Table of Contents
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General:
PREFACE
List of Contributors
Overview, Category and Ontology of Assistive Devices
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Scope of the Assistive Technology
Smart Self-management as a Means to Empower with Assistive
Technology
Who Adopts Assistive Technology?
The Emergence of Assistive Technology
Professional Practice in Assistive Technology
The Features of Assistive Technology
Categories
No-Technology Devices
Low-Technology Devices
Mid and High Technology Devices
Design Considerations for AT
Evaluation of Functional Capabilities of Assistive Devices
Possible Outcomes with AT
Feature Matching
Ontology of Assistive Devices
General Purpose Assistive Technologies
Performance Areas
Assistive Technology for Manipulation and Control of the
Environment
Issues Associated with Assistive Technology Practice
Attempts to Maximize the Accessibility and Affordability of
Assistive Technology
Research Trends and Future Research Directions
Conclusion
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
Acknowledgment
References
Accessibility of Software/Hardware
Abstract
BACKGROUND
INTRODUCTION
ACCESSIBILITY FOR DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF PwDs
Visually Impaired Individuals
Physically Challenged Individuals
Deaf and/or Hearing Impaired Individuals
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ACCESSIBILITY FOR PwDs
Hardware Options
Software Options
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
DISABILITIES AND WEB ACCESSIBILITY
DISABILITIES AND ICT ACCESSIBILITY
Frequency of Using ICT Facilities
Challenges Constraining Access to and Use of ICTs by the PwD
Inadequate Friendliness
Ineffective Training Provisions
Power Supply Outages
Outdated ICT Infrastructure
Shortage of ICTs Experts and Technicians
Internet Connectivity
Results of Shortage of ICT Facilities
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFRENCES
Computer Vision-Based Assistive Technology for Blind and Visually
Impaired People: A Deep Learning Approach
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
THE GLOBAL ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY COMMUNITY AND ITS
IMPACTS ON PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES
PRESENT-DAY SCENARIO
GENERAL DESIGN IDEAS AND THE USABILITY OF DAILY
ITEMS
EVOLUTION OF ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGIES
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGIES: FUNCTIONAL FRAMEWORK
Hard-Soft Technologies
OBJECT RECOGNITION
BACKGROUND THEORY
Object Detection Algorithms
SIFT (Scale Invariant Feature Transform) Algorithm
SURF (Speeded Up Robust Features)
OCR(Optical-Character-Recognition)
YOLO (You Only Look Once)
R-CNN
Gaps Identified
Existing Assistance solutions for Blind People
PRIMARY OBJECTIVE OF COMPUTER VISION
METHODOLOGY PROPOSED
YOLOv3 ARCHITECTURE
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
System Work-Flow for Object Detection
SMART READING SYSTEM FOR VISUALLY IMPAIRED PEOPLE
USING TESSERACT
FLOW PROCESS OF TESSERACT
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
CONCLUSION
Consent of Publication
Conflict of Interest
Acknowledgment
References
Assistive Technology for Home Comfort and Care
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
DISABILITY
Types of Disabilities
Blindness
Low Vision
Hearing Disability
Dwarfism
Intellectual Disability
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
Mental Illness
Locomotor Disability
Leprosy Cured Persons
Muscular Dystrophy (MD)
Chronic Neurological Conditions
Specific Learning Disability
Multiple Sclerosis(MS)
Speech and Language Disability
Thalassemia
Hemophilia
Sickle Cell Disease
Multiple Disabilities, including Deaf-Blindness
Acid Attack
Parkinson’s disease (PD)
Cerebral Palsy (CP)
COMMON BARRIERS FACED BY PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES
Communication Problem
Physical obstacles
Social Obstacles
Attitudinal barriers
Transportation obstacles
PRINCIPLES FOR PROVIDING ASSISTIVE DEVICES
Availability
Accessibility
Affordability
Adaptability
Acceptability
Quality
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR HOME RELAXATION AND
CARE FOR DISABLED PEOPLE
Mobility aids
Listening and Hearing Aids
Cognitive Devices
