has a di erent tolerance for stress and risk, so
understanding how people respond to crisis situations is key.
Who Needs Training?
While the main focus is on people who will handle the crisis directly (like members of the Crisis
Management Team and the company spokesperson), training should be shared with all
employees. Everyone needs to know how to spot a crisis and understand how to prevent or
manage it.
In Summary:
Crisis management training helps employees learn how to handle emergencies, manage stress,
and communicate e ectively. It includes practical exercises that simulate real crises to prepare
everyone to handle stress and make decisions under pressure. The training focuses not just on
top managers but on spreading crisis-awareness throughout the entire organization.
What is a Crisis Communication Plan?
A Crisis Communication Plan is a crucial part of a crisis management strategy. It helps an
organization manage communication during a crisis, ensuring that the right people receive the
right information quickly and clearly.
Two Main Phases of Preparing a Crisis Communication Plan:
1. Identifying Stakeholders and Third Parties:
• Stakeholders are the people or groups the organization needs to communicate with during a
crisis. These can include:
• Employees and their families
• Media (news outlets)
• Victims and their families
• Customers
• Government authorities (police, re departments, etc.)
• Shareholders
• Environmental groups
• The general public
• Third parties are organizations or individuals that can act as representatives for the company
during a crisis, especially when the company cannot speak directly. These could be industry
groups, experts, or associations. They help share the company’s messages or defend its
actions.
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2. Preparing Basic Communication Materials:
• To be ready for any crisis, the company should prepare materials in advance, such as:
• Draft press releases (templates for di erent crisis situations)
• Fact sheets about the company (its history, products, and services)
• Photos and technical information
• Safety standards and reports
• This preparation ensures that when a crisis hits, the organization can quickly use the right
materials and provide answers to journalists or other stakeholders without wasting time.
How Does It Work in a Crisis?
• During a crisis, it’s important to communicate clearly and consistently with all stakeholders.
Everyone should receive the same key message to avoid confusion. However, each group might
need slightly di erent details.
• Two-way communication is also essential. This means not only giving information to people but
also listening to them. This can be done through:
• Contact centers
• The company website and social media channels
• Hotlines or feedback systems
These channels help the company track what people are saying, get feedback, and improve the
crisis communication plan if needed.
Why is Preparing in Advance Important?
• Pre-prepared materials (like draft statements and press releases) help the organization respond
quickly during a crisis.
• By developing these materials before a crisis occurs, the company can act calmly and
thoughtfully when the crisis happens.
• It’s important to practice the communication plan through simulations to make sure it works well
and is exible enough for any situation.
Summary:
A Crisis Communication Plan helps an organization communicate clearly and e ciently during a
crisis. The plan includes identifying key groups to contact, preparing communication materials in
advance, and setting up ways to listen to feedback. The goal is to ensure a quick and organized
response that keeps everyone informed and reduces confusion.
What is a Crisis Manual?
A Crisis Manual is a key document that helps a company manage crises in a quick, organized
way. It includes the rules, principles, and procedures that everyone in the company should follow
when a crisis happens. The manual is created to guide the company’s response and ensure that
everyone knows what to do, even under pressure.
The crisis manual is a working tool. It should be used in training, simulations, and to spread the
company’s crisis prevention culture across the organization.
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What Does a Crisis Manual Include?
1. Introduction:
• This part explains the company’s values and how it should behave during a crisis. It also
explains how the manual should be used by employees.
2. Procedures:
• This outlines the speci c steps and actions that employees should take when a crisis happens.
The goal is for everyone to act quickly and independently without always waiting for orders.
3. Crisis Management Team (CMT) Description:
• This section lists the names, roles, contact information, and responsibilities of everyone in the
Crisis Management Team. This ensures everyone knows who is in charge and how to reach them
in an emergency.
4. Stakeholder Mapping:
• This part identi es the key people or organizations that the company needs to communicate
with during a crisis (e.g., journalists, authorities, unions, etc.). It includes their contact details like
phone numbers and emails.
5. Messages:
• The manual should outline what kind of messages the company needs to communicate during a
crisis. It includes draft press releases and guidance on how to tailor messages for di erent
audiences (employees, customers, media, etc.).
6. Available Resources:
• This section describes the Crisis Room (where the crisis team works during an emergency) and
lists the tools and resources available for handling the crisis, such as phones, computers, and
other equipment.
7. Company Documents and Brochures:
• This shows which company documents, brochures, or reports should be used during a crisis to
provide accurate information.
8. Other Useful Numbers:
• This section provides additional contact information, such as phone numbers for emergency
services ( re, police, hospitals), or media monitoring companies.
Updating and Improving the Crisis Manual:
For a crisis manual to be e ective, it needs regular updates. This involves:
1. Updating the Crisis Handbook: Keeping the manual current by adding new information or
revising old content.
2. Updating Contact Lists: Ensuring the mailing list and contact database are always up-to-date,
especially with important people like journalists and authorities.
3. Improving Media Monitoring: Checking that the tools used to monitor traditional media (like
TV or newspapers) and online media (like social media) are fast and e cient.
4. Registering Company Domains: Registering the company’s web domain names, even those
that include negative terms, to prevent critics from using them.
5. Managing Online Criticism: Preparing guidelines to respond quickly to any criticism or
negative comments on social media.
6. Identifying Key In uencers: Finding groups or individuals (like bloggers or associations) who
can help defend or support the company during a crisis.
7. Assessing Internal Skills: Evaluating the skills of the company’s internal public relations team
to ensure they are prepared to handle a crisis, and determining if any external experts are needed.
Summary:
A Crisis Manual helps guide the company through a crisis with clear rules and actions. It contains
detailed instructions, contact lists, message templates, and resources to manage the situation
e ciently. The manual should be regularly updated and improved to ensure the company is
always ready to respond to emergencies.
Crisis Management and Communication
When a crisis happens, the Crisis Management Team (CMT) is responsible for implementing the
crisis plan to handle the situation. The goal is to manage the crisis, limit damage, and prevent the
crisis from a ecting parts of the organization that aren’t directly involved. Having a solid crisis
plan and a trained team is crucial to e ectively and quickly handle the crisis.
The Role of Communication in Crisis Management
Communication plays a central role in managing a crisis. In this phase, communication happens
both inside the organization (with employees) and outside (with the public, media, and other
stakeholders). This process is called crisis communication.
Crisis communication involves a constant dialogue between the company and its key audiences
(employees, customers, media, etc.) before, during, and after the crisis. The main goal is to
manage the ow of information to help the company handle the crisis, reduce its negative impact,
and protect the company’s reputation.
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However, crisis communication isn’t just about sharing information. It’s also about taking action.
The key is that good communication can help guide and coordinate actions that can in uence the
course of the crisis, helping to resolve it more e ectively.
Why Communication Is So Important
E ective crisis communication is a complex system of relationships with di erent stakeholders.
Good communication in a crisis can help the company manage the technical side of the crisis and
the message it sends to the public. If both aspects (operational and communication) are managed
well, the company can reduce the damage and may even come out stronger from the crisis.
Summary:
• Crisis management is about applying plans and taking action to deal with a crisis.
• Communication is key to managing a crisis, ensuring everyone gets the right information and
that actions are coordinated to control the situation.
• E ective crisis communication helps protect the company’s reputation and allows it to manage
the crisis better.
Here’s a simpli ed explanation of e ective communication during a crisis:
Key Points for E ective Crisis Communication:
1. Prompt and Comprehensive:
• Act quickly and provide as much information as possible at the start of the crisis. The rst few
hours are crucial. The organization should be the primary and trusted source of information to
avoid misinformation or rumors spreading.
2. Continuously Updated:
• Information in a crisis becomes outdated quickly, so it is important to keep updating everyone
regularly. This shows that the organization is on top of the situation and actively managing it.
3. Incisive:
• The information shared must be clear and convincing. The company should explain the crisis
and its actions in a way that stakeholders understand and trust. The messages should be
straightforward and make the situation and solution clear without hesitation.
4. Centralized:
• To avoid confusion, all crisis communication should be controlled by one central team (usually
the crisis management team), with a single spokesperson. This ensures consistent and accurate
messaging, even if the crisis started in di erent parts of the company.
5. Transparent, Empathetic, and Ethical:
• Communication should be honest and show the organization’s willingness to solve the problem.
It should also be empathetic, showing care for those a ected, whether it’s victims or employees.
The communication should re ect the company’s core values and ethical principles.
6. Directed Inside and Outside the Organization:
• It’s important to keep all stakeholders informed, whether they are employees, customers, the
public, or media. The communication should be part of a coordinated plan to ensure everyone
gets the same message.
7. Business as Usual:
• Even during a crisis, the company should try to show that normal operations are still ongoing.
However, it’s important not to seem insensitive or uncaring about the crisis—just keep
communicating the necessary business functions.
Summary:
E ective crisis communication means being quick, clear, and consistent with updates while being
transparent, empathetic, and aligned with your company’s core values. Communication should
happen both internally and externally, and while managing the crisis, the company should try to
maintain some normalcy in operations without seeming uncaring.
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Here’s a simpli ed explanation of the two crisis communication theories and the types of
messages that should be used during a crisis:
Two Main Theories of Crisis Communication:
1. Image-Repair Theory:
• This theory focuses on restoring the company’s reputation after a crisis, especially if the
company has done something wrong (like causing harm or making a serious mistake).
• It’s often used when a company’s image has been damaged signi cantly by the crisis, and the
company is blamed for the issue.
• However, this theory is becoming less relevant because people now expect companies to take
responsibility for their actions even if they weren’t directly at fault. This re ects a broader view that
companies should be accountable for their impact on society and the environment.
2. Situation-Based Theory:
• This theory focuses on choosing di erent strategies depending on how much control the
company has over the crisis.
• If the company can manage the crisis well, it can use compliant strategies, like o ering a full
apology and taking responsibility for what happened.
• If the company has little control over the situation, it might use defensive strategies, like denying
responsibility or attacking others involved.
• However, no matter how much control a company has, an empathetic approach is now
essential. This means the company should show sympathy for those a ected by the crisis,
apologize where needed, and show that they understand the pain or frustration of the victims.
Key Takeaways:
• The Image-Repair Theory focuses on xing the company’s image after something bad happens,
often used when the company is blamed.
• The Situation-Based Theory helps determine how to respond based on how much control the
company has over the crisis. It suggests using a full apology if the company is in control, but
being defensive if it isn’t.
• Empathy and apology are critical in all cases now, as the public expects companies to show
they care about the victims and take some responsibility, even if they weren’t directly at fault.
Here’s a simpli ed explanation of the communication objectives and strategies during a
crisis:
Communication Objectives:
When a company faces a crisis, the communication strategies aim to achieve three main goals:
1. Minimize Negative Impact: This means trying to reduce any harm to the company’s reputation
and avoid blame for causing the crisis.
2. Change Perceptions: The company wants to in uence how people view the company during
the crisis, guiding the public’s understanding of the situation.
3. Reduce Long-Term Damage: After the crisis, the company works on minimizing the lasting
e ects and repairing its reputation over time.
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Crisis Response Strategies:
There are three main communication strategies that a company might use during a crisis,
depending on how responsible they are perceived to be for the event:
1. Denial:
• This strategy involves denying any involvement in the crisis or saying the company is not
responsible.
• If the company can prove it wasn’t at fault or wasn’t involved, this could protect its reputation.
• However, even when denying responsibility, the company must show sympathy for the victims
and acknowledge their su ering.
2. Diminishing:
• The company tries to downplay the crisis, suggesting it’s not as serious as people think, or that
the company was unable to control the situation.
• The goal is to reduce the perceived damage and avoid severe reputational harm.
• This strategy works if the company can provide solid proof to support its claims, but it may fail if
the public doesn’t believe the company’s version of events.
• It also involves engaging in dialogue with stakeholders to clarify the situation and help manage
the public’s perception during the crisis.
3. Rebuilding:
• This strategy focuses on repairing the company’s reputation by presenting positive information
or reminding people of past good deeds.
• The company might o er apologies, help victims, or promise reparations for damages.
• Rebuilding is used when the crisis poses a signi cant risk to the company’s image, especially if
the company has a negative history.
• The company also learns from the crisis and may use it to improve its operations or
communication for the future.
Managing an Online Crisis:
If the crisis happens online, the company needs to actively manage its online presence to control
the narrative. This includes:
• Using SEO (Search Engine Optimization) to ensure the company’s website ranks high in search
results.
• Creating a dedicated crisis website or section to provide all relevant information.
• Partnering with trusted third-party websites to get their support and boost credibility.
• Engaging in real-time communication by using online tools like surveys, chats, and direct
responses to questions.
• Having the CEO or top leaders engage directly with the public online to o er updates and
reassurance.
• Monitoring social media reactions carefully to adjust responses and manage the crisis
appropriately.
In short, during a crisis, companies aim to manage their reputation, control the information ow,
and adapt their strategy based on how much responsibility they hold. Online, it’s even more
critical to stay active and responsive to the public’s concerns.
Sure! Here’s a simpli ed explanation of the case of the Morandi Bridge collapse and how the
company Autostrade per l’Italia (the operator of the bridge) reacted:
What Happened:
On August 14, 2018, the Morandi Bridge in Genoa, Italy, collapsed during a heavy storm. The
bridge, part of the A10 motorway, fell at 11:36 AM, causing the deaths of 43 people. The collapse
was caught on video by people nearby and quickly went viral, spreading on social media, TV, and
news outlets worldwide. Some people even claimed to have seen lightning strike the bridge
before it fell.
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Autostrade per l’Italia’s Initial Reaction:
At rst, Autostrade per l’Italia (the company that owned and maintained the bridge) responded in
a very cold and technical way. Their rst statement, released just after the collapse, mentioned
that they were working on maintenance projects for the bridge and that the collapse would be
investigated later. The company didn’t acknowledge the seriousness of the situation and didn’t
express any empathy for the victims or the public.
Then, the CEO of the company was interviewed by the media, and when asked about whether the
bridge was dangerous, he said he didn’t believe it was and that the company had invested in its
maintenance. When the journalist mentioned that people had been saying the bridge needed to
be closed, the CEO denied it, saying he wasn’t aware of that and didn’t know about any issues
with the bridge.
The Delay in Showing Sympathy:
It wasn’t until ve hours later that Autostrade per l’Italia released another statement, expressing
condolences for the victims and thanking the rescue teams.
Consequences of the Company’s Reaction:
• The cold, technical tone of the company’s initial response was seen as arrogant and insensitive.
People, including the families of the victims, politicians, and the public, felt the company wasn’t
showing enough concern or sympathy for the tragedy.
• This lack of empathy, combined with the company’s negative reputation (it had previously been
criticized for not caring enough about consumers), made things worse.
• As a result, the company’s reputation took a hit. The CEO lost his position within a year, and the
Italian government opened a dispute over the company’s control of the motorway. This dispute
continued to a ect the company’s reputation and led to public criticism of how it handled the
crisis.
Key Takeaway:
The initial cold response from Autostrade per l’Italia showed the importance of having empathetic
and timely communication during a crisis. A lack of sympathy and failure to quickly address
people’s emotions can seriously damage a company’s reputation.
Sure! Here’s a simpli ed explanation of who to communicate with during a crisis and how:
1. Who to Communicate With:
In a crisis, it’s crucial to communicate quickly and clearly with three main groups of people:
1. Those directly a ected by the crisis (e.g., victims, families, people injured or harmed).
2. Employees (e.g., sta members of the company).
3. External stakeholders (e.g., clients, customers, suppliers, and the general public).
2. Communicating with the Victims and Their Families:
The rst priority should be to communicate with people directly a ected by the crisis. This could
include:
• Families of victims.
• Employees who may lose their jobs.
• Customers who may have experienced damage or loss.
It’s very important to act quickly to meet their speci c needs. For example, if people were injured
or killed, you need to ensure that the company is showing empathy and concern for their pain.
Sometimes, the crisis team may even appoint someone whose sole role is to handle these
sensitive relationships.
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3. Key Communication Actions for Victims:
Some important steps to take when communicating with people a ected by the crisis are:
• Show empathy and express your sympathy for what they are going through.
• Act quickly to x the problem or remove the cause of the crisis (e.g., xing a safety issue).
• If there are still ongoing risks, immediately inform people about what they need to do to stay
safe (e.g., avoid a certain product).
• Take preventive actions like recalling a dangerous product to prevent further harm.
• Identify and help those who are directly a ected, such as the victims and their families.
• Provide constant updates: Set up help lines, create information centers, or keep people
updated through social media, websites, and phone calls.
• O er compensation if people have been harmed or lost something, and let them know how they
can get it.
4. Ongoing Communication After the Crisis:
After the immediate crisis, it’s essential to keep a ected people updated on:
• How the crisis is being managed.
• What steps are being taken to compensate or assist those impacted.
This communication should continue for weeks or months after the event to ensure transparency
and maintain trust with the people a ected.
In Short:
During a crisis, the focus should be on quickly reaching out to victims and their families, showing
empathy, and o ering help. At the same time, you should keep them updated and continue to
provide support as the crisis unfolds and is managed over time.
Certainly! Here’s a simpli ed explanation of the importance of internal and external
communication during a crisis:
1. Importance of Internal Audiences (Employees and Collaborators):
• Employees are very important because they are the rst people to spread information about the
company to the outside world, including their family and friends. That’s why it’s crucial to keep
them informed during a crisis.
• Internal communication during a crisis has two main goals:
1. Reassure employees: Make sure they feel con dent about the company’s ability to manage
the crisis, so they don’t lose faith in the company.
2. Show empathy: Let employees know that the company cares about them and their well-being,
which helps build a sense of unity and support during the crisis.
2. How to Communicate with Employees During a Crisis:
• Use quick communication tools: Email or internal websites (like an intranet) are fast and useful
for sharing updates. But be cautious with email because it could be leaked outside the company.
• Personal communication is key: Instead of relying only on email, it’s better to talk to
employees directly, in person or in small groups. This helps them feel more connected and
engaged.
• Keep updating employees: Even after the crisis starts, it’s important to keep employees
informed about what’s going on, what the company is doing to x things, and any safety
measures in place.
3. Communicating with Other Stakeholders (External Audiences):
• In addition to employees, you also need to communicate with other external groups (like
customers, suppliers, creditors, government bodies, and the media).
• For each of these groups, you need to adapt your messages to suit their needs. The goal is to
explain the situation, reassure them, and maintain an open line of communication.
4. How to Communicate with External Stakeholders:
• Make sure the company’s o cial spokesperson communicates directly with these external
groups. This ensures the information is coming from someone credible.
• Monitor reactions: After communicating with stakeholders, listen to their feedback, report it to
the crisis team, and adjust your strategy if needed.
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In Short:
• During a crisis, you need to communicate quickly and regularly with employees to keep them
reassured and informed, while showing empathy and support.
• You also need to adapt your message for di erent external groups and make sure the company
spokesperson communicates with them in a clear and honest way.
• By doing this, you keep all parties informed, reduce confusion, and maintain trust throughout the
crisis.
Here’s a simpli ed explanation of how to communicate with the media during a crisis:
1. Importance of Good Media Relationships:
• Building strong relationships with journalists before a crisis is crucial. Having a good history of
communication helps when managing a crisis, as the media will trust you and be more willing to
work with you.
• However, even if you’ve had great media relations in the past, poor media management during a
crisis can damage your reputation.
2. What Makes a Crisis Interesting to the Media:
Certain factors make a crisis more newsworthy to the media, such as:
• The industry the company is in (some sectors get more attention than others).
• The type of incident (dramatic events, like explosions, attract more media interest).
• The victims (when vulnerable people are a ected, it draws more empathy and attention).
• The company’s reputation before the crisis (companies with bad reputations get more media
scrutiny).
3. Phases of Media Coverage During a Crisis:
Media coverage typically goes through four stages:
1. Initial News Flash: The media quickly shares short, objective news about the crisis, often
based on press releases or updates from news agencies. This is sometimes shared on social
media before being reported in the news.
2. Main Media Coverage: As more information becomes available, the media covers the story
more in-depth, including on TV, websites, and in newspapers. At this point, the company’s ability
to respond quickly becomes important.
3. Media Storm: The next 24 hours are usually full of opinions from various parties. The company
should stay calm, provide accurate information, and avoid blaming the media. It’s important to
stay present in the media and o er updates even if the full details aren’t available.
4. Ongoing Coverage: Over time, media interest in the crisis fades, but articles may pop up later,
especially if there are legal developments. The company should continue providing updates to
keep control of the information ow.
4. Guidelines for Managing Media Relations During a Crisis:
Here are some tips for dealing with the media:
• Take the initiative: Send the rst statement as soon as possible to control the ow of
information and become the main source of news.
• Continuous updates: Keep sending regular updates to the media to keep them informed and
show the company is actively managing the crisis.
• Work with all media: Be transparent and collaborative with all types of media, respecting their
deadlines and needs.
• Be clear: Provide clear, factual information and avoid speculation. If you don’t have the
information yet, explain why and promise to update later.
• Monitor media coverage: Keep track of how the media is covering the crisis. If the information
is incorrect, contact the media to correct it.
• Watch social media: Check what journalists and others are saying on platforms like Twitter and
Instagram to stay on top of the conversation.
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5. Tools for Communicating with Journalists During a Crisis:
You can use several tools to manage media relations during a crisis:
• Email and phone: Emails are useful for quick updates, but phone calls are better for sensitive
issues because they are more personal and exible.
• Press release: Send clear and detailed press releases with key information about the crisis and
the company’s actions.
• Press conference: Use carefully. It’s good when you have important updates, but it can also
lead to more questions. Be ready to provide information.
• Interviews: The o cial spokesperson, often a senior company leader, will give interviews. They
should be proactive and guide the conversation to highlight positive aspects, like the company’s
quick response.
• Online press room: This section of the company’s website should have all press releases,
updates, and details about the crisis.
• Company website: Use it to post the latest o cial information. You can even replace the home
page with a crisis update page if the crisis is severe.
• Social media: Use platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram to provide real-time updates
and engage with the public. Respond quickly to questions or concerns, but avoid overreacting to
irrelevant discussions.
In Short:
• Be proactive: Control the ow of information by quickly responding to media inquiries and
providing regular updates.
• Stay calm and clear: Provide accurate, factual information and avoid speculation.
• Monitor and engage: Keep an eye on how the media is covering the crisis and respond if
necessary, especially on social media.
By managing media relations e ectively during a crisis, you can maintain control over the
narrative and help the company recover its reputation.