Comforting Aids
Limit Motor Skills Aids
Vision Aids
Home Security and Safety
Daily Living Aids
Computer Access Aids
MOBILE APPS FOR ALL DISABILITIES
BENEFITS OF ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY DEVICES IN
INDIVIDUAL'S LIFE
CONCLUSION
CONSENT OF PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Technologies for Hearing Impaired People Using Indian Sign Language
Synthetic Animations
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
FACTS ABOUT INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN DEAF AND HEARING
COMMUNITIES
ENGLISH TEXT TO INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE TRANSLATION
SYSTEM
English-ISL Lexicon
Text Parser Module to Parse English Sentences
Grammatical Rules for Transformation of English to ISL Sentence
Eliminator Module for Removal of Undesired Words
Lemmatization and Synonym Replacement
Sign Animation using Avatar
ANNOUNCEMENTS SYSTEM FOR RAILWAY STATIONS
ANNOUNCEMENTS SYSTEM FOR AIRPORTS
ANNOUNCEMENTS SYSTEM FOR BUS STANDS
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Augmentative and Alternative Communication/ Hearing Impairments
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Background
Sign Language Recognition
Sensor-based System
Vision-based Systems
Challenges and motivation of Sign Language Recognition
Commonly used Sensors
Different Recognition Models
Sign Language Generation
Data Science based AAC Solutions
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Hardware and Software-based Accessibility Innovations to Help Physically
Disabled User
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
ACCESSIBILITY FOR DIFFERENT DISABILITIES
CRITICAL ELEMENTS - ACCESSIBILITY ECOSYSTEM
Accessibility Device and Access Options
Vision and Speech Accessibility Options
Speech and Interaction Options
Media and Learning Options
DESIGNING FOR ACCESSIBILITY
Web Accessibility Improvements
BEST PRACTICES
DIGITAL ACCESSIBILITY
ACCESSIBILITY PROJECT LIFECYCLE
PLANNING FOR ACCESSIBILITY
ACCESSIBILITY PLATFORM
Disability - Assistive Technology
Research GAPS
CONCLUSION
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
Elderly and Visually Impaired People Mobility in Home Environment Using
Adhesive Tactile Walking Surface Indicators
Abstract
INTRODUCTION
RELATED WORK
TACTILE DESIGN METHODOLOGY
Target Users
Tactile Design
Color Experimentation
Foot Sensitivity Test
Surface Texture Test
Tactile Test
Tile Experiments
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CONCLUSION
Consent to Publish
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
Assistive Technology Trends, Challenges and Future Directions
Abstract
WHERE ARE WE NOW WITH ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY?
The Evolution of AT
Foundation Period (1800 – 1900)
Establishment Period (1900-1972)
Empowerment Period (1972-2010)
Technologically Sophisticated Period(2011-present)
Legal Mandates
IMPORTANCE OF ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
Cognitive Disability
Motor Disability
Visual Disability
Auditory Disability
APPROACHES AND CRITICISMS IN THE CURRENT STUDY OF
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
Approaches of AT
AT for Cognitive Disability
AT for Motor Disability
AT for Visual Disability
AT for Auditory Disability
Criticisms in Implementing AT
LIMITATIONS AND CHALLENGES IN ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
Lack of Awareness
Lack of Governance
Lack of Services
Lack of Products
Lack of Inaccessible Environments
Lack of Human Resources
Lack of Finance
Assistive Technology’s Challenges
Challenges in Availability
Challenges in Accessibility
Challenges in Affordability
Challenges in Adaptability
Challenges in Acceptability
Challenges in Quality
Challenges in Research
Challenges in Policy Implementation
Challenges in Multisectoral Action
FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
Cognitive Disability
Motor Disability
Visual Disability
Auditory Disability
The Following are Some of the Most Recent AT Research
Openings
Conclusion
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
Acknowledgement
REFERENCES
Advances in Data Science-Driven Technologies
(Volume 2)
Computer Assistive Technologies for Physically and Cognitively
Challenged Users
Edited by
Manoj Kumar M.V.