Post-Crisis Management: Evaluation and Learning
After a crisis, the work isn’t over. Many organizations forget to evaluate how they handled the
crisis and what they can learn from it. This phase is crucial because analyzing how the crisis was
managed helps the organization improve and prevent future issues.
1. Evaluation:
• After the crisis, the company should review how it managed everything, especially the crisis
communication and the decisions made during the crisis. This helps to understand what worked
well and what didn’t.
2. Surveys:
• The company can conduct surveys to learn what the public and employees think about how the
crisis was handled. This gives useful feedback on the organization’s reputation and internal
atmosphere.
3. Improvement:
• This feedback helps the company improve its crisis communication strategies and its overall
approach. They can take steps like holding events, issuing statements, or o ering information to
rebuild trust and improve their image.
4. Learning and Sharing Lessons:
• The lessons learned from the crisis should be shared internally, so the company is better
prepared in the future. This could include updating crisis manuals or conducting seminars.
Conclusions: Preparing for Future Crises
1. Crisis Communication is Key:
• Crisis communication is a specialized area of public relations that helps protect and strengthen
the reputation of an organization during a crisis. The role of crisis communication is becoming
even more important as crises are more common, especially due to the internet and media
exposure.
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2. Emerging Risks (e.g., Cyber Crises):
• As technology grows, cyber crises (like data breaches) are becoming a signi cant threat to
organizations. These crises can damage an organization’s reputation, so communication
professionals should be involved in protecting the company’s image during these events.
3. Role of PR Professionals:
• PR professionals play a central role during a crisis. They manage all communication activities,
including how the organization responds to the crisis and how it communicates with the public
and the media. Managing crisis communication is often the hardest part of a PR professional’s
career. It requires them to handle high-pressure situations, adapt quickly, and ensure that the
company maintains a good reputation.
4. Transforming Crises into Opportunities:
• E ective crisis management can turn a negative situation into a chance for the organization to
grow and show leadership. The key is preparation, learning from past mistakes, and being
proactive in managing communication.
In short, post-crisis evaluation is essential for learning and improving. PR professionals need to be
prepared to handle crises e ectively, using all their skills to manage communication and minimize
damage to the organization’s reputation.
CH 6
Sure! This chapter is about how companies create and manage content to communicate
e ectively with their audiences. It explains why content creation is important, what skills
professionals need, and how they can organize the process.
Why Content Management is Important
There are two main reasons why managing content is a big deal today:
1. People are overloaded with information – Nowadays, people are bombarded with messages
from all directions, and their attention span is very short (about 9 seconds). So, companies must
create content that grabs attention quickly.
2. Many di erent communication channels – Companies must manage both online (social
media, websites) and o ine (TV, newspapers) channels. It’s important to keep the message
consistent everywhere.
What Communication Professionals Need to Do
• Tell a compelling story – The message should be interesting, engaging, and valuable.
• Meet di erent audience needs – Some people want facts, while others seek emotional
connections.
• Use di erent content formats – A mix of text, images, videos, and stories helps capture
attention.
What This Chapter Covers
1. De nitions – It explains key terms like storytelling, content creation (making content), and
content curation (selecting and organizing existing content).
2. The Content Management Process – It introduces a structured way to create and manage
content in ve steps.
3. Skills for Professionals – It discusses what communication professionals need to succeed,
including creativity, strategic thinking, and storytelling skills.
4. Case Studies and Tools – Real-world examples and useful methods to help professionals
improve their content strategies.
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In short, the chapter helps professionals understand how to create and manage content
e ectively to keep their audience engaged and maintain a strong company image.
This section explains how companies can use storytelling (or corporate narratives) as a tool to
stand out, connect with people, and build a strong reputation. Let’s break it down.
Why Corporate Stories Matter
A company’s story (or narrative content) helps:
1. Show who they are and what makes them di erent.
2. Communicate their mission, values, and quality of their products/services.
3. Make their messages clear and consistent across di erent media (social media, ads, websites,
etc.).
To do this, professionals need to:
• Create content (write, design, or produce new material).
• Curate content (select and organize existing materials).
What is Narrative Content?
Narrative content is anything a company creates (text, images, videos, sounds) to engage and
connect with the audience. It helps people relate to the brand and feel part of its journey.
A good story should feel real and immediately connect with people. A company can act as the
“author” of a story and invite people (customers, employees, investors) to be part of it.
How to Structure a Corporate Story
A strong story follows a classic storytelling structure (like in movies or books). According to
Fontana (2013), there are 9 key elements:
1. Hero – The main character (could be the company, customer, or product).
2. Plan – The goal the hero wants to achieve.
3. Challenge – A problem or weakness to overcome.
4. Opponent – Something or someone creating obstacles.
5. Con ict/Trauma – A big struggle that makes the story interesting.
6. Treasure – The reward or bene t of overcoming the challenge.
7. Magic Items & Helpers – Tools or people that help the hero succeed.
8. Wedding – The nal success or resolution of the journey.
Companies can use this structure to tell stories about:
• Their mission, vision, and values.
• The launch of new products or services.
• How they handle challenges or crises.
Why Companies Use Storytelling?
There are three big bene ts of using corporate stories:
1. Control Over Messaging – Companies can shape how people see them by telling their own
story in a way that grabs attention.
• Example: A car company might tell a story about its commitment to sustainability, using the
right words and style to stand out.
2. Better Understanding – Stories help people understand a company’s values, challenges, and
goals. This builds trust and improves reputation.
3. Building Long-Term Value – Good storytelling makes a company memorable and
recognizable. Over time, this strengthens relationships with customers and partners, leading to
more success and growth.
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What’s Next?
The next section will explain content creation (making content) and content curation (organizing
and managing content) in more detail.
In Simple Terms:
Companies use storytelling to stand out, connect with people, and build trust. A good story
follows a structure (like a movie) and helps explain who they are, what they do, and why they
matter. When done well, storytelling improves reputation, makes messages clearer, and creates
long-term value.
Sure! This section explains the di erence between content creation and content curation, along
with some key principles and tools for making great content. Let’s break it down.
Content Creation vs. Content Curation
People often mix up these two terms, but they are di erent:
• Content creation – Making original content like blog posts, videos, infographics, or social
media posts.
• Content curation – Collecting and organizing existing content from di erent sources to share
with an audience.
This section focuses on content creation and how companies can do it e ectively.
Why Creating Original Content is Important?
Creating high-quality content online gives companies three main bene ts:
1. Lead Generation – When a company creates content (e.g., blog posts, videos), they can add
things like forms, polls, and calls to action to collect information from potential customers.
2. Online Awareness – Google ranks original content higher in search results, which means more
people can nd the company online. This is done through SEO (Search Engine Optimization).
3. Credibility & Leadership – When a company shares valuable content that matches what
people want, they gain trust and become seen as experts in their eld.
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How to Create E ective Content?
There are three key principles for making great content:
1. Use the Right Keywords (SEO Optimization)
• Think about what words people search for on Google when looking for information related to
your business.
• The content should include these keywords so that it ranks higher on search engines.
• Tool to use: Google Trends – Helps nd popular search terms and trends.
2. Create Thematic Clusters (Organize Your Topics)
• Instead of making random content, group similar topics into thematic clusters (e.g., if a company
sells co ee, they can have clusters on co ee brewing methods, co ee beans, and co ee culture).
• Helps in brainstorming content ideas and making sure everything connects well.
3. Use the Right Tools for Di erent Content Formats
Once a company decides on the type of content they want to create (text, images, videos), they
can use di erent tools:
• Canva (Canva.com) – Makes professional-looking images and graphics.
• Giphy (Giphy.com) – Creates and nds GIFs.
• Vidyard (Vidyard.com) – Helps make and customize videos.
• Hemingway App (Hemingwayapp.com) – Improves writing by making it clearer and easier to
read.
• Make My Persona (HubSpot’s Make My Persona) – Helps de ne the target audience for
content.
In Simple Terms:
• Content creation means making original content (blog posts, videos, images) to attract and
engage people.
• Good content helps companies get leads, improve online visibility, and build trust.
• To create great content, companies should use the right keywords, organize topics into clusters,
and use specialized tools to create high-quality material.
This helps businesses stand out online and connect with their audience e ectively!
Sure! This section explains content curation, how it di ers from content creation, and how
companies use it e ectively. Let’s break it down simply.
Content Creation vs. Content Curation
• Content creation = Making original content (articles, videos, social media posts, etc.).
• Content curation = Finding and sharing content made by others, but customizing it to match a
company’s style and strategy.
Content curation helps businesses provide valuable content without always having to create
everything from scratch.
Why is Content Curation Useful?
Companies use content curation for several bene ts:
1. Building relationships with industry peers – When a company shares high-quality content
from others, it strengthens trust and credibility with its audience and the original content creators.
2. Saving time and resources – Instead of making new content, companies can share existing
content that is already well-designed and informative.
3. Understanding the audience better – By seeing which types of curated content their
audience engages with, companies can learn more about what their customers like.
How to Do Content Curation the Right Way?
To make content curation e ective, companies should follow these key principles:
1. Share Unique Content That Audiences Haven’t Seen Before
• Instead of reposting the same articles that everyone is sharing, companies should look for new
and valuable sources of information.
• They can use tools like:
• Feedly (feedly.com) – Gathers articles and blog posts from di erent sources.
• NewsBlur (newsblur.com) – Helps collect and organize news updates from multiple websites.
2. Customize the Shared Content (Framing)
• Companies shouldn’t just copy and paste content. Instead, they should add value by explaining
why it’s relevant to their audience.
• Ways to do this:
• Summarizing the key points in a way that ts the company’s message.
• Adding a call to action (e.g., “Read more,” “Join the conversation,” etc.).
• Including links to related company content.
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3. Give Credit to the Original Source
• To build credibility and maintain good relationships with content creators, companies should
always link to the original source.
• This shows transparency and encourages others to share the company’s content in return.
This mix ensures that the company stays relevant and active while also providing valuable insights
from di erent perspectives.
Real-Life Example: Adobe’s Content Curation Strategy
Adobe (the company behind Photoshop, Illustrator, etc.) wanted to attract marketing professionals
and generate potential customer leads.
What They Did:
• They created CMO.com, a website focused on four key topics:
1. Customer experience
2. The future of work
3. Emerging technologies
4. Digital marketing trends
• The articles on CMO.com were based on research and news from third-party sources (content
curation).
How They Made It Successful:
1. Customized the articles – Adobe’s team added extra context and their own perspective to
each curated article.
2. Made the author visible – Each article included the name of an Adobe employee to increase
credibility.
3. Linked back to original sources – They included source links at the end of each article to
maintain transparency and strengthen relationships with content creators.
In Simple Terms:
• Content curation = Finding and sharing valuable content made by others but customizing it to
t a company’s brand.
• Bene ts include saving time, strengthening relationships, and learning more about the audience.
• Good curation means nding unique content, adding value, and giving credit to original sources.
• Adobe’s CMO.com is a great example of a company successfully using content curation to
attract professionals and build credibility.
By following these strategies, companies can keep their audience engaged without always having
to create everything from scratch!
This section explains the Content Management Model, which is a step-by-step process for
creating and managing corporate stories. It helps companies develop, share, and measure their
content e ectively.
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The 5 Steps of Content Management
1. Audit & Research (Understand the Narrative Context)
• Before creating content, companies need to analyze the market and understand how they
should tell their story.
• This includes:
• Checking how competitors communicate.
• Seeing how customers and the public talk about the industry.
• Creating a content inventory (reviewing past content to see what works).
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Balancing Content Creation and Content Curation
For a successful content strategy, companies should follow this ideal balance:
• 60% original content (created by the company).
• 40% curated content (shared from other sources).
2. De ne the Content Strategy
• The company decides on goals for its content, such as:
• Building awareness (making more people recognize the brand).
• Engaging the audience (getting people to interact).
• Encouraging action (making people buy a product, sign up, etc.).
• These goals should align with the company’s overall business strategy.
3. Develop & Plan the Content
• This is where the actual content is created. Companies decide:
• What type of content to make (articles, videos, social media posts, etc.).
• How to write or design it (choosing the right words, images, and tone).
• The brand’s voice and style (so all content feels consistent).
4. Promote the Content (Share & Distribute)
• The company needs to strategically share the content using di erent methods:
• Posting on social media.
• Sending newsletters.
• Using advertising or in uencers.
• A good editorial plan (a calendar for posting content) helps keep things organized.
5. Measure & Evaluate Success
• After publishing the content, the company checks how well it performed by looking at:
• Views, likes, shares, and comments on social media.
• Website tra c and engagement.
• Sales or conversions driven by the content.
• This information helps improve future content. The data from this phase is used in the rst step
to re ne the overall strategy.
In Simple Terms:
• Companies research their audience and competitors before creating content.
• They set clear goals and plan how their content will be made.
• They create and promote the content using di erent platforms.
• Finally, they analyze the results and use that data to improve their future content.
This process ensures that a company’s storytelling is e ective, strategic, and constantly
improving!
Understanding the Audit & Research Phase in Content Management
Before creating content, companies must research and listen to their audience. This helps them
understand what topics interest people, where to nd good content, and how their competitors
are communicating.
Why Is This Important?
• It helps companies organize their content and decide what to publish.
• They can nd reliable sources (internal or external) for content.
• It helps them stand out from competitors by knowing what others are doing.
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Types of Listening (Ways Companies Collect Information)
1. Reactive Listening (Basic & Passive Monitoring)
• The company waits and listens to what people say about them.
• It helps check the company’s reputation and track mentions of its products.
• Tools: Google Alerts, Talkwalker Alert (free tools that notify when the company is mentioned).
2. Internal Monitoring (Checking Company-Owned Channels)
• The company actively monitors its own social media and websites for bad reviews or negative
feedback.
• Tools: Fanpage Karma, Followerwonk, Foller.me, Ninjalitics (these help analyze social media
performance).
3. Social Listening (Tracking Online Conversations)
• The company analyzes public conversations about their brand, products, and competitors.
• Helps track customer opinions and industry trends.
• Tools: Buzzsumo, SocialBakers, BlogmeterSuite (freemium tools – free basic features, advanced
paid features).
4. Strategic Listening (Targeted Listening for Business Goals)
• The company listens with a speci c goal, such as:
• Understanding customer opinions before launching a new product.
• Tracking key in uencers in their industry.
• Tools: Talkwalker, SproutSocial, Brandwatch, AgoraPulse (more advanced tools).
5. Social Intelligence (Deep Data Analysis for Decision-Making)
• The most advanced type of listening, used by big companies.
• It combines data from social media, website visits, surveys, and customer interactions.
• Helps make data-driven decisions (e.g., if many people complain about a product, the company
may improve it).
• Tools: SurveyMonkey, SAP, Brand24, Crimson Hexagon (paid tools).
Finding Content Sources (Internal vs. External)
1. Internal Content Sources (within the company):
• Company history, mission, values.
• Past blog posts, social media content, reports.
• Employees’ knowledge and experiences.
2. External Content Sources (outside the company):
• Articles, research reports, industry news from other sources.
• Content from trusted websites, in uencers, or publications.
Useful Tools for Finding Content
• Feedly – Collects relevant articles based on company interests.
• Zest – Browser extension for nding high-quality content.
• Sparktoro Trending – Shows the most shared articles on Twitter.
• Buzzsumo – Finds the most popular online content.
• Instapaper / Pocket – Saves articles for later reading.
Tools for Analyzing & Researching Audience Needs
Before creating content, companies need to understand their audience using data analysis tools:
• Google Analytics – Shows visitor behavior on a company’s website.
• Woopra – Tracks how users interact with a website in real time.
• Hotjar – Creates heatmaps to show which website elements get the most clicks.
In Simple Terms:
• Companies listen and research before creating content.
• They can track conversations, monitor feedback, and analyze trends.
• Tools help companies nd content, measure engagement, and improve their strategies.
• Good content comes from both internal ideas and external sources.
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This phase is essential to creating content that people actually care about!
Phase 2: De ning Content Creation & Curation Strategies
After researching and listening to the audience (Phase 1), the next step is to create a content
strategy that helps the company achieve its goals.
What Is the Goal of This Phase?
Companies create content to:
• Inform people about their products, services, or news.
• Engage with their audience and build relationships.
• Encourage Action, like buying a product, visiting a website, or signing up for an event.
How to Create a Content Strategy?
A company should match its content to the customer journey—the di erent steps a person goes
through before and after making a purchase.
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Customer Journey Steps & Matching Content
1. Awareness (Learning About the Brand)
• The customer rst hears about the company or product.
• Content should grab attention and explain why the company is worth considering.
Example Content:
• Emotional content (videos, storytelling, motivational posts).
• Rational content (webinars, product comparisons, expert advice).
2. Consideration (Comparing Brands & Evaluating Options)
• Customers start comparing di erent brands before making a decision.
• Content should show why your product is better and o er useful resources.
Example Content:
• Call-to-action posts (“Sign up to get a free guide!”)
• Lead generation tools (discounts, free trials, email newsletters).
3. Purchase (Buying the Product/Service)
• The customer is ready to buy.
• Content should make it easy to complete the purchase.
Example Content:
• Promotional campaigns with hashtags and links to buy now.
• Simple guides explaining how to purchase.
4. Service & Loyalty (Using the Product & Staying Engaged)
• After buying, customers might need help or support.
• Good service builds trust and loyalty so customers keep coming back.
Example Content:
• Community forums, discussion groups.
• Customer support content (FAQs, how-to guides).
5. Analytics & Monitoring (Understanding Audience Behavior)
• Companies should track customer reactions to improve content.
• This step happens throughout all stages of the customer journey.
Example Content:
• Surveys, polls, and feedback forms.
• Data analysis to see what customers like and don’t like.
Summary of Content Strategies by Stage
Customer Journey Step
Content Strategy
Example Content
Awareness (Learning about
the brand)
Proposition-based
Emotional stories, videos,
motivational content, rational
guides, webinars.
Consideration (Comparing
options)
Acquisition-based
Lead generation, call-to-action
posts, free trials, product
bene ts.
Purchase (Buying the product)
Conversion-based
Promotional campaigns,
discounts, easy checkout
process.
Service & Loyalty (Staying
engaged)
Retention-based
Community discussions,
FAQs, loyalty programs.
Analytics & Monitoring
(Understanding the audience)
Analytics-based
Surveys, social media polls,
customer behavior analysis.
In Simple Terms:
• Content should match the customer’s journey (awareness → consideration → purchase →
loyalty).
• Use di erent content types at each stage to engage customers in the right way.
• Always track results to improve future content.
This approach helps businesses attract customers, keep them engaged, and turn them into loyal
fans!
Phase 3: Content Development
Now that we’ve set the strategy, it’s time to actually create the content! This phase has two key
parts:
1. Deciding What Kind of Content to Share
2. De ning the Corporate Voice (How the Brand Communicates)
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1. Choosing the Right Type of Content
The type of content should match:
• The stage of the customer journey (awareness, consideration, purchase, loyalty).
• The emotional or rational approach (do we want to make people feel something or think
logically?).
A content matrix helps businesses pick the right content. Here’s a simple way to
understand it:
Customer Stage
Emotional Approach (Make
Them Feel)
Rational Approach (Make
Them Think)
Awareness (First Impression)
Fun & engaging content: viral
videos, games, contests
Informative content: press
releases, reports, infographics,
eBooks
Consideration (Comparing
Options)
Inspiring content: celebrity
endorsements, user stories
Persuasive content: product
reviews, case studies, demos,
price guides
So, if a company wants to make an emotional impact at the awareness stage, they might use a
funny viral video. But if they want a rational approach, they could release a report or infographic
explaining their product bene ts.
2. De ning the Corporate Voice
The corporate voice is how a company speaks to people—it should re ect the company’s
personality and values.
A strong corporate voice helps a brand:
• Stand out from competitors.
• Build trust with customers.
• In uence people’s decisions by making them relate to the brand.
A company’s voice can be based on ve personality traits:
• Competence – Sounding knowledgeable & professional.
• Pleasure – Being friendly & approachable.
• Innovation – Sounding cutting-edge & forward-thinking.
• Style – Having a cool, unique identity.
• Aggressiveness – Being bold & competitive.
3. De ning the Tone of Voice
The tone of voice is the speci c way a brand communicates on di erent platforms. It should
match:
• The audience – Who are we speaking to?
• The platform – A casual tone might work on Instagram but not in a formal email.
• The goal – Are we trying to inform, engage, or convince?
For example:
• Instagram Ad → Fun & playful tone
• Press Release → Professional & formal tone
• Customer Service Reply → Helpful & empathetic tone
Why Does This Matter?
• The right content makes people engage with the brand.
• A consistent voice makes the company recognizable.
• A clear tone helps customers connect with the company.
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This phase ensures that everything feels consistent and well-planned, so the company can
communicate e ectively and stand out!
Phase 4: Promoting Content E ectively
Now that we’ve created great content, we need to promote it so people actually see it! This phase
has two key parts:
1. Choosing the Right Promotion Channels (PESO Model)
2. Creating an Editorial Plan to Stay Organized
1. Choosing the Right Promotion Channels (PESO Model)
The PESO Model is a simple way to classify the di erent ways we can promote content. It
stands for:
Media Type
De nition
Examples
Pros
Cons
Paid Media
Content that a
company pays to
promote.
Ads, sponsored
posts, in uencer
partnerships.
Fast reach,
scalable.
Expensive, low
trust, short-term
impact.
Earned Media
Free promotion
from third parties
(e.g., journalists,
bloggers).
News articles,
in uencer
mentions,
reviews.
High credibility,
Unpredictable,
long-term impact. hard to control.
Shared Media
Content that
spreads through
social sharing.
Social media
Trusted by
posts,
audiences, low
partnerships, viral cost.
campaigns.
Unreliable, hard
to scale.
Owned Media
Content fully
controlled by the
company.
Website, blog,
Long-term asset,
newsletter,
full control.
videos, podcasts.
Takes time to
build an
audience.
Key takeaway: Companies should use a mix of these media types to get the best results. For
example, they might pay for ads to get quick attention, work with in uencers to gain credibility,
and share content on social media for engagement.
2. Creating an Editorial Plan to Stay Organized
An editorial plan is like a content calendar that helps businesses stay consistent and organized. It
should include:
• Quality Guidelines – Rules for making high-quality content (e.g., what topics to cover, what
tone to use).
• Processes & Tools – Who is responsible for what? What tools will be used (e.g., Trello for
planning, Canva for graphics)?
• Team Roles & Skills – Who will create, edit, and publish content?