Department of Information Science and Engineering
Nitte Meenakshi Institute of Technology
Bengaluru - 64, Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University
Belagavi, Karnataka
India
Immanuel Azaad Moonesar R.D.
Associate Professor - Health Administration & Policy
Mohammed Bin Rashid School of Government
Level 7, Convention Tower P.O. Box 72229
Dubai
President, Academy of International Business- Middle East North
Africa Chapter
Level 7, Convention Tower P.O. Box 72229,
Dubai
UAE
Ananth Rao
University of Dubai (AACSB & ABET Accredited)
Non-Resident Research Fellow (NRF)
Mohammed Bin Rashid School of Government (MBRSG)
Dubai
United Arab Emirates
Adviser Justice KS Hegde Institute of Management (JKSHIM)
Nitte University
India
Pradeep N.
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Bapuji Institute of Engineering and Technology
Davanagere, Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University
Belagavi, Karnataka
India
Annappa
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
National Institute of Technology Karnataka
Surathkal, PO Srinivasnagar, Mangalore 575 025
India
Sandeep Kautish
Dean-Academics LBEF Campus, Kathmandu (Nepal)
&
Vijayakumar Varadarajan
School of Computer Science and Engineering, UNSW, Australia
Swiss School of Business and Management, SSBM, Switzerland
School of NUOVOS, ADYPU, India
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PREFACE
This book aims to collate the methods and literature related to
techniques that will aid the life of cognitively challenged individuals. A
cognitive impairment (also known as an intellectual disability) is a
term used when a person has certain mental functioning limitations
and skills, such as communication, self-help, and social skills.
The content presented in this book discusses the range of
methods/techniques that will improve the life of a person with
cognition problems. The range of topics like the ontology of cognitive
devices, accessibility hardware and software, assistive technologies
for Vision impairment, hearing impairment and communication
impairment has been detailed extensively. This edited book also
sheds light on upcoming trends, challenges, and future research
directions in assistive technologies for cognitively challenged users.
We editors believe this book will help researchers, students,
academicians and medical practitioners know and adopt state-of-theart technologies in cognitive disability. We extend our heartfelt thanks
to our reviewers, who have extended their support despite their busy
schedules. A special thanks to all our authors for submitting the work.
Our sincere thanks to Bentham Science publishers for accepting our
proposal for editing this book and supporting us extensively during the
editing process. Our thanks to one and all who have directly or
indirectly rendered support for completing this edited book.
We believe the efforts we rendered for editing the book are
worthwhile only if this book is of any use to the ordinary end-users of
our society. This satisfaction will fuel us to come up with more edited
books that will be useful for society at large.
Manoj Kumar M.V.
Department of Information Science and Engineering
Nitte Meenakshi Institute of Technology
Bengaluru - 64, Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University
Belagavi, Karnataka
India
Immanuel Azaad Moonesar R.D.
Associate Professor - Health Administration & Policy
Mohammed Bin Rashid School of Government
Level 7, Convention Tower P.O. Box 72229
Dubai
President, Academy of International Business- Middle East North
Africa Chapter
Level 7, Convention Tower P.O. Box 72229,
Dubai
UAE
Ananth Rao
1.University of Dubai (AACSB & ABET Accredited)
2. Non-Resident Research Fellow (NRF)
Mohammed Bin Rashid School of Government (MBRSG)
Dubai
United Arab Emirates
3. Adviser Justice KS Hegde Institute of Management (JKSHIM)
Nitte University
India
Pradeep N.
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Bapuji Institute of Engineering and Technology
Davanagere, Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University
Belagavi, Karnataka
India
Annappa
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
National Institute of Technology Karnataka
Surathkal, PO Srinivasnagar, Mangalore 575 025
India
Sandeep Kautish
Dean-Academics LBEF Campus, Kathmandu (Nepal)
&
Vijayakumar Varadarajan
School of Computer Science and Engineering
The University of New South Wales
Sydney
Australia
List of Contributors
Annu Rani
Department of Computer
University, Patiala, India
Science,
Punjabi
Arun Kumar
G. Hiremath
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Bapuji Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Davangere – 577004, Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belagavi – 590 018
Bhagvan
Kommadi
Director of Product Engineering, Value Momentum,
Hyderabad, India
Chetana
Prakash
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Bapuji Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Davangere – 577004, Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belagavi – 590 018
Jestin Joy
Department of Computer Applications, St. George’s
College, Aruvithura, Kerala, India
Kannan
Department of Computer Applications, CUSAT,
Balakrishnan Kerala, India
Lalit Goyal
Department of Computer Science, DAV College,
Jalandhar (Punjab, India
M Sreeraj
Sree Ayyappa College, Eramallikkara, Alappuzha,
Kerala, India
Manu Sood
Department of Computer Science,
Pradesh University, Shimla, India
Himachal
Meenu
Chandel
Department of Computer Science,
Pradesh University, Shimla, India
Himachal
Nancy
Department of Computer Applications and Research
Jasmine
Goldena
Centre, , Sarah Tucker
Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu, India
College(Autonomous),
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Bapuji Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Nirmala C.R.
Davangere – 577004, Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belagavi – 590 018
Pradeep N.
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Bapuji Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Davangere – 577004, Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belagavi – 590 018
Rakesh
Kumar
Department of Computer Science,,
College Miranpur, Patiala, India
Roopa G.M.
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Bapuji Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Davangere – 577004, Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belagavi – 590 018
Srinath
Taduri
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
SR Engineering College, Waranga, India
University
Department of Computer Applications and Research
Thangapriya Centre, , Sarah Tucker College(Autonomous),
Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu, India
Vijaya
Prakash R.
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
SR Engineering College, Waranga, India
Vishal Goyal
Department of Computer
University, Patiala, India
Science,
Punjabi
Overview,
Category
and
Ontology of Assistive Devices
Arun Kumar G. Hiremath1, *, Nirmala C.R.1
1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Bapuji Institute
of Engineering and Technology, Davangere – 577004, Visvesvaraya
Technological University, Belagavi – 590 018
Abstract
The majority of physically challenged and elderly people
demand a lot of care when it comes to assistive
technologies that can provide tailored services to their
needs. The primary concern of advancement in Assistive
technology is to address a wide variety of disabilities and
intellectual impairments for societal benefits by reducing
welfare costs and allowing for an efficient workforce. To
better respond to changes brought on by modernity, it is
necessary to understand how assistive technology
interacts in that group. The broad range of assistive
devices in the continuum of assistive technology can help
people with various impairments. Based on the underlying
technology, the Categorization of assistive devices has
important implications for clinical usage when examined
through the perspective of social phenomenon. In the
realm of Assistive Technology, a consistent focus on the
relationship between the individual and the supported
activity within certain contexts is essential. Assistive
technology can be viewed from the perspective of various
performance areas. The Ontology-based Assistive
Devices that are among the finest within common,
everyday contexts for more relevant applications are
interesting. This chapter explores all those essential
elementary and general considerations of assistive
devices that form the bases of Assistive technology and
brings out the categories of assistive devices and the
various application domains where assistive devices can
be served as a derivative of a particular ontology. The
chapter focuses on the various performance areas by
addressing the issues associated with Assistive
technology Practice.
Keywords: Accessibility, Assistive technology, Cognitive impairment,
Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Ontology, Selfmanagement.