• Publishing Schedule – A clear timeline (daily, weekly, monthly) to keep track of what content
goes out and when.
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Why is this important?
• Ensures consistent messaging across di erent platforms.
• Makes content planning more e cient and organized.
• Helps teams track performance and adjust strategies.
Final Thoughts
This phase makes sure the content gets seen by the right people, in the right way, at the right
time. A smart mix of media channels and a well-planned editorial schedule help businesses
maximize engagement and reach their goals.
Phase 5: Measuring and Evaluating Content Performance
After creating and promoting content, businesses need to measure how well it performed. This
helps them understand what works, what doesn’t, and how to improve future content.
There are three main ways to measure content performance:
1. Formative Metrics – Measuring Immediate Impact
These metrics track the rst reactions to the content. They help answer: “Is anyone seeing or
engaging with our content?”
Awareness Metrics – How many people saw the content?
• Reach – The total number of people who saw the content.
• Impressions – The number of times the content was displayed (even if seen multiple times by
the same person).
Activation Metrics – Did people take action?
• Click-Through Rate (CTR) – The percentage of people who clicked on the content after seeing
it.
• Downloads – How many people downloaded a le (e.g., an eBook or report).
• Information Requests – How many people asked for more details.
Advocacy Metrics – Are people sharing or recommending the content?
• Hashtag Mentions – The percentage of people who mentioned the brand using a speci c
hashtag (#).
• Shares & Retweets – How often the content was shared.
2. Summative Metrics – Measuring Long-Term E ects
These metrics focus on how content a ects the company’s reputation and relationships. They
help answer: “Is our content improving our brand image and engagement?”
Reputation Metrics
• Buzz – The number of conversations generated by the content.
• Sentiment Analysis – The tone of the conversations (positive, negative, or neutral).
• Credibility of the Source – Whether in uential people (experts, media, industry leaders) are
talking about the company.
Relationship Metrics
• Network Size – The number of followers, subscribers, or community members.
• Engagement Rate – The level of interaction (likes, comments, shares).
• Response Rate – How quickly the company responds to customers.
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3. Accountability Metrics – Measuring Business Impact
These metrics track whether the content helped achieve business goals like increasing sales,
reducing complaints, or improving customer loyalty.
Did content lead to more engagement?
• Return Visit Rate – The percentage of people who return to the website after their rst visit.
• Conversion Rate – The percentage of visitors who take a desired action (buy a product, sign up
for a newsletter, etc.).
• Engagement Rate – The level of participation on social media.
Did content reduce negative feedback?
• Bounce Rate – The percentage of visitors who leave the website immediately. A lower bounce
rate is better.
• Complaints Reduction – Fewer negative emails, messages, or comments.
• Unfollows Reduction – Fewer people unfollowing on social media.
Did content lead to business growth?
• Sales/Purchase Rate – The percentage of visitors who bought something.
• Subscription Rate – The percentage of people who subscribed (to a newsletter, service, etc.).
• New Followers – The percentage of new social media followers.
Final Thoughts
Measuring content performance helps businesses understand:
• What works well and should be done more.
• What isn’t working and needs improvement.
• Whether the content is helping achieve business goals like increasing sales, building brand
trust, and engaging customers.
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By tracking these key metrics, companies can create better, more e ective content over time!
Content Manager Skills and Competencies
Content managers are responsible for creating, curating, and managing content for organizations.
To do this e ectively, they need a wide range of skills, which can be grouped into four main areas:
1. Corporate Storytelling
2. Copywriting and Written Communication
3. Visual Communication
4. Measurement and Evaluation
1. Corporate Storytelling
Corporate storytelling is about telling a company’s story in a way that engages the audience and
creates an emotional connection. This can be about the organization’s past, its mission, or even
its employees. It’s not just about facts, but about creating a narrative that makes people feel
something.
To be good at corporate storytelling, content managers need to:
• Understand industry trends and what competitors are doing.
• Balance the company’s perspective with the audience’s point of view.
• Know how to create and manage content for di erent audiences.
• Keep track of the whole process from idea creation to measuring the e ectiveness of the story.
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2. Copywriting and Written Communication
Content managers need strong writing skills to create e ective and engaging content. This
includes understanding SEO (Search Engine Optimization) to make content easy to nd online,
and knowing how to simplify complex topics so anyone can understand them. They should also
know how to:
• Write for social media and create content that ts well on di erent platforms.
• Use creative writing techniques to grab attention.
• Plan and schedule content to maintain consistency.
Writing is a key part of the content manager’s job since they must ensure the text is clear,
engaging, and aligns with the company’s voice.
3. Visual Communication
In today’s world, images and videos are as important as written content. Content managers
should understand how to use visuals to enhance storytelling. They need to think about how
images:
• Represent content: Does the image tell a story or show an action?
• Engage the audience: Does the image create an emotional connection?
• Create meaning: Is the image high-quality? Does it have meaning or symbolism?
Understanding how visuals work alongside written content is essential for creating a complete
and powerful message.
4. Measurement and Evaluation
Content managers need to measure how well their content performs. This helps them know what
works and what doesn’t, so they can improve future content. They must analyze data, track
audience behavior, and adjust strategies based on this information.
They need to:
• Interpret data to see how content performs (e.g., how many people viewed it, how many
interacted with it).
• Predict future trends and adjust content strategies accordingly.
• Identify key performance indicators (KPIs) like engagement rates, conversion rates, or sales, and
use them to improve results.
In Summary
For content managers, the role is multifaceted and requires a combination of skills in storytelling,
writing, visual content creation, and data analysis. These competencies allow them to create
content that not only resonates with the audience but also achieves business goals.
The process of managing content involves several phases:
1. Understanding the context (audit phase).
2. Creating and curating content (balancing the creation of new content and selecting existing
content).
3. Promoting content using various tactics.
4. Evaluating and measuring content e ectiveness.
Content managers who excel at these tasks help the organization stand out in a competitive
market, especially in a time when information overload and short attention spans are common
challenges.
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In conclusion, a content manager’s success depends on being skilled in storytelling, writing,
visual communication, and using data to evaluate success.
CH7
Globalization and Its Impact:
In the last two decades, globalization has had a major e ect on culture, social policies,
organizations, and daily life. Globalization is often linked to things like international connections,
social relationships, and advances in technology. In simple terms, globalization means the world
becoming more connected and interdependent.
According to Giddens (1994), globalization refers to how social relationships around the world are
becoming more connected. Events that happen in one part of the world can a ect people and
events in distant places. This connection means that we can all be in uenced by things
happening far away, and we can in uence others too. For example, anyone can share their ideas
with the world through social media, and this can have an impact on organizations.
Public Relations in a Global World:
Because of globalization, public relations (PR) has become more global. Public relations is about
managing the communication between an organization and the public. Today, organizations need
to think globally in their strategies, because people all over the world can now communicate,
in uence, and be in uenced by them. This chapter explains the importance of understanding
global public relations (GPR) in a world that’s so connected.
Purpose of the Chapter:
This chapter aims to give people the knowledge and tools they need to handle global PR projects.
To do this, the chapter will:
1. De ne and explain global public relations (GPR).
2. Look at important management models used in GPR.
3. Present real-life examples (case studies) of how public relations work in a global context.
4. Discuss the tools and strategies PR professionals use, focusing on how to consider local and
global factors when planning PR activities.
5. End with a section on the skills a PR professional needs to work in a global setting.
Key Idea:
The main idea is that PR professionals today need to understand how to plan and evaluate
activities in a global context. They need to be aware of both global and local factors, and be
prepared to work with diverse audiences worldwide.
Does that make it clearer?
Certainly! Here’s a simpler breakdown of Global Public Relations (GPR):
What is Global Public Relations (GPR)?
Global Public Relations (GPR) involves public relations activities that happen in a global, crosscultural, or international setting. Unlike traditional public relations (PR), GPR is heavily in uenced
by globalization—meaning the world is more interconnected. At the same time, GPR also impacts
how communication ows across the world.
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GPR focuses on understanding and managing PR practices in di erent cultural and political
contexts. This can involve communicating across di erent countries, cultures, and sometimes
even di erent languages.
Key Aspects of GPR:
• Cross-Cultural Communication: GPR deals with working in di erent cultures and countries. It’s
not just about one country or culture, but about navigating multiple cultures and the way they
interact with each other.
• Impact of Global Communication: It’s in uenced by global communication networks and
relationships. For example, information from one country can easily a ect people in another
country—this is a major factor in GPR.
• Multinational and Multicultural Programs: A typical GPR activity involves having multiple
o ces in di erent countries or regions, each working together on PR e orts. For example, a
company’s headquarters might work with o ces in di erent countries to create coordinated PR
plans for local and global audiences.
When Did GPR Start?
• In the past, GPR activities mainly involved international organizations (like the United Nations) or
government-related issues (like diplomacy or sanctions). It also focused on things like
international business deals or cultural exchanges (tourism, lms, art).
• Today, GPR has become much more widespread, as almost all companies and organizations are
involved in global communications. This is because the world is more multicultural, and
communication between countries is easier than ever.
Why Is GPR Important Now?
With the rise of global connectivity, public relations activities now have a much broader impact.
What happens in one part of the world (like a political event or a crisis) can a ect people in
entirely di erent places, even instantly through social media or the internet. This means that PR
e orts need to take a global perspective, not just focus on one country or region.
Main Functions of GPR:
1. Representing the Company Locally: GPR helps companies build relationships with local
governments, communities, and other stakeholders in di erent countries. For example, if a
company is operating in China, it needs to communicate with local authorities and understand
local laws and customs.
2. Bridging Communication: GPR helps connect a company’s headquarters with its foreign
o ces or local managers. It helps ensure that the global management team and the local team
understand each other and work together smoothly.
3. Managing PR in Di erent Countries: This involves carrying out PR activities that are
speci cally suited to di erent countries and cultures. For example, a company’s PR e orts in the
US might be di erent from those in Japan or Brazil due to cultural di erences.
Key Di erences Between GPR and Traditional PR:
• Where and Who it A ects: Traditional PR usually deals with local audiences within one country
or culture, while GPR is all about working across di erent countries and cultures. For example, if
an Italian company opens a factory in China and needs to communicate with both Chinese
employees and workers from other countries, that’s GPR.
• Multicultural Sensitivity: Companies now have to think about how they communicate with
people from di erent cultural backgrounds, whether it’s their employees or their target audience.
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Why GPR is Challenging:
GPR is one of the fastest-growing areas in PR, but it’s also one of the most complex. Working
with audiences in di erent countries and cultures comes with its own set of challenges. The PR
strategies need to be adapted to local cultures, and the risks of misunderstanding or o ending
people are higher. This makes GPR one of the most di cult areas of public relations to manage.
In Summary:
Global Public Relations is about managing communication and relationships across di erent
countries and cultures. As the world becomes more interconnected, PR activities need to be more
global in scope. This requires understanding cultural di erences, managing complex networks of
communication, and navigating challenges that come from working internationally.
The In uence of Globalization on Public Relations (PR)
Globalization, or the increased connection between countries, has dramatically changed public
relations (PR). This has created new opportunities but also challenges. For example:
• New Communication Systems: With better technology and communication, it’s easier for
people around the world to interact.
• In uential Audiences: People’s opinions (from all over the world) are more volatile and harder to
predict.
• Global Movement of Resources: More money and people are moving across borders, which
increases the need for international communication and public relations.
The Origins and Spread of PR
• Western Origins: PR began in Western countries (especially the U.S.) and was strongly tied to
capitalism. In the 1980s, as global markets grew, PR spread to non-Western countries as well.
• Multinational Companies: By the late 1980s, companies from the U.S. were expanding globally.
As a result, these companies had to adapt to di erent countries and answer to international
shareholders, prompting PR organizations to think more about global PR practices.
The Role of American PR and Its Challenges
• American In uence: For a long time, American PR practices were considered the standard for
the rest of the world. Many countries tried to imitate the American model of PR.
• Limitations of This Approach: Some experts, like Sriramesh and McKie, argue that applying
American PR methods everywhere doesn’t always work because it ignores local cultural
di erences. Di erent countries have di erent communication styles, and what works in one place
might not work in another.
The Global vs. Local Approaches in PR
When multinational companies began working in multiple countries, they had two main strategies
for public relations:
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1. The Global Approach:
• What it is: This strategy assumes that people around the world have similar interests and needs,
even if they come from di erent cultures. It focuses on a uni ed message that works for all
audiences, regardless of location.
• Advantages: It’s easier to manage because it’s controlled from the company headquarters.
Everything is coordinated centrally, which saves time and resources.
• Disadvantages: It doesn’t take cultural di erences into account, so the message might not
connect well with people from di erent countries. It can also feel like a top-down approach, where
the company is just telling people what they want them to know, without considering their local
concerns.
2. The Local Approach:
• What it is: This strategy tailors PR e orts to the speci c social, political, and economic context
of each country. It focuses on making the message t each culture.
• Advantages: It can make the message more relevant and e ective in each country, as it
respects local di erences.
• Disadvantages: It’s expensive and time-consuming because each country requires its own
unique plan. It can also confuse people if the company’s message isn’t consistent across
countries. For example, the brand values might be communicated di erently in each country,
which could create confusion about the company’s identity.
The Limitations of Both Approaches:
• Global Approach Problems: It’s too broad and doesn’t consider the cultural di erences
between audiences. As a result, the message might not be as e ective.
• Local Approach Problems: It’s hard to manage multiple local strategies and keep the
company’s identity consistent. The di erent messages in each country might cause confusion,
and it can lead to a lack of unity in how the company is viewed globally.
In Summary:
• Global PR has become increasingly important because of globalization. It started in Western
countries and spread worldwide, but applying Western PR methods in every country doesn’t
always work.
• Companies have two main strategies: a global approach (same message everywhere) and a
local approach (custom messages for each country). Both have their pros and cons, but it’s
clear that one size doesn’t t all when it comes to global public relations.
What We Know About Global Public Relations (GPR)
Through research, we’ve learned several important things about Global Public Relations (GPR):
1. GPR isn’t the same everywhere – Public relations (PR) practices are not universal. What
works in one country might not work in another.
2. Strategies can fail in di erent countries – A PR strategy that’s successful in one country
might not have the same e ect in another due to cultural, social, or political di erences.
3. PR is not just an American thing – PR, as a practice, isn’t only an American invention.
Di erent countries have their own ways of practicing PR (for example, Europe, Asia, and other
regions).
However, research on GPR is still limited, especially in regions like Africa, Latin America, and parts
of Asia.
Why Context Matters in GPR
In a world that’s more connected than ever, culture, identity, power, and di erences between
countries are very important in PR. These di erences a ect how PR is practiced and how
messages are received in di erent countries and cultures.
For this reason, PR professionals are starting to recognize the need for more culturally-sensitive
and context-aware PR strategies.
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Contextual vs. Situational Factors in GPR
To work e ectively in global PR, professionals need to understand two types of factors:
• Contextual Factors: These are factors related to the social, political, economic, and cultural
aspects of a country. For example, how people in a country view business, the government’s role
in communication, and how they interact with brands.
• Situational Factors: These are factors that come up in a speci c situation or event. This could
be a PR crisis, a product launch, or a speci c PR campaign. It’s about adapting to the particular
situation that’s happening in that moment.
Five Management Models for GPR
There are ve important management models that provide di erent ways of thinking about and
approaching global PR. Let’s look at each one:
1. Theory of Generic Principles and Speci c Applications (Vercic, Grunig, 1996):
• This model suggests that there are universal principles for PR that can be applied anywhere.
However, how these principles are applied might need to be customized depending on the
speci c context of each country or situation. It emphasizes the balance between universal PR
principles and local cultural di erences.
2. Rhetorical Generic Theory (Kent, Taylor, 2007):
• This theory is based on the idea that PR is about communication and persuasion. It focuses on
how PR professionals can use rhetoric (the art of persuasion) to connect with audiences in
di erent countries, cultures, or situations. The focus is on building relationships through e ective
communication.
3. Cultural-Economic Model (Curtin, Gaither, 2007):
• This model highlights the idea that PR is in uenced by both cultural and economic factors. In
other words, a country’s culture (how people think and behave) and its economic environment
(how businesses operate) play a big role in shaping PR strategies. This model encourages PR
professionals to consider both of these factors when planning strategies.
4. Third Culture Building Model (Casmir, 1978, 2001):
• The Third Culture Building model suggests that when people from di erent cultures
communicate (such as a company from one country working with people from another country),
they can create a “third culture”—a new way of interacting that combines elements of both
cultures. In PR, this model is useful for understanding how to bridge cultural gaps and create
communication that is respectful and e ective across cultures.
5. “In-Awareness” Approach (Zaharna, 2001):
• This approach is about being aware of and sensitive to the cultural di erences when working on
PR in a global context. It stresses the importance of understanding the local customs, values, and
needs of di erent audiences. The goal is to ensure that PR messages are appropriate and
e ective, respecting the audience’s culture and context.
In Summary:
• Global PR isn’t the same everywhere; it’s important to understand both contextual (social,
political, cultural) and situational factors.
• There are several management models that help guide PR professionals in creating e ective,
culturally-aware strategies:
1. Generic principles + speci c local application.
2. Persuasion and relationship-building (rhetoric).
3. Cultural and economic factors in PR.
4. Creating a “third culture” when di erent cultures interact.
5. Being aware of cultural di erences to ensure e ective communication.
These models help PR professionals think critically about how to adapt their strategies to the
unique needs of di erent cultures and contexts.
Let’s break down the Theory of Generic Principles and Speci c Applications in simpler
terms:
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What is this Theory About?
This theory was created by Dejan Vercic, James Grunig, and Larissa Grunig in 1996. The core idea
of this theory is that public relations (PR) has general principles that apply everywhere in the
world, but in order to be e ective, these principles need to be adapted to t the speci c culture
and context of each country.
The authors try to strike a balance between two ideas:
1. Ethnocentric theory: This is the idea that PR should be the same everywhere (which isn’t true).
2. Polycentric theory: This is the idea that PR is completely di erent in each country (which isn’t
fully accurate either).
The General Principles
The theory uses the Excellence Theory of public relations, which says that good PR is based on
certain principles, including:
• Symmetry and dialogue: PR should be based on two-way communication (between the
organization and the public), rather than just one-way messages.
• Integration and strategy: PR activities should be part of the organization’s overall goals and
strategy.
• Promoting diversity: Having a diverse team is important in PR.
These principles apply everywhere, but in di erent countries, they may need to be adjusted to t
the cultural context.
Adapting to Local Contexts
The model stresses that these general PR principles must be adapted to t the speci c country
and cultural situation. For example:
• In some countries, PR may be seen mostly as a technical job (like managing media relationships
and handling crises). In these cases, trying to introduce strategic PR (like planning long-term
communication strategies) may be more di cult because the local view of PR doesn’t support
such a broad role.
• If a country sees PR mainly as image management and doesn’t consider it as a strategic tool for
an organization, the foreign PR professional will need to understand this and adjust their
approach.
Sta Diversity and Challenges
Another important point in this theory is the need for diversity in the PR team. A team that
includes di erent ethnicities, genders, and cultures is ideal, but this might be di cult in some
countries for social or religious reasons. For example, in India, where society is divided into
castes, it might be hard to have a fully diverse PR team.
However, this doesn’t mean PR excellence can’t happen. It just means that PR professionals in
these countries will have to work within local limitations while still trying to follow the core
principles of good PR.
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How to Make This Work in Global PR (GPR)
Since applying these principles in di erent countries can be di cult due to cultural di erences,
the theory suggests that companies should have a dedicated GPR function.
This function would be responsible for:
1. Aligning the national PR goals with global PR goals.
2. Making sure that the PR strategies and practices are adapted for each country’s unique culture,
social structure, and business practices.
Summary:
• There are universal principles of PR that apply globally, but these need to be adjusted to t the
speci c culture and context of each country.
• The key is to adapt while still aiming for the core principles of good PR.
• In some countries, PR might be seen as more technical or image-focused, making it di cult to
introduce more strategic PR.
• Diversity in the PR team is important, but there may be cultural or social challenges to achieving
this in some countries.
• Having a dedicated GPR team is important for aligning local and global PR goals and ensuring
that PR is e ective across di erent cultures.
What is the Rhetorical Generic Theory?
The Rhetorical Generic Theory was developed by Kent and Taylor in 2007. They argue that the
generic principles model created by Vercic, Grunig, and Grunig (1996) is too in uenced by
Western (Anglo-Saxon) ideas of public relations, especially the belief that PR excellence is always
about creating symmetry (balance) between organizations and their audiences. Kent and Taylor
say that what is considered excellent PR in one culture may not be the same in another culture.
What is Di erent About This Theory?
The Rhetorical Generic Theory doesn’t completely reject the original model (the generic principles
model). Instead, Kent and Taylor build on it but make some changes to focus more on how
communication works in di erent cultures.
They suggest that instead of saying what “excellent PR” is, we need to understand the cultural,
social, political, and economic context of the country where we’re practicing PR. They look at ve
key factors that a ect communication:
1. Political ideology
2. Economy
3. Level of activism
4. Culture
5. Media system
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Using these factors, Kent and Taylor aim to better understand the audience and how they decode
messages from organizations.
Six Principles of the Rhetorical Generic Theory
Kent and Taylor identify six principles that help public relations professionals understand how to
communicate with people from di erent countries. These principles are meant to help PR
practitioners decide the best way to communicate depending on the cultural context:
1. Identify the Features of the Situation/Strategies Used:
• PR professionals must understand the cultural factors that in uence communication. For
example, in India, religion plays a huge role in social interactions. The caste system a ects social
status, and PR professionals must consider this when communicating with di erent groups.
2. Identify the Intended Audience E ects:
• PR professionals need to choose the right tools and strategies based on the goals of the
communication. For example, in Japan, press conferences are only accessible to local journalists.
A foreign company may need to hire a local journalist to gain access to important information.
3. Clarify the Organization’s and Public’s Motivations:
• Communication can serve di erent purposes like solving a con ict, entertaining, gathering
support, or informing. PR professionals should understand what the organization wants and what
the public expects from the communication.
4. Examine the Symbolic Nature of Language:
• The way language is used in communication can show whether someone is presenting
themselves as the victim or the perpetrator of an issue. For example, the words used by an
organization or a person in a crisis can reveal a lot about how they view the situation and what
they expect to happen next.
What is the Goal of this Model?
The goal of the Rhetorical Generic Theory is not to de ne excellence in PR practices in any
speci c country. Instead, the theory helps PR professionals understand the communication
dynamics and context of di erent countries. It focuses on how language, culture, and other
factors a ect communication, helping PR professionals practice more e ective PR in di erent
cultural settings.