* Corresponding author Arun Kumar G Hiremath: Department of
Computer Science and Engineering, Bapuji Institute of Engineering
and Technology, Davangere- 577004; E-mail:arungh7@bietdvg.edu
INTRODUCTION
The population of aging adults is expected to reach more than two
billion by 2050. In a society where the life expectancy and increasing
need for assistance are
advancing, it is becoming more likely that elderly people will need the
technology to accomplish critical and necessary tasks. Assistive
technology is the most prominent and prime solution that exemplifies
how technologies can be used to meet the requirements of the
elderly. People with disabilities, those who live longer, those with noncommunicable disorders, and those needing recovery are all potential
beneficiaries of assistive technologies, which help them live
independently and enable them to maintain their dignity. In a broader
sense, assistive technology is needed for all people with
cognitive/physical disabilities, mental health disorders, progressive
functional impairment, non-communicable diseases, etc. Assistive
technology aims to ensure that any artificial aid a patient takes,
requires no external dependence. For the moral well-being of the
patients, it is important that they feel independent and can manage
the majority of their tasks on their own.
Assistive Technology (AT) is either an element or a piece of
equipment used to enhance, preserve, or expand the associated
support of an impaired individual's life. Reasonable assistive
technology may also help individuals accommodate a disability, at
least partially. Traditionally, the word “assistive technology” has been
used to refer to computer software and hardware, as well as digital
equipment.
Assistive Technology is a broad term that refers to a range of low- to
high-tech devices whose major intention is to enhance a person's
individual functioning and mobility in order to maximize involvement
and greatly improve quality of life. Mobility aids, such as prosthetic
devices and orthotic devices, cognitive aids, such as electronic or
electrical assistive devices, and high-performance mobile devices that
enable people with disabilities to participate in sports and be
physically active are some of the examples. They can also help avoid
impairments and secondary health problems by encouraging
independence and autonomy in the person and those around them.
Scope of the Assistive Technology
Assistive technology offers opportunities for every individual with a
disability by providing the most appropriate technologies and
removing environmental barriers to functioning. Computers are the
entities most widely associated with Assistive Technology. However,
a broad spectrum of Assistive Technology ranges from mainstream
gadgets to exoskeletons and robotics, sophisticated automated
systems, intelligent houses, etc. The technology support includes
ergonomics and telerehabilitation with the aid of environmental
accommodations and service delivery systems.
People with learning difficulties are increasingly turning to assistive
technologies for help. Nevertheless, general computer use is a
relatively widespread phenomenon, as seen by the availability of
computers for a wide range of applications. The potential
advancement in the computer environment has changed the nature of
technology support. First, in the last decade, technology has
emerged as a platform where powerful yet cheaper modern
equipment can be afforded. Second, a lot of new technologies have
developed. Third, the sophistication of technology has improved
significantly, especially in the realm of computer software. Traditional
technology has little in common with modern technology, which
features realistic sound, spectacular images, and on-screen videos.
According to the current consensus, computer technology and other
innovations have a great deal of potential for improving the capacities
of children, teens, and adults with learning difficulties.
Smart Self-management as a Means to Empower with
Assistive Technology
Equal opportunities are everyone's rights, but people with disabilities
are often ostracised, marginalized, and driven into poverty, which
intensifies the impact of psychological distress on a person's social
environment and makes it critical to provide helpful services to
individuals with a diverse range of impairments. Self-management
skills refer to the capabilities to govern one's beliefs and actions. A
self-motivated, physically challenged individual can strengthen
confidence to manage potential tasks with significant and precise
technology-driven assistance. An assistive device-based task
accomplishment paradigm can enhance an individual's selfmanagement ability by solving ongoing issues and assignments.
There are two main goals of assistive technology. First, it can
enhance an individual's strengths so that personal abilities can
compensate for any impairments. Second, technologies can provide
an alternative means of executing a task, allowing for compensation
or eliminating limitations.
Who Adopts Assistive Technology?