Key Takeaways:
• The Rhetorical Generic Theory is an approach to understanding how communication works in
di erent countries, without claiming that one approach is better than another.
• It uses six principles to help PR professionals analyze situations and audiences, taking into
account cultural, political, and other factors.
• The model is exible and helps PR professionals adapt their strategies depending on the local
context, rather than applying a “one-size- ts-all” approach.
• It does not make direct comparisons between countries, because the principles are too general
for that.
What is the cultural-economic model?
The cultural-economic model, proposed by Curtin and Gaither in 2007, looks at how public
relations (PR) works in di erent cultures. It focuses on how companies communicate with people
from di erent ethnic, religious, and cultural backgrounds. In this model, PR professionals play a
key role in bridging the gap between companies and the audiences they are trying to reach.
PR is not just about sending messages but about understanding how culture and society a ect
the way people interpret those messages. The model helps explain how culture and economy
come together to create shared meanings around a brand, product, or service.
Key Ideas Behind the Model:
1. PR professionals as cultural intermediaries: PR professionals act as mediators, helping
companies share culturally meaningful messages with the public. These messages are shaped by
the culture, values, and identity of the company, the PR professionals, and the audiences they
communicate with.
2. Cultural Studies In uence: The model builds on a previous theory, the “circuit of culture,”
developed by scholars at the University of Birmingham in 1964. This theory shows how culture
and power interact to create meanings. The cultural-economic model takes this further and
applies it to GPR (Global Public Relations) activities.
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The Circuit of Culture:
The model uses a “circuit of culture” to explain how meaning is created. The circuit is made up of
ve main parts: regulation, representation, identity, production, and consumption. These parts
work together to create meaning, but they don’t follow a speci c order—they all happen at once
and interact with each other.
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5. Examine the Motivations of the Interlocutors (People Involved):
• Di erent people have di erent motivations when they communicate with organizations. These
could be based on social, political, cultural, or personal reasons. PR professionals need to
consider these motivations when creating communication strategies.
6. Understand How Culture In uences Communication:
• It’s important to understand how the culture of a country in uences communication styles. Each
culture has its own way of interpreting messages, and PR professionals must take this into
account when crafting their messages.
Here’s what each part means:
1. Regulation: This part refers to the rules, laws, and norms that control how things are done in
di erent cultures. For PR, it means understanding the legal and cultural guidelines of a country.
For example, in some countries, there are rules about what you can and can’t advertise. In Italy,
cigarette advertising is banned by law.
2. Representation: This is how a company or product is seen or portrayed by people. It’s about
how companies use messages (images, ads, etc.) to create a certain meaning. For example,
Barilla (a pasta company) uses images of family dinners in their ads to represent warmth and
family values.
3. Identity: This refers to the meaning that is shared by a group of people, like a nation or a
company. It’s about how people identify with a brand or product. For example, Harley Davidson
isn’t just a motorcycle; it represents freedom and the American spirit to many people.
4. Production: This is about how companies create messages, products, and campaigns. It
includes not just the physical products but also the symbolic activities, like building relationships
with customers or handling a crisis. This part focuses on the actual creation of the messages that
will be sent out to the public.
5. Consumption: This is how the audience interprets and reacts to the messages created by the
company. Consumers don’t just passively receive the message; they actively create meaning
based on their cultural values and beliefs. For example, people may look at an ad and decide
whether or not they agree with the brand’s message.
Example: Starbucks in the Forbidden City
To show how this model works, let’s look at a real-life example: Starbucks trying to open a store in
the Forbidden City in Beijing.
• Regulation: There were no legal issues with Starbucks opening a store in the Forbidden City,
but there were cultural issues that impacted how the store was received.
• Representation and Identity: Starbucks represents modern Western culture—young, dynamic,
and consumer-driven. The Forbidden City, on the other hand, represents traditional Chinese
history and culture. The two didn’t match. The modern, consumeristic image of Starbucks
clashed with the ancient, cultural identity of the Forbidden City.
• Consumption: The Chinese people see Starbucks as a place to relax and socialize, but it
doesn’t t the cultural signi cance of the Forbidden City. Also, many Chinese prefer tea over
co ee, so the Starbucks o ering didn’t fully align with local cultural habits.
As a result, Starbucks’ store in the Forbidden City didn’t create a “shared meaning” with the local
audience. People saw it as disrespectful to place a modern co ee shop in such a historic and
culturally signi cant location. Due to public pressure, Starbucks eventually closed the store.
Key Takeaways from the Cultural-Economic Model:
• Culture plays a huge role in shaping how PR messages are received.
• PR professionals must understand and respect cultural di erences to ensure their messages are
e ective.
• Meaning is created through an ongoing process, and it’s not always stable—it can change
based on context and the interactions between people and messages.
• PR should focus on building shared meaning with audiences, and this can involve understanding
cultural values, local practices, and how people interpret messages.
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In short, the cultural-economic model shows that for PR to be successful globally, it must
consider the cultural and economic factors that in uence how audiences perceive and respond to
messages.
Key Points:
1. Cultural Exchange:
• When two people from di erent cultures meet, they need to be open to learning from each other
and be willing to set aside parts of their own culture to understand the other person better.
• This model doesn’t ask people to fully adapt to the other culture but suggests creating a “third
space” where both cultures can meet halfway.
2. Who Created It?:
• The TCB model was created by Casmir (1978) to help explain how multinational companies and
people from di erent countries can work together. The idea is that the result of their interaction
should be a shared space (third culture) that respects both cultures.
3. Dialogue is Key:
• To create this “third culture,” dialogue is essential. People from di erent cultures need to
communicate and negotiate their di erences. It’s through this dialogue that they create a shared
understanding and nd common ground.
• In this model, the relationship-building process is more important than the individual adapting to
each other’s culture. It’s about nding balance and reciprocity.
4. Power Dynamics:
• The TCB model also talks about power dynamics. In a relationship, power is not xed but
changes depending on the situation. Companies and individuals might have di erent amounts of
power depending on the political, economic, and social context. This is important because it
a ects how they negotiate and collaborate.
5. Limitations of the Model:
• The model doesn’t always work in every situation. For it to be successful, both parties must be
willing to compromise and change their values a little. If one side refuses to adjust or understand
the other, the model fails.
• It works best when relationships are already strong and stable because businesses or individuals
won’t typically change their values unless they see a mutual e ort from the other side.
Example: Business and Islamic Law
• In the Middle East, many people follow Islamic law (Sharia), which a ects how they invest,
spend, and save money. For example, they can’t invest in gambling, alcohol, or interest-based
nancial products.
• To meet the needs of Muslim investors, some Western companies have started o ering products
that t Islamic principles, such as investing in precious metals.
• This is a great example of the TCB model in action. Western companies o er products that meet
Islamic requirements, while Muslim investors accept the business culture without expecting it to
completely match their own traditions.
• Shared Agreement: Both sides agree on a middle ground, where businesses don’t fully
abandon their values, but adapt enough to meet the needs of their Muslim customers, creating a
third culture that works for everyone.
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Conclusion:
The TCB model is about creating a shared space between two di erent cultures, where both sides
can maintain their identities but also collaborate and negotiate. It’s about building mutual respect,
understanding, and nding ways to communicate that suit both cultures without forcing anyone to
abandon their core beliefs.
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Let’s break down the Third Culture Building (TCB) model into simpler terms:
Main Idea:
The Third Culture Building (TCB) model is about how people from di erent cultures can come
together, share their knowledge, and work out a common space that blends both cultures. Instead
of one culture dominating the other or adapting completely to the other, both cultures come
together to create a “third culture” that allows both sides to collaborate and understand each
other. It’s not about changing who you are but nding a middle ground where both can coexist.
What is the “In-Awareness” Approach?
The in-awareness approach focuses on understanding the importance of culture in public
relations (PR). It highlights how cultural di erences can a ect communication, and how being
aware (or unaware) of these di erences can make or break a PR campaign.
Who Proposed It?
• This approach was developed by Rhonda Zaharna in 2001. She realized that lack of awareness
about cultural di erences in communication can lead to PR campaigns failing or causing
problems.
Key Idea:
• In-awareness means you are aware of the cultural rules and norms that in uence
communication.
• Out-of-awareness means you are not aware of these cultural rules and norms.
• Zaharna’s point is that not knowing implicit cultural rules (unspoken, assumed rules) can be
harmful in PR projects, especially when working with people from di erent countries or cultures.
Why is this Important?
• Cultural di erences a ect how people communicate, make decisions, and interact. If PR
practitioners (people handling communication for a company) don’t understand these di erences,
they might misunderstand the message or the reactions of their audience.
• The key question Zaharna tries to answer is: How do cultural di erences between the PR
practitioner and the audience a ect the success of public relations?
Cultural Pro les:
When planning a global PR (GPR) project, there are di erent things to consider about each
country or culture involved. Zaharna suggests looking at three main pro les:
1. Country Pro le: What are the structural features of the country (like its politics, economy,
media, laws, and society)?
• Examples: Is the country democratic or authoritarian? Does it have a strong media presence?
2. Cultural Pro le: What are the cultural variations that could in uence the PR project?
• Examples: Is the culture individualistic (focusing on personal goals) or collectivist (focusing on
group harmony)?
3. Communication Pro le: What are the types of communication that might be a ected by
cultural or national di erences?
• Examples: How do people in that culture communicate? Are they direct or indirect? Do they use
a lot of body language?
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The Important Factors to Consider:
To help create successful global PR strategies, Zaharna suggests looking at di erent factors that
can a ect communication:
1. Political Structure: How does the government in a country in uence communication? Is it a
free press, or is there government control over the media?
2. Economic Structure: How does the country’s economic situation impact communication
strategies? Are there budget limitations, or is the economy booming?
3. Media System: What is the media landscape like in the country? Is it online, print, TV, or radio
focused?
4. Legal Structure: Are there legal rules or regulations around how communication should
happen? For example, advertising laws, privacy rules, or censorship.
5. Social Structure: How do social norms and values a ect communication? What is considered
acceptable behaviour in public?
Key Cultural Di erences in Communication:
Zaharna also emphasizes the need to understand these cultural di erences in communication
styles. Here are some of the main cultural di erences that can a ect PR:
High/Low Context Communication:
• High context: People rely on indirect messages, body language, and shared understanding
(common in some Asian or Middle Eastern cultures).
• Low context: People communicate directly and explicitly (common in cultures like the U.S. or
Germany).
Monochronic/Polychronic:
• Monochronic: People value punctuality and focus on one thing at a time (e.g., in many Western
cultures).
• Polychronic: People are more exible with time and multitask (e.g., in many Latin American or
Middle Eastern cultures).
Individualism/Collectivism:
• Individualistic cultures: Focus on personal goals and achievements (e.g., the U.S.).
• Collectivist cultures: Focus on the group’s needs and harmony (e.g., Japan, many African
cultures).
Activity Oriented/Being Oriented:
• Activity-oriented: People focus on tasks and productivity (common in the U.S. or Germany).
• Being-oriented: People focus on relationships and enjoying life (common in many Latin
American or Mediterranean cultures).
Future/Past Orientation:
• Future-oriented: People plan ahead and focus on progress (e.g., many Western cultures).
• Past-oriented: People focus on traditions and the past (e.g., some Asian or Middle Eastern
cultures).
Linear/Non-linear:
• Linear: Time is seen as a straight line, so things are done in a sequence (common in many
Western cultures).
• Non-linear: Time is seen as more uid, and things can happen out of order (common in many
Eastern cultures).
Types of Communication:
Zaharna says it’s important to consider how di erent types of communication (verbal, non-verbal,
and visual) may be in uenced by cultural di erences:
• Verbal communication: How words are used and understood.
• Non-verbal communication: Body language, gestures, and facial expressions.
• Visual communication: How images or symbols are interpreted in di erent cultures.
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Conclusion:
The in-awareness approach emphasizes that understanding cultural di erences and being aware
of unspoken communication rules can help PR professionals design more e ective global PR
strategies. It helps to make sure that the message is understood correctly and that the project is
successful. Understanding these di erences can prevent misunderstandings and ensure that the
PR e orts are well-received in di erent cultural contexts.
1. Country Pro le:
This refers to understanding the basic systems of a country — how things work there. It
includes the country’s politics, economy, society, laws, media, and infrastructure. Knowing this
helps you understand what is possible or legal when planning public relations (PR) activities in
that country.
• Political System: How the government works, how decisions are made, and the in uence of
politics on communication. For example, some countries have strict government control over
media, which can a ect how PR is carried out.
• Economic System: How the economy is structured. A capitalist country with free markets will
have di erent rules compared to a socialist country.
• Social Structures: How society is organized, including the roles of family, schools, religion, and
other groups. Understanding these can help you avoid cultural mistakes. For example, in some
Arab countries, it’s required for women to cover their heads, and not doing so can cause
problems.
• Media: In some countries (e.g., Russia), the media is controlled by the government and doesn’t
have the freedom to report independently. This a ects how you would approach media relations
in those countries.
2. Cultural Pro le:
While the country pro le gives you an understanding of what can and cannot be done in a
country, the cultural pro le helps you understand how to communicate e ectively in that country.
It focuses on how people think, behave, and interpret messages based on cultural norms. Here
are the six cultural factors that Zaharna suggests to help de ne a cultural pro le:
High/Low Context Communication:
• Low-context societies (e.g., the U.S.) focus on clear, direct communication. Everything is said
explicitly.
• High-context societies (e.g., Japan) depend more on the context or background, and much of
the communication is implied or understood without being explicitly stated. People in highcontext cultures are also more likely to pay attention to non-verbal cues (like body language or
facial expressions).
Monochronic/Polychronic Time:
• Monochronic cultures (e.g., the U.S., Germany) are time-focused and prefer to do one thing at
a time. Time is treated like a resource — it’s important to be on time and stick to schedules.
• Polychronic cultures (e.g., Latin America, Middle East) are more exible with time. They are
okay with multitasking and understand that schedules can change frequently.
Individualism/Collectivism:
• Individualistic cultures (e.g., the U.S.) value personal goals, independence, and autonomy.
People are encouraged to think and act for themselves.
• Collectivist cultures (e.g., Japan, China) value the group’s harmony and well-being over
individual goals. People prioritize relationships and family or community over personal
achievements.
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Doing/Being Orientation:
• Doing-oriented societies (e.g., the U.S.) value action and results. Success is measured by what
people do and accomplish.
• Being-oriented societies (e.g., many Latin American or Mediterranean cultures) value family,
relationships, and status over achievements. These cultures focus more on being present and
valuing personal relationships than on measurable success.
Future/Past Orientation:
• Future-oriented societies (e.g., the U.S., Western Europe) focus on change, progress, and
innovation. They tend to look ahead and plan for the future.
• Past-oriented societies (e.g., some Asian, African cultures) focus more on tradition and history.
They value things that have worked in the past and may resist change.
Linear/Non-linear Thinking:
• Linear societies (e.g., Western cultures) follow a clear, organized path for projects or ideas.
Everything has a beginning, middle, and end.
• Non-linear societies (e.g., many Asian cultures) prefer a more exible and chaotic approach.
Ideas might not follow a set order, and things can be more uid.
3. Communication Pro le:
The communication pro le looks at how people communicate and what they value when
interacting with others. This includes things like what kind of language is used, how gestures are
interpreted, and how much space people need when communicating.
Here are the main elements to keep in mind when de ning a communication pro le:
• Written and Oral Communication: How people in a culture prefer to speak and write. Some
cultures prefer very formal language, while others might favor more casual styles.
• Non-verbal Communication: This includes gestures, body language, and facial expressions. In
some cultures, non-verbal cues are crucial to understanding the message, while in others, they’re
less important.
• Proxemic Distance: This refers to the physical space people prefer between each other when
communicating. For example, in some cultures, people stand very close to one another, while in
others, personal space is more important.
• Choice of Images and Sounds: Di erent cultures have di erent preferences for the types of
images and sounds used in communication. Some may nd certain images o ensive, while others
might nd them beautiful or meaningful.
• Rhetorical Style: This refers to how a message is structured and delivered. For example, in
some cultures, messages should be delivered in a very logical and direct manner (low-context),
while in others, it may need to be more indirect and emotional (high-context).
Why is all of this important?
Having a thorough understanding of the country pro le, cultural pro le, and communication pro le
is key to making sure that a public relations campaign works well in a particular country or culture.
It helps PR professionals know:
• What is possible in a certain country (country pro le).
• What will be e ective based on cultural values and preferences (cultural pro le).
• How to communicate the message in a way that ts the target audience’s style (communication
pro le).
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In short, understanding these pro les helps PR professionals avoid cultural missteps, build trust,
and create messages that are well-received in di erent cultural settings.
The Situation:
• Ms. Jones is an American manager who works for a PR agency in Chicago. She is in Japan for a
meeting with Mr. Hydeki, the head of the Japanese o ce of the same agency. There are other
Japanese employees in the meeting as well.
• Ms. Jones wants clear information about the timeline of the project. She needs precise dates for
when the work will start and nish to give to their client.
• Mr. Hydeki responds in a way that doesn’t provide exact dates, and instead suggests they
discuss it in the future.
• Ms. Jones becomes frustrated and tries to push for exact dates, but Mr. Hydeki and the other
Japanese team members don’t give her a clear answer.
• Finally, Ms. Jones asks Ms. Fujama, a subordinate, for her opinion about the project timeline, but
Ms. Fujama remains silent.
The Cultural Problem:
Cultural Di erences in Communication Styles:
• Ms. Jones comes from a low-context culture (American culture). This means she expects clear,
direct, and explicit answers. In her mind, she just wants precise dates so she can tell the client.
• Mr. Hydeki comes from a high-context culture (Japanese culture). This means communication in
Japan relies more on the context, and people tend to be more indirect. They avoid giving speci c
answers unless everything is fully decided. In this case, Mr. Hydeki doesn’t want to give dates
because some details of the project haven’t been nalized, and he doesn’t want to give the
impression that he is rushing or committing to something that isn’t clear.
• The Issue with Ms. Fujama:
• Ms. Jones also makes a mistake by asking Ms. Fujama, a subordinate (someone lower in rank),
for her opinion on the timeline. In Japanese culture, there is a strict hierarchy in the workplace.
Subordinates are expected to remain silent and not speak out in front of a manager (especially a
superior from the head o ce like Ms. Jones). So, Ms. Fujama’s silence is actually a sign of
respect for the hierarchy, not that she doesn’t know or has no opinion.
Key Points of Misunderstanding:
• Ms. Jones didn’t understand why Mr. Hydeki wasn’t giving her precise dates. She thought it was
a lack of clarity or that he wasn’t organized. In reality, Mr. Hydeki didn’t want to commit to speci c
dates because not all details were clear yet, and he was trying to avoid making promises that
might change.
• Ms. Jones also didn’t understand the Japanese cultural norm that subordinates shouldn’t speak
up in front of their boss. By asking Ms. Fujama for her input, Ms. Jones broke this unwritten rule,
and that’s why Ms. Fujama stayed quiet.
• In Japanese culture, showing disagreement or inconsistencies in public (especially in front of a
higher manager) is avoided. So, if the team disagreed about the timeline or hadn’t made nal
decisions, they wouldn’t show it openly to Ms. Jones. They preferred to keep those discussions
private.
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Conclusion:
• The main problem in this situation is that Ms. Jones and Mr. Hydeki have di erent
communication styles because of their cultural backgrounds.
• Ms. Jones expects direct answers (low-context culture).
• Mr. Hydeki and his team use indirect communication and prefer to avoid showing disagreement
publicly (high-context culture).
• Ms. Jones needs to understand the Japanese culture better to avoid pushing for clear answers
when the team isn’t ready to give them, and she should respect the hierarchical structure in
Japan, where subordinates don’t give opinions in front of superiors.
By understanding these cultural di erences, Ms. Jones could have avoided the frustration and
made the communication smoother.
Sure! Here’s a simpli ed explanation of what you’ve just read about contextual and situational
factors in Global Public Relations (GPR):
What Makes GPR Di erent from Traditional PR?
• Global Public Relations (GPR) involves managing PR in multiple countries, and what makes it
di erent from traditional PR is not just the tools used (like media relations or advertising), but also
the contextual and situational factors that must be considered. These factors help PR
professionals understand how to create e ective communication strategies based on the country
or region they are working in.
Contextual and Situational Factors
• When planning a GPR campaign, understanding the context (the overall environment) and
situation (speci c, immediate factors) is key to success. These factors in uence how PR
strategies should be shaped.
Contextual Factors
Contextual factors are related to the country system. These factors in uence how things work in a
particular country and are linked to the country’s political, economic, legal, media, social, and
civic systems. They help you understand the general environment in which a PR campaign will
take place.
Here are the six main contextual factors:
1. Political Structure:
• This is about how a country’s government is set up and how decisions are made. It includes
things like:
• The type of government (democracy, monarchy, dictatorship).
• How political decisions are made and who in uences them (e.g., government institutions,
political parties).
• The country’s stance on issues like human rights and international trade.
• How the government interacts with businesses, organizations, and citizens.
2. Legal Structure:
• This refers to the rules and laws in a country that govern how people and organizations behave.
For PR, this means understanding:
• What laws exist about advertising, marketing, and communication.
• The regulations surrounding freedom of speech, media control, and how PR campaigns are
allowed to function.
3. Economic Structure:
• This focuses on how a country’s economy works. Key things to know include:
• The nature of the economy (capitalist, socialist, etc.).
• Key economic players and how businesses are structured.
• The state of development, trade regulations, and how open a country is to foreign investments.
• The state of the country’s infrastructure (communication, transportation, energy).
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4. Media System:
• This is about how information is spread in the country through media. Things to know include:
• Who controls the media (government vs. private).
• The level of independence of media from political or economic in uence.
• How media cover political topics (liberal, conservative, etc.).
• How journalists work and what practices are common (e.g., if journalists expect gifts for
publishing stories).
5. Socio-Cultural System:
• This relates to the culture and social groups within a country. It includes:
• Important cultural organizations, such as religious, professional, or trade groups.
• How culture in uences decision-making in the political and economic systems.
• How diverse the country is in terms of social and cultural representation (e.g., rights for
minorities).
6. Active Citizenship:
• This measures how involved people are in societal issues or political activism. It helps
understand:
• The level of political engagement in a country.
• How much the population cares about issues like protests, strikes, or political movements.
• Where and how citizens gather to discuss issues (e.g., physical locations, social media).