The typical assistive technology user has an impairment that
necessitates using a compensatory solution in an attempt to gain
more independence. The user's ability or disability can vary. It might
range from someone who has a spinal cord injury and can only move
their head to someone who suffers from carpal tunnel syndrome and
has pain when opening their mouth. Technology can be beneficial to
both adults and children. Individuals with a short illness, a longstanding impairment, or a neurologic condition in which the individual's
functional abilities will continue to deteriorate are almost all
illustrations of AT users.
The Emergence of Assistive Technology
The Foundation Period - AT started when the population of people
with disabilities, injuries, and troops who survived the wars increased
in the early 1990s. As disability disciplines were established during
this foundation period to motivate independence and productivity,
social perception towards individuals with disabilities changed
positively. As more people began to live independently, the use of AT
increased. Different acts were passed to help and give rights to
individuals with disabilities.
Many things that were invented in the past are still being used today.
The ear trumpet, which emerged during the 17th century, remained
widely accepted in various sizes and shapes. In 1800, various
educational fraternities adopted a systematic approach to the blind
invented by Louis Braille. Most sign languages are legally recognized.
With the aid of a microphone and telephony, hearing aids were
developed in the 19th century. While wheelchairs have been used for
generations, the first lightweight, foldable wheelchair, which employed
an X-joint to allow it to be flattened, was designed in the 19th century.
Empowerment Period - The empowerment period is when
individuals with disabilities are given the right to pursue their life goals.
Many legislations passed to improve the rights of individuals with
disabilities, such as the rehabilitation act 1973 and the individuals with
disability education act 1997. Most notable AT technologies, such as
Closed Caption Television (CCTV), talking calculators, and the very
first prototype of a voice synthesizer, were developed during the
empowering period. Most ATs were invented during this period to
improve independence and achieve goals for individuals with visual
and hearing impairments [1]. People realized the “desire to
accomplish” during this empowerment period.
Many innovative thinkers and scientists have looked for the technical
possibilities to indulge the lives of people with physical disabilities and
other associated problems. Every technological advancement, from
modest prosthetics in the middle ages to complex electronic systems,
aims to improve the quality of a person's life as much as possible.
Professional Practice in Assistive Technology
Assistive technology encompasses selecting, locating, and using
assistive and rehabilitative devices for persons with impairments. It's
important to realize that this sector has much fragmentary
development despite its enormous potential and reach. The domain is
fiercely competitive, but it needs the right assistive technology
solutions to achieve it. However, the following organizations which
create and pay for administrative assistance devices and workplace
technologies primarily employ them:
Private-Health-Insurance- When a medical practitioner suggests
assistive technology as a vital rehabilitative aid, healthcare entities
can employ various assistive technologies that make it easier for
nurses to provide quality care to their patients.
Business Employers- In a business organization, Assistive
technology can be used to provide fair compensation for employees
to complete vital activities assigned to them at work.
Job Training Programs and Rehabilitation - They use this
technology to assist individuals in finding jobs. With ease in the
training process and more skills added with the help of AI and ML
solutions in everyday life, it becomes quite easier for new people to
join interesting professions.
School System- They use it for conventional school educational
resources as well as technology that is part of Individualized
Education Programs (IEP).
AI and ML have transformed the Healthcare, Business, Education,
and other sectors and welcome the new technology for efficient
services. Over the years, we have transformed how things could be
better worked on and what solutions can make it easier for the
patients to meet their needs.
The Features of Assistive Technology
When exploring various impairments that might be addressed with
assistive technology, it's crucial to understand how each impairment is
actually dealt with and what the response might be to treating such
concerns in everyday life.
Assistive technology aims to make sure that any artificial aid that a
patient takes requires no external dependence. For the moral wellbeing of the patients, it is important that they feel independent and
can manage the majority of their tasks on their own. It is here that
Assistive Technology comes into the picture. Numerous IT service
companies worldwide are constantly improving Assistive Technology
and its associated solutions. Various supplemental technological
innovations and strategic initiatives have been devised, all of which
are uncomplicated to use, precise, and approachable.