Situational Factors
• Situational factors are speci c to a particular event or situation. These factors focus on things
like:
• The purpose of the PR campaign.
• The nature of the organization you are working for.
• The speci c communication situation at hand.
How to Gather Information
For Contextual Factors:
• You can gather information from secondary sources like government reports, international
organizations (e.g., CIA World Factbook, Transparency International), and industry studies from
chambers of commerce. This helps you understand the country’s systems (political, legal,
economic, etc.).
For Situational Factors:
• You’ll need to use tools like interviews, focus groups, and direct observation to understand the
speci c situation. This helps to see how people are interacting and what the immediate
communication needs are.
Why Understanding These Factors is Important
• Knowing the context helps you design the right strategies that t the political, legal, economic,
social, and media environment of the country.
• Knowing the situation helps you decide how to handle the immediate communication needs,
such as the goals of the PR campaign, the audience, and any potential challenges.
• The more you understand these factors, the better you can plan your PR projects and avoid
missteps.
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In Summary:
• Contextual factors shape the overall environment in which the PR campaign will operate
(politics, laws, economy, media, culture, and active citizenship).
• Situational factors are speci c to the current situation and the organization you are working with.
• To e ectively plan GPR strategies, understanding both these sets of factors is crucial to ensure
your PR activities are successful and appropriate for the target country or region.
Situational Factors:
These are factors that aren’t related to the country’s system, but still a ect how global public
relations (GPR) strategies are chosen and applied. Some situational factors are internal (within the
organization), and others are external (from outside the organization).
1. Internal Factors:
• Nature of the Organization: The type of organization you work for will impact GPR decisions.
For example, a multinational corporation like Subway has di erent needs and strategies
compared to a non-pro t organization or a government body. If you’re working in a country with
strict controls, like a dictatorship, it can be harder for non-pro ts (especially those promoting
human rights) to build relationships with the local government.
• Corporate Values and Culture: If the organization has a global outlook, it might want its
messaging to be uni ed across countries. But, di erent countries have di erent cultures, so
some local values might clash with the company’s global values. This can a ect GPR strategies.
For example, if a company has strict rules about advertising, they may need to adapt their
strategies to match the local culture while still being true to their own values.
2. External Factors:
• Religion: In some countries, religion can have a strong in uence on society and even politics.
For instance, in certain countries, religious leaders are involved in decision-making. So, any GPR
strategy has to be sensitive to religious beliefs in those regions.
• The Objective of GPR: Depending on the goal of your communication strategy, di erent
approaches will be used. For example:
• Negotiating: If you are negotiating with local entities, a model that encourages compromise (like
the TBC model) might be used.
• Building a Brand: If the goal is to create a common understanding of a brand or product, a
di erent model will be more appropriate.
• Mapping Target Audiences: If the aim is to understand the local audience better, a more
tailored approach is needed that takes cultural and situational factors into account.
Example: Subway’s “Super Size Me” Campaign:
This is an example of how situational factors can impact the e ectiveness of GPR.
• Background: Subway is an American fast food chain with franchises all around the world. In
2004, Subway’s German franchise created a controversial advertising campaign to promote their
sandwiches, using the documentary lm Super Size Me.
• Super Size Me criticized fast food (speci cally McDonald’s) for being unhealthy.
• Subway Germany used this as an opportunity to advertise itself as a healthier alternative to
McDonald’s. They even used a sarcastic ad that showed an overweight Statue of Liberty with the
tagline: “Why are Americans overweight?”.
• What Happened:
• In Germany, this campaign was successful and got attention.
• In the U.S., however, it back red. Americans saw it as o ensive and a bad example of antiAmericanism. They felt that Subway was unfairly criticizing Americans to make money.
• The U.S. public and politicians were upset and demanded that Subway stop the campaign and
apologize.
• Problem: Subway Germany made a big mistake by running this campaign without enough
coordination with Subway’s headquarters in the U.S. They didn’t think about how the campaign
would be received in America. The German o ce focused on local needs but ignored the broader
international impact.
• Key Lesson: This incident shows that GPR strategies need to consider both local and
international reactions. What works in one country might not work in another. Subway should
have done a better job of considering cultural di erences and potential risks in other markets
before launching the campaign.
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In short, the example shows how situational factors, like local context and understanding cultural
sensitivities, are important for planning global public relations. Ignoring these factors can cause
backlash and lead to an organizational crisis, even if the campaign works well in one place.
The Role of Global Public Relations (GPR) Professionals:
1. Why GPR is Important:
• As businesses expand globally, Public Relations (PR) professionals need to understand di erent
cultures and communication styles to work with diverse audiences in various countries.
• GPR professionals help organizations navigate complex issues and risks when dealing with
international audiences.
2. Key Skills Required:
• Cultural Sensitivity: This means understanding and respecting di erent cultures. It’s a skill that
grows with experience. By working in di erent countries, professionals learn the cultural speci cs
that in uence communication.
• Interpersonal and Intercultural Skills: GPR professionals must be good at listening to
understand di erent perspectives. They also need to be empathetic and open-minded to work
e ectively with people from diverse backgrounds.
• Language and Knowledge of Traditions: Knowing local languages and customs is important to
create successful PR strategies.
• Analysis and Interpretation: Professionals need to analyze the political, social, and economic
environment of a country. They must also understand the international relationships that may
a ect how PR activities are perceived in di erent countries.
3. How to Develop These Skills:
• Cultural sensitivity is often gained through hands-on experience in various countries. As
professionals work internationally, they gather more knowledge and improve their cultural
competence.
• Active listening is critical to understand di erent views. In global settings, it’s important to
engage in deep listening, especially to understand cultural di erences.
• GPR professionals also need to understand how relationships and communication work in
di erent cultures. For example, in some cultures, relationships are built on long-term trust and
respect, while in others, formal agreements are more important.
4. Managing International PR Activities:
• When planning GPR activities, professionals must understand that actions in one country might
a ect how people in other countries view the organization. This is because of how quickly
information spreads globally through the internet and social media.
• For example, a campaign in one country could be perceived negatively in another, harming the
organization’s reputation globally.
5. Ethical Considerations:
• GPR professionals must act ethically, respecting the values and traditions of the countries they
work in. They should be open-minded, not bringing their own cultural biases into the work they
do.
6. Conclusion:
• GPR is a growing eld, and as globalization continues, the demand for professionals with
intercultural communication skills will only increase.
• The eld of GPR is still developing, but it’s highly important for organizations to communicate
e ectively with diverse audiences. In the future, as professionals gain more knowledge and
experience in global PR, the eld will continue to grow and expand.
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In short, GPR professionals need a mix of cultural awareness, empathy, communication skills, and
strategic thinking to manage PR in an international context. They must be careful and respectful
of cultural di erences, as mistakes can have wide-reaching consequences.
CH 8
Book: for graphs.
This text is talking about the relationship between marketing and public relations (PR) and how
they have evolved over time. Here’s a simpli ed explanation:
1. Marketing and PR Overlap:
The text discusses how marketing communication (how a company communicates with its
audience to sell its products or services) is closely related to public relations (how a company
manages its relationships with the public, including customers, media, and other stakeholders).
There has been ongoing debate about whether marketing communication is more closely related
to marketing or to public relations. The text argues that it doesn’t really matter because both elds
have changed a lot and become more exible.
2. Changing Focus in Marketing:
In the past, marketing was mostly about a speci c set of actions, like the “marketing mix”
(product, price, place, and promotion). However, over the years, marketing has evolved. Today, it
focuses more on creating value, using resources e ciently, outsourcing, and managing services.
It’s no longer just about selling products—it’s about creating long-term relationships and
measuring success in di erent ways.
3. PR’s Changing Role:
Public relations has also changed. It used to be seen as a technical, tactical job (doing speci c
tasks like writing press releases). Now, PR is considered a strategic function, meaning it plays a
more important role in the overall management of the company. PR professionals are now more
involved in decision-making and managing relationships with key groups, such as customers,
investors, and the media.
4. Less Confrontation and More Cooperation:
In the past, marketing and PR were seen as separate and sometimes even con icting areas.
However, today their relationship is much more cooperative. They understand that they both play
important roles in helping the organization succeed, and they work together more e ectively. This
shift is due to a better understanding of both elds and the spread of knowledge about marketing
and communication.
In short, the text is saying that marketing and public relations have become less about separate,
rigid functions and more about working together strategically. Both elds have evolved and
adapted to changes in business practices, and this has led to more cooperation and less con ict
between them.
Sure! This section explains marketing communication—how companies use communication to
promote their products and connect with customers—and its importance for businesses. Here’s a
simpli ed explanation:
1. What is Marketing Communication?
Marketing communication is a way for companies to talk to their customers and share information
about their products or services. It’s part of both the company’s marketing plan (how they reach
customers and sell their products) and their corporate communication (how the company
presents itself overall). The main goal is to connect with customers and other important groups
(called stakeholders).
2. Tools in Marketing Communication (Promotional Mix):
There are di erent ways companies communicate with customers. These methods are grouped in
what’s called the “promotional mix,” and they include:
• Advertising (like TV or online ads)
• Sales promotions (discounts, special o ers for customers or partners)
• Institutional tools (sponsorships, events, media relations)
• Personal selling (salespeople talking to customers)
• Interactive marketing (direct mailing, online ads, and social media)
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Each of these tools is used to achieve speci c goals, but it’s not always easy to predict how
customers will react to them.
3. Challenges with Marketing Communication:
It’s hard to predict exactly how customers will respond to di erent messages or combinations of
messages from various tools. For example, the reaction to a TV ad might not be the same as the
reaction to an email or a social media post. Also, competitors might respond in unexpected ways
to the company’s marketing e orts, making it harder to control the outcome.
4. Integrated Approach (Promotional Mix):
Instead of focusing too much on each individual marketing tool, companies should try to create
an integrated communication strategy. This means using all these tools in a way that sends
consistent and clear messages to customers. The idea is to combine all these methods into a
cohesive plan.
5. E ects of Marketing Communication on Demand:
Marketing communication can a ect customer demand in two ways:
• It can increase sales by getting more customers to buy at the same price (shifting the demand
curve to the right).
• It can also make the demand curve less elastic, meaning customers are more likely to buy even
if the price goes up. So, a company can raise prices and still not lose too many customers.
6. Impact on Competition:
E ective marketing communication can give a company a competitive edge by:
• Expanding the market: It helps reach more customers.
• Building brand loyalty: Customers become more loyal to the brand, even if prices go up.
• Economies of scale: As the company sells more, it can reduce production costs, which is good
for pro tability.
7. E ect on Distribution and Marketing Strategy:
Marketing communication also changes how products get to customers:
• Pull Marketing: When a company communicates directly with customers (through ads, social
media, etc.), it encourages customers to ask for the product by name. This “pulls” the product
through the distribution channels.
• Push Marketing: If a company doesn’t invest in communication, they rely on distributors (like
stores) to actively push the product into the market.
8. Costs and Bene ts of Marketing Communication:
Marketing communication involves costs (advertising, events, etc.), but it also brings bene ts:
• Increased sales: More customers, leading to higher sales.
• Larger market share: The company can reach a bigger audience.
• Reduced production costs: With more sales, the company can reduce costs (like producing
more at once, which lowers costs per unit).
9. Cost-E ectiveness:
When deciding how much to invest in marketing communication, companies need to weigh the
costs against the bene ts. If the communication helps increase sales and reduce costs (through
economies of scale, for example), then the investment is worth it. If not, the company might
reconsider how much it spends on communication.
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In Summary:
Marketing communication is a key way companies interact with customers. By using various tools
(like advertising, sales promotions, and personal selling), they aim to increase demand, build
brand loyalty, and gain a competitive edge. However, it’s important to use these tools in an
integrated way to ensure consistent and clear messaging. The impact of communication can be
seen in higher sales, stronger brand relationships, and a more competitive market position, even if
it also involves costs.
1. Main Objectives of Marketing Communication:
Marketing communication aims to achieve two key things:
• Communication E ect: This is about how the message a company sends a ects the way
people think and feel. For example, it makes customers aware of a product (cognitive), and helps
shape their feelings or image about it (a ective).
• Sales E ect: This is the ultimate goal: turning communication into a purchase, meaning the
customer takes action and buys the product (behavioral).
These two e ects happen in a sequence: First, customers get to know the product (cognitive),
then they develop feelings about it (a ective), and nally, they may buy it (behavioral).
2. Di erent Tools in the Promotional Mix:
There are many tools that companies use to communicate their message. These include:
• Advertising (TV, print, online ads)
• Sales Promotion (discounts, special o ers)
• Personal Selling (salespeople interacting directly with customers)
• Interactive Marketing (social media, email, online ads)
These tools a ect the customer di erently:
• Advertising is great at making people aware of a product and creating a positive image. But it
doesn’t always lead directly to a purchase.
• Sales Promotion, on the other hand, might not build awareness or image very well, but it’s very
e ective in getting people to buy the product.
Sometimes, tools can have overlapping e ects. For example, loyalty cards not only encourage
purchases (behavioral) but also improve the brand image and customer relationships (cognitive
and a ective).
3. Choosing the Right Tools:
The choice of communication tools depends on factors like:
• The market type: For consumer markets (where there are many customers), companies often
use mass communication tools like advertising or sales promotions. But in business-to-business
markets (where the focus is on a few key clients), personal selling is more common.
• Push vs. Pull marketing: If the company wants to push its product to the market, it will use
tools that encourage distributors (e.g., sales promotions). In pull marketing, the focus is on directly
reaching consumers to encourage them to ask for the product.
4. The Role of Branding in Marketing Communication:
Branding is super important. A brand is not just a name or logo—it’s a relationship between the
company and its customers. Good marketing communication builds and strengthens this
relationship.
For a brand to create value, it needs:
• Awareness (customers know the brand exists).
• Strong associations (the brand represents certain values or traits).
• Perceived quality (customers think the brand o ers good quality).
• Customer loyalty (customers keep coming back to the brand).
• Other assets like patents or exclusive features that add value to the brand.
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5. Building Brand Equity:
“Brand equity” is the value that a brand holds in the market. It’s built through consistent
communication that creates awareness and a strong image over time. This is important because it
leads to:
• Customers trusting the brand.
• Customers staying loyal to the brand, even when prices go up.
Two key models to understand brand equity are:
• Aaker’s Model (1991): Focuses on factors like awareness, associations, quality, loyalty, and
other brand assets to build brand value.
• Keller’s Customer-Based Brand Equity Model (1993): Emphasizes the importance of
customer experiences and communication in building brand awareness and image.
6. Conclusion:
Marketing communication is a tool that companies use to build and strengthen relationships with
customers. It helps create brand awareness, develop trust, and ultimately lead to purchases. The
choice of communication tools depends on the market, the type of relationship the company
wants to build with customers, and the strategy the company uses (push or pull marketing). A
strong brand relies on consistent communication that creates awareness, builds a positive image,
and fosters customer loyalty.
1. From the Purchasing Funnel to the Customer Decision Journey:
The purchasing funnel was once a popular way of thinking about how customers go from hearing
about a product to buying it. It’s like a funnel where many people enter at the top (awareness), but
fewer move toward the nal decision (purchase). But now, thanks to technology and social media,
this funnel model doesn’t fully capture how consumers make decisions anymore.
2. The AIDA Model:
The AIDA model is a classic idea about how consumers respond to marketing communication. It
describes a sequence of stages that consumers go through when deciding to buy something:
• Awareness: The customer rst hears about a product.
• Interest: They start to show interest in the product.
• Desire: They develop a strong desire for it.
• Action: They make the purchase.
Marketing tools need to be di erent at each stage. For example, at the Awareness stage,
companies need to use methods that grab attention (like ads). At the Action stage, they need
tools like discounts or promotions that push people to actually buy.
3. The DAGMAR Model:
The DAGMAR model (De ning Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results) is a more
focused version of AIDA. It emphasizes how advertising should be measured and what goals it
should achieve in terms of consumer behavior and responses. It also talks about how advertising
a ects consumers’ thoughts, feelings, and actions (cognitive, a ective, and behavioral
responses).
4. The Purchasing Funnel (Old Model):
The purchasing funnel represents how consumers move from the start to the end of their buying
process. Early on, people consider lots of options (like brands, products, and ads). At this point,
marketing communication tools like advertising are important to raise awareness. As the
consumer gets closer to the buying decision, the role of tools like sales promotions (discounts or
o ers) becomes more important to nudge them into actually buying.
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5. Shift to the Customer Decision Journey:
However, the funnel model started to feel outdated with the rise of social media and online
shopping. Now, consumers can actively search for information, interact with brands, and share
their experiences in many ways, which wasn’t possible in the old funnel model.
Instead of thinking about a funnel, the new model is called the Customer Decision Journey. This
model recognizes that customers follow di erent paths (a journey) and interact with brands at
various touchpoints (like social media, ads, reviews, websites, etc.) before making a decision. The
journey is not linear—consumers might jump from one stage to another or skip stages entirely.
6. Omnichannel Strategy:
Now, companies need to be ready for all these touchpoints and interactions, using a multichannel or omnichannel strategy. This means they need to communicate with customers across
multiple platforms (TV, online, in-store, social media, etc.) so that no matter where the customer is
or how they want to interact, the company is ready.
7. In Summary:
• Old Model (Funnel): Consumers go through speci c stages: Awareness → Interest → Desire →
Action. Communication tools need to align with each stage.
• New Model (Customer Decision Journey): Consumers interact with brands in many di erent
ways and at many di erent touchpoints. The process is not as simple as the funnel and
companies must adapt to this with an omnichannel approach.
So, the traditional funnel model is outdated because consumers today have more power and are
more active in how they engage with brands. Companies now need to think about the entire
journey a consumer takes and how they can connect with them at each step across di erent
platforms.
1. The Evolution of Marketing Communication:
Marketing communication, which is the way companies interact with consumers through ads,
promotions, etc., has changed a lot over time. This change is driven by both companies and
consumers evolving, especially due to new technologies and the internet. Let’s look at the main
reasons for these changes:
2. The Importance of Intangible Assets (Trust, Relationships, and Reputation):
• In the past, companies focused mainly on tangible things like products or services. But now,
intangibles like trust, relationships, and reputation are becoming more important.
• Companies now realize that gaining trust and building a good reputation are key to having a
long-term competitive advantage.
• Communication plays a huge role in building trust and relationships with customers. Companies
must use marketing communication not just for short-term sales but to engage and build loyalty
with consumers over time.
3. Consumers Becoming Critical of Marketing:
• While communication has become more important for companies, consumers are becoming less
trusting of marketing.
• Many people now have a negative attitude toward brands, especially after the global economic
crisis, which led to dislike and hostility toward corporate marketing.
• This has caused companies to realize they can’t just focus on short-term sales goals. They need
to engage consumers in a meaningful way and build long-term relationships based on mutual
trust.
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4. The Shift from Traditional Advertising to Other Communication Forms:
• Traditional advertising (TV, print ads, etc.) is declining, while sales promotions (like discounts)
and web advertising (online ads) are growing. This is because consumers nd traditional
advertising less satisfying and prefer more interactive communication methods.
• With the rise of web advertising, consumers are more attracted to forms of marketing that allow
them to engage and participate (for example, liking posts, sharing reviews, or watching interactive
ads).
5. The Impact of Technology on Communication:
• New technologies have made marketing more interactive and user-centered. This means that
consumers are not just receiving messages anymore; they can also create content (like sharing
videos or reviews) and interact with brands in real time.
• Technologies like mobile marketing (ads on phones) and user-generated content (ads created by
consumers) have broken down the barriers of space and time. Now, consumers and brands can
interact anytime, anywhere, and on any device.
• Social media is a big part of this change, allowing companies to engage directly with consumers
and encourage them to participate in co-creating ideas and sharing feedback.
6. E-commerce Changing Consumer Behavior:
• The rise of e-commerce (buying online) has changed how consumers research products and
make purchases.
There are two main ways this happens:
• “Research online, buy o ine”: Consumers research products online (through websites, social
media), but they buy them in stores.
• “Research o ine, buy online”: Consumers get information from physical stores, but then they
buy online (usually because it’s cheaper).
• This shows that consumers use multiple channels (online, in-store, social media) to make their
decisions, so companies need to communicate across all these channels (this is called
omnichannel communication).
7. The Rise of Big Data and Personalized Marketing:
• Companies are collecting tons of information about consumer behavior through things like
websites, social media, and other digital interactions. This is called big data.
• By analyzing this data, companies can create highly personalized marketing campaigns. They
can predict what consumers might want before they even express a need, making marketing
more targeted and e ective.
• Big data also helps companies understand the customer experience and improve brand
management.
In Summary:
1. Marketing has changed a lot due to technology, consumer behavior, and new communication
methods.
2. Companies now need to focus on building trust, relationships, and reputation through their
communication, rather than just pushing for short-term sales.
3. Consumers are more critical of traditional advertising and prefer interactive communication.
4. Technologies like mobile marketing, social media, and big data are allowing companies to
better engage with consumers and o er personalized experiences.
5. Companies now need to use multiple communication channels (online, in-store, social media)
to connect with consumers and build long-term relationships.
Marketing communication is no longer just about sending messages; it’s about engaging,
interacting, and building trust with customers.
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1. Marketing Communication as a Partnership:
Marketing today is no longer just about companies pushing ads to consumers. It’s now seen as a
relationship between the company (brand) and the consumer, built on trust, cooperation, and
reciprocity (both sides bene t). Instead of brands just broadcasting their messages, they need to
listen to consumers and interact with them on various platforms (like websites, social media, etc.).
2. Old vs. New Communication Models:
• In the past, brands used one-way communication: companies would push repetitive
messages to a wide audience to build awareness and familiarity.
• Today, this traditional way doesn’t work as well because consumers have changed. They now
create content, share opinions, and talk about brands in a way that in uences others. They want
to be seen as partners with brands, not just targets of marketing.
3. Consumer Empowerment in the Digital Age:
• The internet and social media have made consumers more empowered. Now, they can easily
connect with brands, share their opinions, and even in uence how a brand communicates or
behaves.
• Consumers are not passive anymore; they are active participants in the marketing process,
sharing ideas, giving feedback, and even creating content related to the brand. This new dynamic
is called “prosumption” — where consumers are both producers and consumers at the same
time. For example, writing a review, sharing a product experience, or making content about a
brand are all forms of prosumption.
4. Prosumers (Consumers as Producers):
• Consumers today often act as “prosumers”: they help create content, promote brands, and
shape the product experience. This happens online when consumers share things like reviews,
photos, or stories on social media.