Hearing: There is a variety of approaches to present sound
visualization for people with hearing impairment to provide a fresh
experience. Users can use options like Mono Audio, Adapt Sound,
Flash Notification, Turn Off All Sounds, Sound Balance, and Create
Vibration after the hearing aid keeps track of incoming messages and
guarantees they won't miss sound notifications.
Vision: The device's revolutionary and innovative features allow users
to view it with ease and get the most out of it in practically any
environment, even if the screen isn't visible.
Dexterity: When using several gestures the device requires is
difficult, a user can control them with an intuitive interface. A Userfriendly and streamlined user interface makes it simple to access the
options with Assistant Menu.
Interaction: Users frequently make unintentional touches on their
smartphone screens; the service allows them to adjust the harsh
response from the target area. As a result, the device's touch control
is more precise, and the operator may accomplish quite well with the
gadget by simply touching it just once.
Based on the function being performed by the Assistive Technology
within the intervention, the AT devices can be categorized into two
broad classes: those that are involved in the action prioritization and
those that impact self-awareness. The chapter initially focuses on the
categories which include the most commonly used assistive
technology devices, such as self-care, communication, and safety
devices, independent living aids, medication aids, incontinence
supplies/aids, reading, and vision aids, home modifications, vehicle
modifications, accessible vans, etc. Under this section, a focus has
been made on design considerations, evaluation of functional
capabilities, and possible outcomes of assistive devices. In Section 3,
the ontology of assistive devices has been explored in which the
mechanism of usage of technology concepts and relationships to
enable standards for a community of humans with various
impairments are discussed. A deal with performance areas has been
made in Section 4, which includes Assistive Technology for Cognitive
Augmentation, AT for Enabling Mobility and Transportation, Assistive
technology for home comfort, Controlling the Environment, AT
Consideration for Emergency Situations. Further, Assistive
Technology Applications have been discussed in various contexts,
such as Workplace, Healthcare Industry, etc. The issues and
challenges of professional practice and efforts to make Assistive
Technology Practice more affordable and accessible have been
reviewed.
The objective of the chapter is to emphasize the exploration of
assistive devices and fundamental performance areas, where
assistive devices can meet the purpose of employment. The general
considerations and elementary features have been described to
provide an understanding of various assistive devices. The
organization of the chapter is as follows. The initial part deals with the
categories of assistive devices based on the underlying technology
involvement. Next, as a part of framing the categories, the design
considerations, evaluation of functional capabilities, and possible
outcomes of Assistive devices are discussed. Further, performance
areas have been made focusing on ontology and general-purpose
assistive technologies. Various issues associated with assistive
technology practice and attempts to maximize the accessibility and
affordability of Assistive technology are also discussed.
Categories
Most assistive devices exhibit a multifunctional nature, which makes it
difficult to find a proper categorization framework. However, there are
certain ways to categorize Assistive Technology Devices. Based on
the characteristics, the devices can be classified into two groups:
those that influenced self-awareness and those that required action
prioritization [2]. Nevertheless, it is unsurprising that Assistive Devices
may fall into more than one category, depending on the individual's
needs and how and where the person uses the AT. As a result,
grouping Assistive Devices based on the underlying technology,
nature of the operation, acquisition ability, and associated cost will be
a better practice. As a result, it can be seen that assistive technology
can range from no and low-tech to high-tech solutions (Fig. 1).
Fig. (1))
Categories of Assistive technology.
The use of Assistive devices moves along the Continuum of Assistive
technology from no and low-tech to high-tech, based upon the needs
of the individual [3]. And hence, Assistive technology tools fall into one
of these categories: No-technology devices, Low Technology devices,
Mid-Technology devices, and High Technology devices. Fig. (2)
shows most of the AT devices that are categorized based on the
underlying technology support.
Fig. (2))
Infographic of Assistive technology category.