• The things consumers do (like posting about a brand on Instagram or assembling their own
product) help build the brand and create value. The consumer’s input can either strengthen the
brand or weaken it, depending on their actions and opinions.
• For example, a person might post a picture of themselves wearing a certain brand of clothes,
giving it more exposure and value. Conversely, a negative review might hurt the brand’s
reputation.
5. Self-Branding and Identity:
• Some consumers even use brands to build their own personal identity. They create an image of
themselves based on the brands they support. For instance, someone might carefully curate
their social media to re ect a lifestyle tied to certain brands.
• These consumers are self-branding, using brands to help de ne who they are and how they
want to be seen by others.
6. Temporary and Fluid Relationships (Liquid Consumption):
• In today’s world, relationships are more temporary. People and brands don’t always have longterm, stable relationships anymore. Instead, these relationships are more eeting, depending on
immediate interests, trends, and needs.
• This idea is linked to the concept of a “liquid society”, where everything is constantly changing
and relationships (between people or between people and brands) are often short-lived. The
bonds we create are no longer as strong or permanent as they once were. For example, a
consumer might care deeply about a brand for a short time but then quickly move on to
something else.
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7. “Brand Publics”:
• In this digital age, new types of consumer collectives are forming, like “brand publics”. These are
temporary groups of people who come together online, usually around a particular brand, trend,
or shared interest. However, these connections are not necessarily deep or long-lasting. They are
based on a momentary shared interest, such as using a hashtag or discussing a product on social
media.
• For example, a group of people on Twitter might discuss a brand’s new product for a short
period, but once the conversation fades, their interest in the brand may also disappear.
8. Changing Consumer Behavior with Brands:
• Because attention is eeting in today’s world, the way people build their identities around brands
is also changing. What used to be a more consistent relationship with a brand is now more
temporary and dynamic. Consumers may engage with a brand for a short time, but then move on
when something else grabs their attention.
• Brands also need to adapt to these short-lived relationships, which means their connection with
consumers has to be more exible and responsive to ever-changing interests.
In Summary:
1. Today’s marketing is about partnership, not just sending out ads. Brands need to build a
relationship with consumers, based on trust and mutual bene t.
2. Consumers are more empowered than ever. They are not just passive targets but active
participants who can create content, share opinions, and in uence brands.
3. The concept of prosumption shows how consumers today produce and consume content at
the same time, shaping their relationship with brands.
4. Self-branding is when consumers use brands to help de ne their own personal identity.
5. Relationships between consumers and brands are becoming more temporary and uid. People
aren’t as likely to form deep, lasting bonds with brands anymore.
6. New types of temporary online communities, called “brand publics”, form around brands but
these are short-lived.
7. The nature of consumer behavior with brands is changing, as consumers engage with brands
more transiently rather than in a consistent, long-term way.
Ultimately, today’s consumer-brand relationship is less about pushing products and more about
creating a dialogue where both sides interact, share, and evolve together.
1. What is Consumer Engagement?
• Consumer engagement refers to how actively consumers interact with a brand. It involves three
things:
• Cognitive: How much they think about the brand.
• A ective: How they feel about the brand.
• Behavioral: What actions they take, like buying a product or sharing about the brand on social
media.
Brands today want to create an emotional connection with consumers, so that they feel part of
the brand’s story, are motivated to use the brand in their everyday lives, and even promote the
brand to others.
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2. Physical and Value Proximity with the Consumer
• Physical proximity means how close the brand gets to the consumer in the real world. For
example, a brand might surprise people in public places (like in the city or on their phones) with
unexpected ads or experiences that grab their attention in a fun or exciting way.
• Example: A marketing campaign in Milan involved a fake submarine showing up in a city square.
This quirky, surprising ad made people curious, got them talking, and boosted the brand’s
visibility.
• Value proximity refers to how the brand connects with consumers on a deeper level by showing
that it cares about their values, not just selling products. Brands use storytelling to align with what
consumers care about and to show their commitment to social causes.
• Example: Dove’s “Campaign for Real Beauty” focuses on promoting real beauty, not just the
stereotypical models in magazines. This campaign resonated with women by ghting body image
issues, and people shared it online, which helped Dove build trust and loyalty.
3. The Consumer’s Central Role
• Brands now focus on putting consumers at the center of their campaigns. They recognize that
consumers have the power to create and share content, and they want to make sure their
messages re ect what consumers care about.
• Instead of just talking at consumers, brands now listen to them and let them be part of the story.
This means giving consumers the power to express themselves and be part of the creation
process.
• Mini’s Campaign Example:
• Mini wanted to show that their new car is for everyone, no matter their background or interests.
So, instead of just making a standard ad, they created an online platform where fans could
customize the car’s design and create their own ads. People could design millions of di erent
versions based on their own personal tastes, showing that Mini listens to their unique desires and
gives them control over how the brand is presented.
In Summary:
1. Consumer engagement is about connecting with consumers on a deeper level by getting them
emotionally involved with the brand, making them feel a part of the story, and encouraging them
to act (like sharing on social media or buying).
2. Physical proximity is how the brand surprises and interacts with consumers in their everyday
lives, while value proximity is about aligning the brand with consumers’ beliefs and values through
meaningful storytelling.
3. Brands today give consumers more control by letting them be involved in creating content,
which helps make the relationship more personal and relevant. Brands like Mini have even created
platforms that let consumers design their own ads or products, recognizing the power consumers
have to shape the brand’s message.
In short, today’s marketing is all about involving the consumer and making them feel like an
important part of the brand’s journey.
1. What is Cultural Branding?
• Cultural branding is a strategy that connects a brand to a larger cultural idea or value. It’s not
just about selling a product, but about associating the brand with something meaningful that
people care about, whether it’s a lifestyle, a cause, or a social movement.
• The idea is that brands can shape how people think and act by tapping into culture. Brands
in uence society and, at the same time, absorb meanings from culture, becoming part of the
stories, values, and symbols that de ne a community.
2. Why Do Brands Need Cultural Branding?
• In today’s world, consumers are highly connected online, and they share content that is
important to them. They’re not just passive buyers but “prosumers” who create content and share
their experiences. This means that for a brand to be successful, it needs to speak to people’s
deeper needs, desires, and identities.
• People today want brands that understand what excites them and what connects them to other
like-minded people. Cultural branding helps brands create a sense of belonging by tapping into
these values, making consumers feel like they are part of something bigger than just a product.
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3. How Does Cultural Branding Work?
• Creating a connection: A brand connects with people by understanding the cultural trends,
movements, or values that matter to them. For example, a brand might connect with consumers
through a shared love for a certain hobby, interest, or social cause.
• This allows the brand to speak to both individuals and groups of people who share similar
cultural or social values.
• Being relevant and human: Brands today need to be more than just products—they need to
show they care about societal issues. This means taking a stand on important topics (like
climate change, equality, or social justice) and becoming involved in the community.
• When a brand does this, it shows that it’s not just about making money, but about making a
positive impact on the world. This creates trust and strengthens its connection with consumers.
4. Two Key Strategies for Cultural Branding:
• 1. Engaging with consumer communities (Brand Publics and Subcultures): Brands need to
understand and communicate with groups of people who have common interests, or subcultures
(like fans of certain music genres, sports teams, or social causes). These groups can come
together quickly, share ideas, and in uence each other.
• Brands use this by engaging with these communities, joining conversations, and being part of
their culture. They often listen to and interact with these groups to stay relevant and connected.
• 2. Taking a Stand in Society: Brands are now expected to take a position on important social
and political issues. This doesn’t just mean selling a product—it means using their platform to
advocate for things that matter to their customers.
• By doing so, brands can create a sense of purpose and build a loyal following of consumers
who align with their values.
In Summary:
• Cultural branding is about making a brand part of a larger cultural conversation, connecting it to
the values, causes, and ideas that consumers care about.
• Brands today need to tap into these cultural trends and align themselves with the beliefs and
passions of consumers, whether it’s through shared interests, social causes, or conversations.
• It’s also about being socially responsible and showing that the brand cares about improving
society, not just selling products. This helps build deeper relationships with consumers and
strengthens the brand’s reputation.
In short, cultural branding is about creating meaning that goes beyond the product, so people feel
like they’re part of something important when they choose your brand.
What is Real-Time Marketing?
Real-time marketing (also called instant marketing) is a strategy where brands quickly react to
events or trends happening right now. The goal is to create marketing content that connects with
what’s going on in the world, especially with topics or cultural moments that people are already
talking about. This allows brands to join conversations and capture people’s attention in the
moment.
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How Does Real-Time Marketing Work?
There are two main ways brands do real-time marketing:
1. Reactive Real-Time Marketing: The brand responds to something that’s happening right now.
For example, if a big event happens or there’s a cultural conversation online, the brand jumps in
with a relevant message. This helps the brand stay current and boosts awareness.
2. Proactive Real-Time Marketing: The brand anticipates what its customers will want or need
and creates messages ahead of time based on that. They use data to predict consumer behavior
and create content that feels timely and relevant.
Examples of Real-Time Marketing:
1. Reactive Real-Time Marketing:
• Barilla’s “Carbonara Gate”:
• A food content creator made a video using Barilla pasta to cook a “wrong” version of carbonara,
which upset many people, especially Italians. The brand could have ignored it, but instead, Barilla
quickly responded in a fun and engaging way by celebrating the traditional carbonara recipe. This
helped turn a potential crisis into a conversation and made the brand more relatable.
2. Proactive Real-Time Marketing:
• Juventus Football Team’s “Tender Mario” Campaign:
• Juventus football team used real-time marketing to engage with its fans. They noticed that one
of their players, Mario Mandzukic, was popular online because of his tough, no-nonsense attitude.
Juventus turned this into a campaign called #TenderMario, where they tried to make Mandzukic
“soften up” by using playful content with cute animals. Fans could join in and try to “make him
feel” something, which got lots of interaction, led to many new subscribers, and created a fun
experience for everyone.
Key Things to Remember for E ective Real-Time Marketing:
• Timeliness: The brand needs to react quickly when something important happens. The faster
they can create and share content, the more likely they are to catch people’s attention.
• Relevance: The topic or event the brand talks about should be connected to the brand’s values
or what they do. It shouldn’t seem out of place or forced.
• Avoid O ending People: Brands should be careful not to use real-time marketing in a way that
could upset people. If a brand joins a conversation that is controversial or o ensive, it could harm
the brand’s reputation.
In Summary:
Real-time marketing is all about jumping into conversations as they happen, either by reacting to
cultural events (reactive) or predicting what people will care about and preparing messages ahead
of time (proactive). Brands need to be quick, relevant, and careful not to overstep or o end
anyone. If done right, it can help the brand connect with people in a fun and meaningful way.
What is Viral Marketing?
Viral marketing is a type of marketing where a brand creates a message or content that spreads
quickly from person to person, much like a virus. But don’t worry, this “virus” isn’t harmful—it just
means that the message spreads fast and widely. Typically, this happens on the internet, where
people share content like videos, memes, or social media posts with their friends and followers.
How Does Viral Marketing Work?
The idea is that the brand creates something interesting or exciting enough that people want to
share it with others. This sharing happens through word-of-mouth, often online, and can quickly
reach a huge number of people. The more people share the message, the bigger the impact the
marketing has.
How Does It Relate to Cultural Branding?
Viral marketing works well when it’s part of cultural branding, which is when a brand connects its
message to something that is meaningful or trendy in culture. If a brand’s message ts into what
people care about and talk about in society, it can spread even faster and reach more people.
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Why Is This Important for Consumer Engagement?
Viral marketing helps brands engage consumers because it encourages them to spread the
message themselves. People feel like they’re part of something when they share content they like
or nd funny. This creates a connection between the brand and the consumer.
By using viral marketing, brands can join the real-time cultural conversation, tapping into the
speed at which trends and events spread in today’s world. This helps brands better understand
what consumers care about and naturally ts into their daily lives.
In Simple Terms:
Viral marketing is about creating content that people are excited to share with others, making the
message spread fast, like a “virus,” across the internet. When done well, it’s a great way for
brands to connect with people and get their message out in a way that feels natural and fun. If the
content aligns with what’s happening in culture at the time, it can spread even more quickly and
engage even more people.
What is Guerrilla Marketing?
Guerrilla marketing is a type of marketing that aims to create big results in a short time with a
small budget. The focus is on using surprising and emotional experiences to get people talking
about the brand. These marketing e orts are designed to grab attention and encourage people to
share the experience or message with others, often making it go viral, especially on the internet.
Key Points of Guerrilla Marketing:
• Low Budget, Big Impact: It doesn’t need a big budget but relies on creative, unexpected ways
to capture attention.
• Location-Speci c: Guerrilla marketing often happens in places where people are naturally
gathered, like city streets, shopping centers, train stations, airports, or entertainment areas.
• Engaging Micro-Groups: It targets smaller groups of people but aims to create a strong impact
that will get them to talk about the brand on social media or with their friends.
Example of Guerrilla Marketing:
An example of guerrilla marketing is the “submarine Lif3” stunt organized by Genertel and Europ
Assistance. This type of marketing would surprise people in everyday places, causing them to
react and talk about it online, helping spread the brand’s message quickly.
Spotify’s “Get Vocal Europe!” Campaign:
Spotify, the music streaming platform, ran a special campaign around the 2019 European
elections to encourage people to vote. Here’s what they did:
• The Playlist: Spotify created a playlist called “Get Vocal Europe!” with 28 songs, one from each
country in the European Union. The idea was to celebrate Europe’s cultural diversity through
music.
• Real-Time Marketing: Spotify launched the playlist on May 9, 2019, the same day as the
European Union’s “Feast of Europe.” They used this timing to get people thinking about the
elections and encourage them to vote.
• Interactive Notice: When users logged into Spotify around that time, they saw a bright notice
saying “Get Vocal!” and were encouraged to vote. There was also a link to a website with
information about the elections.
• The Goal: The campaign aimed to engage 70 million European users to go out and vote. It used
music and cultural pride to raise awareness about voting, especially because voter turnout had
been dropping in recent years.
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Impact of Spotify’s Campaign:
The campaign was a big success and got a lot of media attention. Major news outlets in Europe
talked about it, helping Spotify’s message reach even more people.
Summary:
• Guerrilla marketing is about creating surprising and engaging experiences that get people to talk
about your brand, often in public places, on a small budget.
• Spotify’s “Get Vocal Europe!” campaign used a playlist and real-time marketing to encourage
people to vote in the European elections, using music to connect with people and raise
awareness.
Burger King’s “Not Big Mac Menu” campaign:
What Happened?
In early 2019, McDonald’s lost the exclusive right to use the name “Big Mac” in Europe. This
meant that other restaurants could now legally use the term “Big Mac” for their burgers.
How Burger King Took Advantage of It:
Burger King saw this as a funny opportunity and decided to create a real-time marketing
campaign based on it. They launched a special menu called “The Not Big Mac Menu” in Sweden,
where they poked fun at McDonald’s.
Instead of calling their burgers traditional names, Burger King gave them playful and cheeky
names that compared them to McDonald’s Big Mac, but in a way that made them sound better.
For example:
• “The like a Big Mac, but actually Big” – Suggesting their burgers are bigger than a Big Mac.
• “The kind of like a Big Mac, but juicier and tastier” – Saying their burgers are tastier and juicier.
• “The burger Big Mac wished it was” – Making fun of the Big Mac.
• “The anything but a Big Mac” – Implying their burgers are much better than a Big Mac.
• “The Big Mac-ish but ame grilled of course” – Making a joke that their burgers are grilled in a
better way.
The Fun Part:
Burger King lmed customers ordering these creatively named burgers and posted the funny
videos on YouTube to spread the word. They also used a hashtag, #NotBigMac, on social media
platforms like Twitter and Facebook, where people shared and laughed about the campaign.
The Result:
• Viral Success: The campaign got a lot of attention, with Burger King’s Facebook page getting
over 330,000 views and 1,000 likes.
• Media Coverage: Major newspapers and websites across Europe, like The Guardian and Irish
Times, wrote about the campaign, which helped it go viral and reach even more people.
In Simple Terms:
Burger King saw an opportunity when McDonald’s lost the rights to the Big Mac name. They
launched a funny campaign with new burger names that made fun of McDonald’s, shared videos
of customers ordering these burgers, and created a hashtag. The campaign was a huge success,
getting people talking, laughing, and sharing it online.
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Brand Purpose and Societal Corporate Branding
• Brand Purpose: This is the idea that brands today should stand for more than just selling
products—they should stand for something meaningful. Consumers want brands to be involved in
social and political issues and to show they care about things that matter to society.
• Societal Corporate Branding: This is when a brand doesn’t just make products, but also
becomes a part of social conversations and movements. Brands take active roles in addressing
social issues by aligning with causes that matter to the community. They aren’t just focusing on
making money; they want to help make the world better.
Examples of Brands Doing This:
1. Gillette’s “We believe: the best men can be” Campaign
• What is it?: Gillette, a razor brand, took a stand against toxic masculinity (harmful stereotypes
about men). They updated their famous slogan, “The best a man can get,” to “The best men can
be,” encouraging men to re ect on their actions, like bullying or harassment.
• Why it matters: This campaign challenged traditional ideas of masculinity and joined the
conversation started by the #MeToo movement. It went viral with millions of views and sparked a
lot of debate, both positive and negative. Those who supported it praised the brand for standing
up for what’s right, while critics didn’t like the message.
• What did it show?: This example showed how brands today can use their platforms to in uence
cultural and social change, even if it’s risky and divides opinions.
2. Airbnb’s #WeAccept Campaign
• What is it?: Airbnb, a company that helps people book accommodations, launched a campaign
in response to the U.S. government’s immigration ban under President Trump. The campaign
focused on inclusivity and equality, showing that everyone should feel welcome.
• Why it matters: Airbnb used its platform to oppose the ban and stand up for human rights, and
it resonated with many people who agreed with its message. It was a clear example of a company
using its brand purpose to take action on important social issues.
3. Corona’s #Desfronterízate Campaign
• What is it?: Corona, a beer brand from Mexico, responded to Trump’s immigration policies
(which were seen as unfair to Mexicans) with a campaign promoting unity between Mexico and
the U.S. They stood up for Mexican citizens’ rights and highlighted their importance to American
society.
• Why it matters: Corona used its Mexican identity to speak out against policies it felt were unfair,
showing how brands can use their cultural roots to stand for something meaningful and relevant.
The campaign went viral and got people talking about Mexican culture and the rights of
immigrants.
Key Points:
• Consumers expect more from brands: Today, people want companies to align with their
values and support causes they care about, not just sell products.
• Societal branding means brands play an active role in conversations about social and political
issues, making the world a better place.
• Brands can in uence social change: By taking stands on important issues, brands can help
shape culture and encourage people to think and act in positive ways.
In short, these brands show how powerful and in uential companies can be when they use their
platforms for more than just selling products. They take a stand, support causes, and get involved
in issues that matter to their consumers and society at large.
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Concluding Thoughts on Marketing Communication
• Changes in Marketing: The way companies communicate with consumers is changing. New
technologies and ways of interacting with people are emerging. Brands now need to align more
with the values and daily lives of consumers to connect with them better. This helps brands
become a more natural part of their customers’ lives.
• Cultural Branding and Real-Time Marketing: Ideas like cultural branding, which connects
brands with cultural movements and values, and real-time marketing, which reacts to things as
they happen, are changing the way companies approach marketing. These strategies also focus
on involving consumers and getting them actively involved with the brand.
• Old Marketing Isn’t Gone Yet: Some people might think that traditional marketing methods will
completely disappear due to these new approaches. However, that’s unlikely to happen. Instead,
it’s more likely that both traditional and new marketing methods will work together for a long time.
• The Importance of Customer Focus: Whether using old or new methods, the most important
thing in marketing is to always keep the customer at the center. This idea of focusing on the
customer is something that has always been important and will continue to be, no matter how
marketing tools or techniques change.
In Short:
Marketing is evolving with new technologies and strategies, but the fundamental idea of focusing
on the customer’s needs and values will always be the key to successful marketing, no matter the
approach. The new and old methods will likely coexist, requiring marketers to be skilled in using
both to connect with consumers.
CH 9
Public A airs is a type of communication service that organizations use to manage their
relationships with the public and decision-makers (like government o cials). It involves helping
organizations navigate complex environments, especially when there is a lot of competition and
the mass media plays a big role in in uencing decisions.
The environment has become more complicated due to things like globalization (countries
becoming more connected) and social changes. The mass media has become the main space
where organizations can act and communicate their messages. In this kind of environment,
listening to the public and building strong, interactive relationships with in uential people is very
important. These relationships should be based on mutual understanding, which helps both the
organization and the public make informed decisions.
Advocacy and Lobbying are key parts of public a airs. Advocacy involves actions by
organizations (often non-pro ts) to raise awareness about issues and ask decision-makers to take
action. For example, environmental organizations like Greenpeace run campaigns to make
governments aware of problems like plastic pollution. These campaigns often require
organizations to form coalitions (working with others) and use di erent communication methods
to achieve their goals.
Public a airs aim to create long-lasting relationships between organizations (both pro t and nonpro t) and government bodies. The goal is to help decision-makers understand important issues
and guide their choices, making the decision-making process more transparent, responsible, and
democratic.
These relationships bene t both the organization and the public institution. For the organization, it
helps them in uence decisions that a ect their goals. For the public institution (like the
government), it ensures decisions are made with better knowledge and awareness of society’s
needs, which improves democracy.
Public A airs also make the process more transparent and visible. This is good for democracy
because when organizations and decision-makers communicate openly, it helps the public
understand what is going on. Ivy Lee, a key gure in public relations, believed that publicity was
about making things public and allowing everyone to judge the actions of organizations, not just
advertising for pro t.
In short, public a airs is all about fostering clear communication and strong relationships between
organizations and public institutions to make decision-making more informed and open.
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Public A airs is the way organizations (whether big or small, for-pro t or non-pro t, local or
international) communicate with public institutions (like the government, decision-makers, and
other political bodies). It’s like the voice of an organization that helps it interact with these
institutions on political or policy-related issues. The goal is to in uence decisions or just have a
stable, open relationship with decision-makers.
Public A airs and Public Relations
Public a airs is a type of public relations (PR), which means it’s part of the activities aimed at
building and strengthening relationships with external people or organizations. However, public
a airs is more speci c because it focuses on building relationships with government bodies and
other decision-makers.
While PR uses traditional communication tools (like media relations, events, or digital
communication), public a airs activities are more focused on achieving speci c goals, like
in uencing political decisions or creating long-term relationships with key public gures.
Public A airs and Lobbying
When public a airs activities are speci cally about in uencing laws or government decisions, it’s
called lobbying. So, lobbying is a part of public a airs. Public a airs can involve private meetings
with decision-makers (like a one-on-one meeting with a politician) or public actions (like protests
or events). Lobbying focuses on direct meetings to in uence decisions, but public a airs also
includes building trust with important groups and people, not just having meetings.
The Objectives of Public A airs
Public a airs has two main goals for an organization:
1. Reputation Management: Public a airs help build and protect the organization’s reputation. A
strong, good reputation makes it easier for the organization to achieve its goals.
2. Achieving Organizational Goals: Public a airs help the organization reach its speci c
objectives. For example, they can protect the organization from new laws or regulations that could
be harmful, or help it take advantage of new opportunities created by government policy changes.
Speci c Goals of Public A airs
Here are the speci c things public a airs can help with:
• Protection from Threats: If a new law or regulation could hurt the organization, public a airs
can help protect it.
• Defense from Hostile Comments: If someone (like a government o cial) says something bad
about the organization, public a airs can help respond and defend its image.
• Finding New Opportunities: If government policies change, public a airs can help nd new
market opportunities.
• Strengthening Reputation: A strong reputation is useful when ghting against something
negative, like an unfavorable policy.
• Building Support: Public a airs help the organization gain support from others, strengthening
its network of contacts.
• Consolidating Identity: Public a airs help shape and maintain the organization’s public image
and identity.
• Protection from Competitors: Public a airs can protect the organization from competitors who
might use public institutions to damage its reputation.
• Transparency: Public a airs help make the organization’s activities known, which can protect it
from negative actions by public institutions.
In summary, public a airs is about helping organizations interact with the government and other
institutions to protect and grow their reputation, achieve their goals, and navigate political or
social changes.
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Actors in Public A airs
In public a airs, di erent groups play di erent roles to in uence decisions, build relationships, and
advocate for speci c interests. There are three main categories of actors involved:
1. Interest Groups
These are organizations that represent certain economic or social interests and try to in uence
public policy to favor their goals. These groups don’t take on government responsibilities but
focus on a ecting decisions made by governments and institutions.
• Pro t organizations: These are businesses and companies that use public a airs to support
their business interests or public causes they care about.
• Non-pro t organizations: These groups work for social causes, such as charities or
organizations focused on public good.
There’s a distinction between interest groups and pressure groups. Interest groups try to in uence
decision-makers without direct interaction with government o cials, while pressure groups (or
lobbying groups) directly in uence decisions in formal government settings.
Interest groups can be:
• Economic: These groups represent businesses, industries, or workers. Examples are trade
unions and business associations.
• Cause-based: These groups are formed around a speci c cause, such as environmental
protection, women’s rights, or human rights.
• Institutional: These can be public or private organizations, like universities or hospitals, that also
try to in uence decisions for their bene t.
2. Mediators and In uential Audiences
These are the groups or individuals who help connect interest groups to public institutions
or in uence public opinion:
• Mediators: These are people or organizations that help make the case for the interest groups,
in uencing public opinion and ultimately decision-makers. They include:
• Public A airs Professionals: These are experts who represent organizations, guiding them on
how to interact with decision-makers and in uence public policies.
• Media: Newspapers, TV, and online platforms help spread information and shape public opinion
on certain issues.
• Research Centers and Polling Companies: Universities or companies that provide studies or
surveys that back up the arguments of interest groups, helping to in uence decision-makers
with reliable data.
• In uential Audiences: These are groups of people who can sway public opinion and guide
decisions. They could be local communities, opinion leaders, or even large groups of citizens.
• For example, local communities opposing a project (like a waste storage facility) can gather
media attention and force decision-makers to reconsider a policy or decision.
An Example: The NIMBY Case (Not In My Backyard)
The term NIMBY refers to groups who protest something because they don’t want it in their area,
even though it might be bene cial elsewhere.
In Italy, for example, there was a plan to store radioactive waste in a town called Scanzano
Jonico. Many locals and environmental groups strongly opposed this, arguing that it could be
harmful to human health. The protests gained media attention, and the government decided to
withdraw the plan after facing strong opposition. This shows how local communities (in uential
audiences) and media play a key role in shaping decisions.
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Public Opinion and Media In uence
Media plays a central role in public a airs. It can create attention around an issue, sway public
opinion, and put pressure on decision-makers. Research centers and polling companies also help
by showing how the public feels about an issue, which can directly in uence policies.
In the end, lobbying groups and public opinion can heavily in uence decisions, even if scienti c
facts suggest otherwise. It’s a reminder of how important it is for stakeholders (groups pushing for
a cause) to communicate their points e ectively.
In Short:
• Interest groups try to in uence decision-makers to support their causes, whether it’s businesses,
social causes, or institutions.
• Mediators (like public a airs professionals, media, and research centers) help amplify these
interests to the public and decision-makers.
• In uential audiences (like local communities and media) play a huge role in shaping opinions and
in uencing political decisions.
Public a airs is all about managing these relationships to create favorable outcomes for
organizations or causes.
Role of Public Institutions
Public institutions are organizations and structures that handle public matters and ensure the
public interest is served. These institutions manage important tasks that a ect everyone in
society, like making laws, running services, and managing public resources.
Di erent Levels of Public Institutions
Public institutions operate at di erent levels, each dealing with di erent areas:
1. Local Level: These include smaller regional or local bodies, like:
• Regions (big areas in a country)
• Provinces and Municipalities (smaller administrative areas like cities or districts)
• Local service companies (like hospitals or utilities)
2. National Level: At the country level, key institutions include:
• Parliament (which makes laws)
• Government (which implements laws and policies)
• Judiciary (courts that ensure laws are followed)
• Independent regulatory authorities (groups that manage speci c areas like energy, transport, or
nance)
3. European Union (EU) Level: At the EU level, the main institutions include:
• European Parliament (elected body that helps make laws)
• Council of the EU (represents the governments of EU countries)
• European Commission (proposes new laws and ensures they are carried out)
• European Central Bank (manages European money and nance policies)
• Other bodies like the Economic and Social Committee and Committee of the Regions also have
important roles.
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In the EU, there are thousands of public a airs professionals (lobbyists) working in places like
Brussels to in uence EU decisions. The EU and national institutions are increasingly
interconnected, so managing these relationships requires special skills.
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A Case Study: Nuclear Energy in Italy
A real-life example of this process is Italy’s debate over nuclear energy:
1. The government wanted to build nuclear plants in Italy, but many people were against it.
2. Research centers showed that certain areas, like Scanzano Jonico, could be safe for a nuclear
waste site.
3. However, these scienti c facts were not communicated well to the public, leading to
widespread protests and media coverage.
4. Eventually, public opinion turned strongly against nuclear energy after the Fukushima disaster
in Japan in 2011.
5. The Italian public voted against nuclear power in a referendum, showing the power of media
and public opinion in shaping political decisions.
Managing Di erent Levels of Public Institutions
Public a airs professionals must handle the di erent levels of public institutions in a coordinated
way because they interact with each other. For example:
• A campaign at the EU level can help increase the visibility of an organization both nationally and
locally.
• Institutions at di erent levels (local, national, and EU) are often connected and in uence each
other. For example, regional institutions might have o ces in Brussels (EU headquarters) to stay
involved in EU decisions.
This approach is especially important for industries that work in global markets where
international rules a ect national laws. For example, a company that sells products in the EU
needs to follow EU laws, and public a airs professionals must ensure that these rules are
understood and followed across all levels of government.
Five Main Functions of Public Institutions
Public institutions perform ve main functions in every area they manage:
1. Legislative: Creating laws. For example, Parliament at the national level or the European
Parliament creates laws that a ect the public.
2. Executive: Carrying out laws and managing public services. This is the job of the Government.
It also includes making decisions on how money is spent, negotiating with private companies, and
setting priorities.
3. Control: Ensuring that individuals or private companies follow the rules. This is done by
institutions like administrative courts, which check if businesses or citizens are complying with the
law.
4. Guarantee: Protecting public interests and making sure that rules are fair. For example,
regulatory authorities supervise things like competition, stock markets, and energy to make sure
everything works properly.
5. Administrative and Management: Managing and organizing services and resources. This
includes public administration, which is responsible for areas like the economy, social services,
infrastructure, and public utilities (like water, electricity, and transportation).
In Short:
Public institutions are organizations that help manage the needs of society at various levels—
local, national, and international. They do this by making laws, enforcing them, and managing
public resources and services. Public a airs professionals help coordinate between these di erent
levels, especially when the issues are international. The ve main functions of these institutions
are: making laws, carrying out laws, ensuring compliance, protecting the public interest, and
managing public services.
Public A airs at the Community Level (EU)
Public a airs at the community level (especially in the EU) is about in uencing decisions and laws
that a ect everyone. In the EU, this involves multilevel governance, which means di erent levels
of government (like the European Union, individual countries, and local regions) work together.
The goal is to manage powers fairly and e ciently, using a principle called subsidiarity. This
principle means that decisions should be made at the most local level possible unless it’s better
to do it at a higher level.
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Interest Groups and Lobbying
In the EU, interest groups (like companies, organizations, or associations) have the right to
in uence decision-makers, as guaranteed by Article 11 of the Treaty on European Union. This
article says that citizens and organizations can share their views with European decision-makers.
It also requires decision-makers, like the European Commission, to maintain open and transparent
communication with these groups.
In 2011, the European Commission and Parliament created a Transparency Register, where
lobbyists (people working to in uence laws) must sign up. This helps make lobbying activities
clear and open. Over time, the rules around lobbying became stricter, and by 2019, the European
Parliament passed binding rules for transparency in lobbying.
Multilevel Lobbying
A public a airs professional working in the EU needs to use multilevel lobbying.
This means:
1. In uencing in Brussels (the heart of the EU) and also at the national level (in each country of the
EU).
2. They aim to in uence the ministers or commissioners who represent their country in the EU
institutions, but they also need to in uence other EU o cials and decision-makers.
3. They try to form alliances with other groups and lobby members of the European Parliament to
push their interests.
The Lobbying Scene in Brussels
There are many people and organizations involved in lobbying in Brussels. Estimates suggest
that:
• About 15,000 lobbyists are active in Brussels.
• There are around 3,000 interest groups and 150 law rms specializing in EU law.
• More than 3,000 journalists focus on European matters.
These groups in uence many laws, as 75% of the legislation in European countries comes from
the EU. There’s a lot of lobbying happening because so many interests are involved, and many
di erent groups try to in uence European decision-makers.
Case Study: Nutritional Labels Regulation
In 2003, the European Commission proposed a rule to standardize nutritional labels on food
products, like saying a product is “Low in Fat” or “Rich in Calcium.” This rule aimed to make
labels more scienti cally accurate and clear, based on shared nutritional values.
Stakeholders Involved
Di erent groups had con icting opinions about the regulation:
• Big companies were divided: Some thought the rule would help by improving safety and
transparency, while others worried it could increase costs.
• Small and medium-sized businesses felt the rule could unfairly disadvantage certain products,
especially those with special certi cations like “organic” or “regional specialties.”
• Consumer groups mostly supported the rule but wanted stricter guidelines.
Tools Used by Stakeholders
• The large groups (like big companies) used direct lobbying, meaning they met directly with
decision-makers in the European Commission and European Parliament. They also presented
scienti c studies and held events like conferences to push their positions.
• Smaller groups with fewer resources used indirect lobbying, like organizing small protests,
involving the media, and forming coalitions with other groups that shared their views.
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Outcome of the Lobbying E orts
In the end, the proposed regulation was rejected by the European Parliament at the rst vote. The
groups against the regulation were more successful for two main reasons:
1. Key relationships: They knew who the key decision-makers were and built strong relationships
with them, providing reliable information that in uenced decisions.
2. Strategic alliances: They formed alliances with other groups (even from di erent countries)
that shared the same opposition to the regulation. This created a larger and more uni ed voice,
increasing pressure on decision-makers.
Conclusion
At the community level (EU), public a airs professionals play an important role in lobbying and
in uencing laws and regulations. The process involves understanding the various stakeholders
and using di erent tools (like direct meetings or media campaigns) to in uence decision-makers.
Success depends on building strong relationships, working with others, and knowing how to
navigate the complex decision-making system of the EU.
Public A airs at the International Level
As the world becomes more connected through globalization, the importance of public a airs on
an international scale has grown. This is because countries are more interdependent and work
together more than ever before.
Global Issues and Global Actors
• Global issues like the environment, health, energy, and human rights are now being discussed
on a worldwide level. These are topics that a ect everyone, so there’s a need for global
cooperation to address them.
• Interest groups, like organizations, NGOs, and big companies, now work on these issues
globally, not just within their own countries. They are acting on an international stage to in uence
decisions and policies.
International Organizations
Traditional international organizations, such as:
• United Nations (UN): Deals with international peace and security.
• UNESCO: Focuses on education, science, and culture.
• FAO: Works on food and agriculture.
• WHO: Focuses on health.
• WTO: Deals with international trade.
These organizations have become stronger and more in uential in addressing global issues. They
set global rules, standards, and guidelines that a ect countries everywhere.
Role of NGOs and Multinational Corporations
• NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) have become key players in international issues,
alongside multinational corporations (big global companies). These organizations not only act to
promote their causes but also engage in corporate diplomacy, where they try to in uence
governments and international bodies to adopt favorable policies.
Public A airs and Global Agenda
Public a airs are now crucial for dealing with international relations. They help countries,
companies, and organizations navigate the global landscape, in uencing decisions on issues like
trade, human rights, and the environment.
• Public a airs professionals need to understand international relations, negotiation, and cultural
communication to work e ectively on the global stage.
• Today, even big companies are often expected to take public stands on important issues (like
climate change or human rights), as these issues are part of the global conversation.
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In Summary:
Public a airs at the international level means dealing with global issues and working with global
organizations, governments, and interest groups to in uence policies. It’s about engaging with
international organizations (like the UN), understanding global trends, and building relationships
with NGOs and multinational companies to shape the world’s agenda on key issues.
The Public A airs Process
Public a airs involve planned activities aimed at managing relationships with various groups and
in uencing decisions that a ect the organization. It’s a strategic process that involves analyzing
issues, setting goals, choosing the right tools, and measuring results. The process consists of
several stages that guide how to manage public a airs e ectively.
Issue Management and Its Importance
Before starting any public a airs activity, the rst step is to analyze the issue or problem you want
to focus on. This is called issue management. It helps understand the topic from di erent
perspectives, like:
• What are people saying about it?
• Is it an emotional topic?
• Will it be covered by the media?
• Are there people or groups who will argue against us?
This analysis is crucial because it helps you understand how the issue is evolving and how it
might become more important over time. If you act early, you have a better chance of in uencing
decisions and shaping public opinion before it becomes a bigger issue.
The Phases of Public A airs
The public a airs process consists of 7 phases:
1. Analysis and De nition of Issues: The rst step is identifying which issues are most important
for your organization. This involves gathering data, monitoring trends, and analyzing how these
issues could a ect the organization in the future.
2. Public A airs Objectives and Risk Analysis: Set clear goals for what you want to achieve and
assess any potential risks or obstacles. Understand how the issue could evolve and what
challenges might come up.
3. De nition of Strategy: Plan how to approach the issue, including the tactics you will use and
the people or groups you will need to in uence.
4. Selection of Stakeholders and In uencers: Identify the key groups and people who can help
support your cause or who could oppose it. These might include decision-makers, politicians,
organizations, or other groups.
5. Identi cation of Key Messages: Clearly de ne the messages you want to communicate.
These should be simple, persuasive, and aligned with your organization’s goals.
6. Implementation of the Advocacy Plan: Put your plan into action. This includes working with
stakeholders, using media, lobbying, and organizing events or meetings to support your issue.
7. Measurement and Evaluation of Results: After your activities, assess how well your e orts
worked. Did you achieve your goals? What can you improve next time?
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Monitoring and Analysis of Issues
The rst phase (analyzing issues) is particularly important. Public a airs professionals need to
constantly monitor the political, social, and institutional environments where they work.
This means:
• Keeping track of political changes, like shifts in power or government policies.
• Watching the news, including social media, blogs, and traditional media to see what people are
saying about the issue.
• Tracking legislative updates (like laws being proposed or changed) through online tools, such as
the o cial websites of government bodies (e.g., the Chamber of Deputies).
Using Technology and Social Media for Monitoring
Today, technology plays a big role in monitoring activities.
For example:
• Public a airs professionals can now follow live government proceedings and read bills online,
which helps them stay informed.
• Social media is a powerful tool for tracking public opinion and engaging with the public directly.
Monitoring social media conversations allows public a airs professionals to quickly spot emerging
trends and issues that might a ect their organization.
In Summary:
The public a airs process is about planning and managing communication strategies to in uence
public opinion and decisions. The rst step is understanding the issue at hand by constantly
monitoring the political and social environment. Professionals then analyze the issue, set clear
objectives, identify key in uencers, craft important messages, implement the plan, and measure
the results. Technology and social media are key tools in this process, making it easier to track
and engage with important developments.
Public A airs Objectives and Risk Analysis
In public a airs, setting clear goals or objectives is a key step. These goals must align with the
company’s overall strategy and business. The company’s top management plays a critical role in
de ning these objectives, which will guide the public a airs activities.
Key Considerations When De ning Objectives:
1. Risks and Opportunities: The public a airs professional must think about the risks (potential
problems) and opportunities (potential bene ts) that might arise during the public a airs activities.
For example, trying to in uence a new law might have both good and bad consequences for the
company, depending on how things go.
2. Managing Expectations: The professional must also manage the expectations of the
company’s top management. This means being clear about how success will be measured and
making sure everyone in the organization understands what the goals of the public a airs activity
are.
Identifying Relevant Issues
To set the right objectives, the organization needs to constantly monitor the political, social, and
institutional environment. This helps identify key issues—topics or problems that could have a big
impact on the company’s business. Once these issues are identi ed, the company needs to
engage in public a airs activities, such as talking to important stakeholders (groups or people
who have in uence).
Characteristics of an Issue for Public A airs:
For an issue to be worth focusing on in public a airs, it needs to meet two criteria:
1. It should be something that can be regulated or in uenced by public authorities (e.g.,
government rules or laws).
2. It should be seen as a potential threat or opportunity for the organization. A threat could harm
the company, while an opportunity could help it grow.
The public a airs professional must recognize how changes in the political decision-making
process can increase or decrease the risk or opportunity associated with that issue.
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In Simple Terms:
When planning public a airs activities, it’s crucial to set clear goals that match the organization’s
overall strategy. The professional should analyze potential risks and opportunities and ensure the
top management understands what success looks like. They also need to keep an eye on
important issues that could a ect the company, such as new laws or regulations, and decide
which issues are worth focusing on based on their potential to impact the business.
9.3.3 De ning the Strategy
When an organization decides on its public a airs strategy, it combines its goals, risk analysis,
and expectations to create a plan. The public a airs team and organization leaders then choose:
1. Timing – When to act.
2. Tools – What methods to use (e.g., meetings, reports).
3. Approach – Whether to be reactive (responding to situations as they arise) or proactive (taking
the lead).
4. Coalitions – Whether to form partnerships with other organizations.
5. Negotiation – How to approach discussions with decision-makers.
To have in uence over public institutions, the organization must take a clear position on important
issues, explaining its interests and goals. This is communicated through a position paper—a
document that outlines the organization’s stance and reasons for it.
A public a airs campaign should focus on one speci c interest to be e ective, even though
sometimes organizations defend multiple interests to gather more support.
9.3.4 Selecting Stakeholders and In uencers
After deciding on a position, the organization must identify the key people and groups
(stakeholders) to engage with.
These include:
• Public institutions (government bodies or agencies).
• Allies (other groups or organizations that share the same position).
The monitoring process helps the organization identify:
• Political players—who in government or institutions is in uential on this issue.
• Public groups—who else (NGOs, associations, etc.) shares the organization’s position or could
help push it forward.
Knowing who these stakeholders are and what they care about helps the organization decide who
to engage and how.
9.3.5 Identifying Key Messages
Once the organization knows who to talk to, it needs to craft clear messages.
These should:
1. Present facts, data, and clear information that support the organization’s position.
2. Be communicated in a way that is appropriate for the stakeholders (e.g., using rational facts or
emotional appeals, depending on the audience).
Some organizations use emotional appeals to get public attention (like fear of health risks), while
others use rational arguments (like energy independence) to make their case. Both methods can
be e ective, depending on the issue and the audience.
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9.3.6 Implementing the Advocacy Plan
Once the strategy and messages are in place, it’s time to start acting:
1. Direct communication: This includes personal meetings with decision-makers, such as
politicians or public o cials, to discuss the organization’s position. It could also include attending
public hearings or advisory committees.
Tips for direct communication:
• Be well-prepared with facts, counterarguments, and solutions.
• Be respectful, but rm in explaining your position.
• Avoid using emotional pressure—stick to logical, fact-based arguments.
2. Indirect communication: This is about shaping public opinion and creating public support for
the issue. The more people support the cause, the more pressure there is on public institutions to
act.
Both direct and indirect methods should work together, each supporting the other to strengthen
the case.
9.3.7 Measuring and Evaluating Results
After the public a airs activity has been carried out, it’s important to evaluate its e ectiveness.
While some might think success is only about getting a law passed in the organization’s favor,
there are other ways to measure success:
1. Visibility: How often does the organization’s position appear in the media? Are people talking
about the issue?
2. Understanding: Do key people (like public decision-makers) understand the organization’s
position? Are they mentioning it in discussions?
3. Public Opinion: Is the public supporting the issue? Are people discussing and mobilizing for it?
4. Relational Capital: Has the organization built strong, trustworthy relationships with important
stakeholders, such as lawmakers or other in uencers?
5. Information Capital: Does the organization have valuable knowledge about the issue and the
political environment?
These indicators help assess how well the public a airs activities have worked, even if a decision
hasn’t been made yet.
In Simple Terms:
1. Strategy: The public a airs team creates a plan by setting clear goals, choosing the best time
and methods to act, and deciding whether to be proactive or reactive.
2. Stakeholders: The organization identi es the important people and groups to engage with,
based on their role in in uencing the issue.
3. Key Messages: Clear, fact-based messages are crafted to explain the organization’s position
and persuade others.
4. Implementation: The plan is put into action using direct communication (meetings, hearings)
and indirect communication (shaping public opinion).
5. Evaluation: Success is measured in various ways, such as media visibility, public support, and
the strength of relationships built with key players.
By doing all of this, the organization can better in uence decisions that impact its interests.
What is Lobbying?
Lobbying is the action taken by organizations (both public and private) to try and in uence
decision-making. In simpler terms, it’s when an organization tries to convince politicians or
government o cials to make decisions that favor their interests.
This can be done by:
• Accelerating (speeding up) the introduction of a new rule or law.
• Delaying or changing an existing rule or law.
The History of Lobbying
Lobbying became a well-known practice in the United States, where it’s seen as a right. The U.S.
Constitution’s First Amendment (from 1791) gives people the right to petition the government
when they think something is unfair. This means citizens and organizations can gather, share their
views, and ask the government to make changes.
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The U.S. was also the rst country to regulate lobbying, setting rules for it in 1946 and
strengthening those rules in 1995. These laws make sure lobbying is done fairly and transparently.
Access vs. Entry
In the world of lobbying, access is very important. Entry just means getting into the politician’s
o ce or meeting. Access means having the chance to sit down and actually talk with the
decision-maker, explaining what you want and why it’s important.
One of the best ways to get access to decision-makers is to build trust with them. In fact, many
lobbyists in the U.S. focus on forming personal relationships with politicians, because trust is key
to getting a seat at the table.
The Role of Lobbyists
Lobbyists don’t only focus on national laws and regulations. Their work also involves:
• Talking to local authorities and NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations).
• Working with public interest groups.
• Engaging with the media to raise awareness or in uence public opinion.
In essence, lobbying is not just about in uencing laws—it’s about providing useful information to
decision-makers that can help them make informed choices.
Lobbying and Communication
Lobbying is closely tied to communication. The goal of both is to in uence decisions. Lobbyists
need to understand what information decision-makers need and how to communicate it in the
best way. The better the lobbying is organized, the more transparent and open the democratic
process is, meaning the public can see how decisions are being in uenced.
In Simple Terms:
• Lobbying is when organizations try to change or in uence government decisions in their favour.
• It’s been a right in the U.S. for a long time (since the First Amendment in 1791).
• Access is more important than just entering the decision-maker’s o ce. You need trust and
relationships to get heard.
• Lobbying isn’t just about laws—it includes working with local groups, NGOs, and the media
too.
• It’s mostly about communicating the right information to the right people to in uence decisions.
Lobbying in Italy: A Historical Overview
In Italy, lobbying has often been seen negatively. People often use the term to suggest that some
groups have hidden power and in uence over politicians. Historically, lobbying has been di cult
to establish in Italy because the country’s political system has been strongly controlled by political
parties. Until recently, these political parties were the main way that interest groups (like
businesses, unions, or NGOs) could in uence government decisions.
For a long time, there was no formal system to regulate how interest groups could interact with
public decision-makers. This led to a lack of transparency in how decisions were made, and many
people thought that this system was not ideal for a healthy democracy.
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Changing Views on Lobbying
Over time, views on lobbying have started to shift. Many people now see lobbying as an
important part of a healthy democracy, as it allows di erent interest groups to communicate their
needs to government decision-makers. In other words, lobbying helps represent interests and
provide useful information that can improve decisions.
Some scholars in Italy have argued that lobbying is not a bad thing but rather a necessary tool for
democratic societies. They see it as a way to bring legitimate interests (such as those of workers,
businesses, or social causes) into public decision-making. This change in attitude is especially
important as political parties in Italy have become less in uential in recent years. This has created
new space for professional lobbyists to step in and represent interests more clearly and openly.
Lobbying and Professional Representation
In Italy, professional lobbyists are individuals who represent various interest groups. These groups
can be companies, unions, NGOs, or other associations. Lobbyists are hired to help these groups
in uence public decisions in their favor.
Alberto Cattaneo, an Italian lobbyist, explains that lobbying should be transparent and act as a
way for people to express their interests openly. The decline of political parties has made the role
of professional lobbyists even more important, as they help ll the gap left by political parties and
provide clear representation of di erent interests.
Legislation on Lobbying in Italy
In Italy, there have been many attempts to create laws regulating lobbying. Since the birth of the
Republic, there have been over 60 proposed laws about lobbying, but most of these proposals
were never approved. Only a few have made it through the parliamentary committees, and none
have been fully discussed or approved by the entire parliament.
The ideas behind these proposed laws generally focus on making lobbying more transparent and
public. The goal is to make it clear who is trying to in uence decisions, which interests they
represent, and what information they are providing to decision-makers.
How Lobbying Works in Italy Today
Under current proposals, lobbyists must register in a public database.
This helps ensure transparency.
The lobbyist’s registration must include details like:
• Who they represent.
• What kind of interests they are advocating for.
• The decision-makers they are trying to in uence.
To become a lobbyist in Italy, you must meet some requirements, like being over a certain age,
having a legal or relevant educational background, and having a clean criminal record. Once
registered, lobbyists often have to follow a code of conduct and report their activities annually.
If a lobbyist violates the rules, they may face penalties, such as nes or being removed from the
o cial register for a period.
Local Regulations and Challenges
Although there is still no comprehensive national law on lobbying, some Italian regions (like
Tuscany, Molise, and Lombardy) have passed their own laws to increase transparency in their
local governments. These laws have created regional registers to track lobbying activities in those
areas.
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However, the overall lack of national legislation means that lobbying regulation in Italy is still not
fully organized. Di erent regions and institutions have created their own rules, leading to a
fragmented and uncoordinated system.
In Simple Terms
• Lobbying in Italy was once seen as a bad thing, but now it’s starting to be recognized as
important for democracy.
• Political parties used to control the system, but as they lose power, professional lobbyists are
taking on more responsibility to represent di erent interests.
• There have been many attempts to create rules for lobbying, but most have not passed. The
main goals of these rules are transparency and ensuring that the public knows who is in uencing
government decisions.
• Lobbyists must register and follow certain rules to be allowed to work in Italy, and some regions
have started creating their own local regulations.
• Even though there’s no national law yet, progress is being made towards more transparency in
the lobbying process.
Here’s a simpli ed explanation of the three phases of lobbying:
1. Analysis Phase
In this phase, the lobbyist starts by understanding where the decision will be made and by whom.
For example:
• Is the decision happening at the European level, or within a country’s national government, or at
a more local level (like a town or city)?
• The lobbyist also needs to gure out which other interest groups (such as businesses or
organizations) might be working on the same issue. If there are other groups with similar interests,
they may form alliances. If there are opposing groups (with di erent or opposite interests), the
lobbyist needs to know how to deal with them.
For example:
• Hoteliers vs. Airbnb
• Taxi drivers vs. Uber
Understanding these relationships helps the lobbyist to plan the best strategy for in uencing the
decision-makers.
2. Mapping Phase
In this phase, the lobbyist starts identifying who the key decision-makers are. This involves a lot of
research and understanding of the people in power. For example:
• The lobbyist looks at the career history of the decision-makers, including their past actions on
similar issues.
• They check things like:
• Which political party the decision-maker belongs to.
• What opinions or behaviors the person has shown in the past on similar issues.
• The person’s background and their connections within the party or government.
Lobbyists collect all this information in a database so they can plan their approach e ectively.
3. Pressure Phase
This is the phase where the lobbyist contacts the decision-makers to in uence them. The lobbyist
tries to convince the decision-maker to make decisions that will bene t the interest they are
representing. There are two ways they can do this:
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Direct Lobbying:
• The lobbyist meets with the decision-maker face-to-face, either in formal settings (like
parliamentary hearings) or more informal meetings.
• They usually give a position paper (a document explaining their side and what they want) to the
decision-maker at the end of the meeting.
Indirect Lobbying (Grassroots Lobbying):
• This is a strategy where the lobbyist tries to in uence public opinion rst.
• The idea is to get regular people (the public) involved and create a movement that shows
decision-makers that there is public support for a certain issue.
• By doing this, the decision-maker may be more likely to support the issue because they know it
has strong public backing.
In this phase, the media plays an important role because it helps spread the message and shape
public opinion. Lobbyists also try to build alliances with other organizations or groups that support
the same cause. This makes the issue stronger and more likely to gain support from politicians.
Summary:
1. Analysis: Find out who makes the decisions, at what level, and who else is involved in the
issue.
2. Mapping: Identify the right people to contact and research their background, opinions, and
history.
3. Pressure: Directly in uence decision-makers through meetings or indirectly by in uencing
public opinion and using the media.
In short, lobbying is a strategic process where lobbyists work in these three phases to in uence
decisions, using both direct and indirect tactics.
Here’s a simpli ed breakdown of the tools used in Public A airs and Lobbying:
1. Back-O ce Tools
These are tools that help lobbyists with the research and planning phases of their work (the
Analysis and Mapping phases):
• Contact Database: A list of contacts like decision-makers, journalists, and opinion leaders. It
helps lobbyists keep track of people they need to communicate with.
• Calendar of Institutional Works: A schedule that shows when public o cials or government
bodies are working. This helps lobbyists plan the right time to communicate or in uence them.
• Summary Reports: These are reports that explain what happened in the legislature (e.g., in
Parliament or the Senate). They keep lobbyists up-to-date on ongoing discussions, decisions, and
bills.
• Power Map: A diagram that shows who holds in uence in a particular area (e.g., which people
or organizations hold power in a speci c issue). It helps lobbyists understand who to target for
support and which people have opposing views.
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2. Lobbying Tools
These are the main tools used directly in lobbying activities to in uence decision-makers:
• Position Paper: A short, clear document (usually 2-3 pages) that explains an organization’s
stance on an issue. It includes:
• A description of the issue.
• How it will impact the organization.
• Alternatives to the decision being proposed.
• Supporters of the proposed position.
• Politicians who should receive the paper.
• Dossier: An internal document that provides detailed information about the positions of public
decision-makers on an issue. It helps the lobbyist understand what arguments are strong in favor
of their cause.
• Policy Brief: A short document (about 2 pages) produced monthly. It explains the current
political and economic situation and forecasts what might happen in the near future. It helps the
lobbyist predict how the issue might evolve.
• Technical Texts: These are drafts of laws, regulations, amendments, or questions that lobbyists
may propose to the government. They are usually part of the work that lobbyists want to
in uence.
• Parliamentary Questioning: A formal tool where a group of parliamentarians asks the
government to explain or take action on a speci c issue. Lobbyists can in uence this by
presenting their arguments and even providing a draft of questions to be asked in Parliament.
• Playbook: A document (similar to a press kit) that explains the organization’s issues, its position
on those issues, and the interests it represents. This is given to decision-makers during meetings.
• Parliamentary Hearings: These are formal meetings where stakeholders present their views in
front of Parliament. The lobbyist or representative needs strong public speaking skills and should
be able to handle objections from others.
• Direct Meetings: One-on-one meetings with decision-makers, where the lobbyist presents their
position and tries to in uence the decisions directly.
Summary:
• Back-o ce tools help with research, planning, and keeping track of ongoing activities in
government.
• Lobbying tools are the documents and strategies used directly to in uence decision-makers,
including position papers, reports, and meetings.
In simple terms, these tools help lobbyists gather information, plan their approach, and then use
speci c documents and meetings to persuade decision-makers to support their cause.
Here’s a simpler breakdown of the section on shared communication tools and the impact
of technology on lobbying:
1. Shared Communication Tools
Public a airs professionals use various traditional communication tools to engage with their
stakeholders and the public.
These tools include:
• Newsletters: These are regular updates (often sent via email) that inform important people (like
politicians, journalists, or opinion leaders) about issues the organization cares about. They help
keep key people informed and involved.
• Cultural Sponsorships: This is when an organization sponsors events or artistic/cultural
projects (like concerts, art exhibitions, or theater performances). For example, a company might
fund the restoration of a famous artwork to improve its public image. It shows the organization
cares about social and cultural matters.
• Open Letters: Organizations may write open letters (public letters, often published in
newspapers or online) to express their opinions or advocate for something. These can attract
attention from decision-makers and the public.
• Institutional Events: These are events hosted by the organization to engage with stakeholders,
share information, and promote their message. For example, an organization might hold a
conference or panel discussion to in uence public debate on a speci c issue.
• Media Relations: This involves building and maintaining relationships with journalists and media
outlets to help spread the organization’s message and in uence public opinion. Media coverage
can be used to highlight issues the organization cares about and to back up their lobbying e orts.
These tools are chosen based on the interests the organization is representing, the people they
need to communicate with, the methods of communication they prefer, and their available
resources.
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2. The Role of Technology in Lobbying
With the rise of new technologies (like online platforms and mobile apps), many industries are
being disrupted. For example, companies like Uber and Airbnb have changed traditional
industries (like taxis and hotels), and this creates new challenges for regulations and lobbyists.
Conclusion
• Lobbying in a Tech-Driven World: The rapid growth of new technologies like Airbnb, Uber, and
FlixBus forces lobbying professionals to react quickly. These new companies often nd
themselves in a battle to shape new rules or avoid old ones that don’t t their business models.
• Challenges for Old and New Players: Old industries (like taxis or hotels) may use lobbying to
resist disruptive changes, while new players (like Uber and Airbnb) might lobby to keep their
business models safe from new regulations. Sometimes, the result is a mix of proactive and
defensive lobbying actions, with the aim to either create new opportunities or defend against
threats.
In summary, lobbying today often involves dealing with technological change and new business
models, with both new and old players ghting for their interests in rapidly changing markets.
Here’s a simpler breakdown of grassroots lobbying and digital advocacy:
1. Grassroots Lobbying
Grassroots lobbying is a way of indirectly in uencing decisions, especially legislative ones (like
laws being passed), by building public support for a cause. Instead of directly lobbying lawmakers
or politicians, the idea is to get the public on your side. This might involve:
• Getting people to support an issue and speak out about it.
• Mobilizing in uential people (like community leaders or celebrities) who can speak on behalf of
the issue and help spread the message.
The goal is to create enough public pressure that decision-makers (like lawmakers) feel they must
take action on the issue.
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Di erence between Grassroots Lobbying and Advocacy:
• Grassroots Lobbying: Focused on in uencing speci c decisions, like a particular law or policy.
• Advocacy: Aims to in uence general public opinion on a broader issue, rather than focusing on
one decision.
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Here’s how technology plays into lobbying:
• Disruptive Technology: New services from companies like Uber, Airbnb, and Net ix often don’t
t neatly into existing laws or regulations. These technologies can change entire industries very
quickly, and sometimes the laws can’t keep up. This creates lobbying opportunities because
new players want to in uence or resist new rules, while existing businesses (like taxi drivers or
hotels) may try to ght back to protect their industry.
• Lobbying for New Rules: For example, Airbnb operates globally but has to deal with di erent
laws in every country. Sometimes, they resist new rules or try to adapt to them, but it’s
challenging because of the complexity of di erent regulations.
• Taxi Drivers vs Uber: Taxi drivers in many countries, including Italy, have protested against Uber
because it disrupts their business model. In some cases, taxi drivers have successfully lobbied to
get new laws that limit Uber’s operations.
• FlixBus Example: FlixBus, a bus transport platform, faced regulatory battles in Italy because it
didn’t own the buses it used. The government wanted to make a law that would require bus
operators to own the vehicles they use, but FlixBus didn’t own them. So, they had to lobby to
change the law in their favor.
• Google News and FIEG: Another example is the con ict between Google News and FIEG
(Italian Newspaper Publishers). The issue is related to how Google uses news content in its
platform, and it led to lobbying e orts from both sides to in uence how the news industry is
regulated online.
Digital tools can be used in many ways during lobbying:
• Monitoring: Keeping track of what is being said about an issue online.
• Mapping: Identifying who holds di erent positions on a topic, like politicians or in uencers.
• Messaging: Sending out speci c messages to target audiences or engaging with stakeholders
directly.
3. Bene ts of Digital Advocacy
• Changing Reputation: Using social media can help organizations improve or change how they
are perceived by the public.
• In uencing Public Debate: It allows organizations to steer public discussions around certain
issues or causes.
• Real-Time Feedback: Digital tools give the chance to get immediate responses from people
about your campaign or cause.
• Amplifying Messages: Social media helps to spread messages widely and fast, reaching many
people at once.
• Reacting to Competitors: It allows organizations to respond quickly to competing messages or
arguments from other groups.
In Summary:
Grassroots lobbying focuses on gaining public support to in uence decisions, and digital
advocacy helps make this process faster and more direct by using online platforms to
communicate with the public and policymakers. Social media plays a key role in spreading
messages, getting feedback, and strengthening reputations in real-time.
Here’s a simpler breakdown of the role of public a airs professionals and the skills they
need:
1. Role and Growth of Public A airs Professionals
Public a airs and lobbying have become very important in recent years. If you want to work in this
eld, you’ll need experience and skills in politics, communication, and mass media.
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Some of the things you need to do or experience to get into public a airs:
• Work for a politician: This helps you understand how politics work.
• Intern in a public institution: This gives you insight into how government agencies work.
• Get experience in public a airs: This could involve working for an organization in their public
a airs department.
• Work in media: Writing for newspapers or media outlets can help you learn how to
communicate with the public.
• Join a think tank: These are organizations that research and develop ideas for public policy.
• Know about NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations): Understanding how these groups
operate is important.
• Stay updated on topics like media relations, institutional relations, and marketing.
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2. Digital Advocacy
With the rise of the internet and social media, grassroots lobbying has become more e ective,
thanks to digital advocacy. This uses online tools and social media to engage the public and
in uence decision-makers more directly. For example:
• Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram allow groups to directly
communicate with the public and policymakers, cutting out traditional media or lobbyists as
middlemen.
• Change.org: A popular platform where people create petitions and encourage others to support
a cause, which can then in uence decision-makers.
2. Skills Needed for Public A airs Professionals
To be successful in public a airs, professionals need a mix of legal knowledge, communication
skills, and mediation abilities.
Key skills include:
• Legal-Administrative Knowledge: Understand laws and rules, especially in public institutions.
This helps you communicate e ectively with government bodies.
• Mediation and Communication: You need to be skilled in negotiating and cooperating with
di erent groups, especially when trying to in uence or communicate with decision-makers (like
politicians).
• Analytical Ability: You must be able to analyze and interpret changes in the political or
institutional environment to understand how they could a ect your organization.
3. Roles in Public A airs
There are two main types of roles for public a airs professionals: Analyst and Advocate.
• Analyst: An analyst is like an “invisible advisor”. They don’t directly speak with decision-makers
but help the organization by:
• Monitoring the political environment.
• Writing reports or documents (like policy briefs).
• Advising the organization on what to say or how to act.
• Advocate: An advocate represents the organization in meetings with politicians or government
o cials. They use their mediation skills and communication abilities to speak on behalf of the
organization.
4. Communication and Understanding Public Institutions
To be e ective, a public a airs professional must:
• Know how public institutions work (i.e., how the government or public bodies function, and their
rules and procedures).
• Be a good communicator: You need to be able to convey clear messages and be able to draft
laws, amendments, or proposals to help decision-makers.
• Cultivate relationships: Build and maintain good relationships with key public institutions, so
you’re seen as a trusted and credible partner.
5. Learning from Various Sources
To stay informed, public a airs professionals should read industry publications and websites like:
• PubA airs: A network of young professionals in the eld.
• PR Week: A leading newsletter on public relations.
• Public A airs News: A magazine focusing on public a airs.
• EurActiv: A website that covers EU issues.
• European Voice: A magazine that focuses on EU policies.
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Summary:
If you want to work in public a airs, you need a mix of skills like legal knowledge, communication
abilities, and the ability to mediate and analyze information. You can work in two main roles:
analyst (monitoring and advising) or advocate (representing the organization). Public a airs
professionals should also stay updated on political and media news, build strong relationships
with public institutions, and e ectively communicate with key decision-makers.
The Google News Case:
This was a legal con ict between Google and FIEG, the Italian Federation of Newspaper
Publishers, which represents many Italian media outlets.
• The Issue: Google News is a platform that collects news articles from various newspapers and
presents them to readers. The problem was that Google didn’t pay for the content it showed.
Newspapers felt that Google was taking their content, showing it to users, and generating tra c
for its own platform, but without giving the newspapers any revenue from the ads or clicks.
• The Newspaper’s Argument: They said Google was using their content unfairly, especially
because Google News linked directly to their articles, bypassing the publishers’ websites, where
ads are placed. Google was also accused of not being transparent about how it selected which
content to display.
• Google’s Argument: Google defended itself by saying that Google News actually drove tra c to
the newspapers’ websites. It argued that newspapers willingly allowed their content to be used,
and if they didn’t want their content shown, they could remove it from the platform. Google also
claimed it didn’t earn revenue from Google News, only from ads on its main search engine.
Furthermore, Google stated it distributed billions of dollars in advertising revenue to publishers.
• The Resolution: In 2016, Google and FIEG reached a historic agreement. The agreement
recognized the importance of copyright, provided tools to help newspapers better understand
their readers, and gave Google a role in supporting newspapers through nancial investments and
training.
Ethics and Professionalism in Lobbying and Public A airs:
• Lobbying is often seen negatively, associated with corruption or unfair in uence. However, when
done transparently and ethically, lobbying is a legitimate part of the democratic process. It allows
di erent interests (businesses, citizens, NGOs) to have a say in public decision-making.
• Ethical Values for Public A airs:
• Democracy of Interests: All interests (public and private) should be represented and given the
chance to in uence decisions.
• Balance Between Governance and Participation: Public institutions should listen to di erent
interests, but also make decisions in a timely manner.
• Civic Action: Public a airs should also consider social interests and not just economic ones. It
should hold public institutions accountable.
• Private Manifestation of Public Interest: Private groups, alongside public institutions, should
help protect public values.
• Pluralism of Interests: A variety of interests should be encouraged, so no single viewpoint
dominates.
• Legitimate Tendentiousness: Lobbyists have the right to represent their interests, even if they
are biased, but they must do so transparently and truthfully.
Conclusion:
Public a airs (or lobbying) is a strategic practice where organizations try to in uence public
decision-makers (like politicians) to support their interests. This can be done through
communication, building relationships, and making sure decision-makers understand their needs.
To be e ective, professionals in public a airs need a wide range of skills:
• Communication Skills: Knowing how to speak and write e ectively to di erent audiences
(politicians, media, the public).
• Legal and Administrative Knowledge: Understanding the rules and regulations that guide
public institutions.
• Analytical Skills: Being able to assess political, economic, and social trends and foresee how
they might a ect their organization or interest group.
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In summary, public a airs and lobbying play an important role in democracy. They help ensure
that various interests are represented in decision-making processes, as long as these activities
are done ethically and transparently.