No-Technology Devices
No-tech AT devices require absolutely no machinery and can be as
incredibly easy to make as one desires. These are services that rely
on procedures and services already in existence in the environment
rather than relying on devices or technology. Simple, non-electronic
solutions that provide access and improve functional capacity are
referred to as No-tech AT. Devices like modified spoon handles,
custom-designed pencil grips, and picture communication displays are
examples of AT solutions that can be made or purchased
commercially at a cheap cost. The most common No Tech Solution
involves Changing the environment, rules, or practices to reduce
obstacles without bringing additional items or equipment. In lieu of
overhead lighting, using the lights, modifying seating arrangements to
provide a comfortable space for someone to work, using three-ring
binders instead of binder clips to hold papers together, and visible
work schedule in the classroom environment, Post-it-Notes during
reading instruction and a number line during numeracy instruction are
the most common illustrations of employing the No technology
devices.
Low-Technology Devices
Low Tech Assistive Technology involves adaptations of very few or
limited electronic components. They are relatively cheaper than
electronic and digital tools and are often repurposed tools and items
that were not originally intended to be assistive technology. Low-tech
tools tend to be more readily attainable and easier for the user to
learn. These are usually low-priced/affordable or easy to make by
using disposable or inexpensive materials. Low-tech devices can be
used and manipulated by the individual independently.
Low tech is a word that refers to out-of-date technology that is
intended to be as minimal as possible. Low-tech does not necessitate
the use of a power source. This is sometimes the simplest and most
practical assistive technology solution. An individual can have the best
support of high-tech assistive technology if he always has a low-tech
“backup”. Technology can malfunction, batteries can drain, and
disasters can strike, and in such cases, using their low-tech
equipment, people can continue to meet their needs. Low-tech
devices may also be all that a user requires. For some people, hightech is not the best option.
In a regular school supply store, there are numerous low-tech reading
and writing Assistive Technologies. Individuals with low manual
dexterity can utilize writing gadgets like Pencil grips or Oversized
Pencils to assist them in acquiring a better grasp on writing
instruments. Slant & Clipboards help handle documents in position at
an inclination, making it convenient for those individuals who cannot
turn their wrists to try writing on a flat plane or anyone who has
difficulties holding their paper in position during writing. Note-taking
assistance, including such enhanced line papers or signature cards,
makes it easier to write on a slip of paper. When used with learning
methodologies, reading gadgets such as Highlighters and Sticky
Notes provide structured learning help and reminders of essential
concepts. Reading Aids makes it easier to read by moving over the
pages and only obeying one piece of text at a time. Page Magnifiers
enlarge the text on a printed page, making it simpler to read.
Mid and High Technology Devices
The term “mid-tech” refers to a relatively new technology platform
that combines certain advanced features. Consequently, it is widely
considered that both mid and high technologies are always superior
to low technology. Conversely, as mid-and high-tech solutions
become more common, their intrinsic complexity is increasingly
perceived as a major inconvenience, inefficient, overpriced, or
inconvenient trait. Mid-tech assistive devices are electronic gadgets
that require batteries to work and may or may not require training to
use.
Mid-tech Assistive devices used for learning include audiobooks, MP3
players, and other audio playback devices. Audiobooks and sound
files may be useful if a person has difficulty reading printed materials.
Individuals can utilize digital recorders as a mid-tech tool to take
notes and enable the collection of audio to guarantee that no data is
missing because of writing complications.
Wheel-chair, Screen magnifiers, Gait trainers, Laser pointers, Voice
amplifiers, Beep boxes, scooters, Braille translation software, Talking
pedometer/watch, Switch adapted toys, Adapted seating, keyboards,
Calculator, Electronic speller, etc., are the most well-known Mid
Technology devices. Augmentative and Alternative Communication
(AAC) devices rely on Mid technology, generally called speechgenerating Devices (SGDs), which are typical battery-operated
electronic devices and have simpler functions, whereas “high tech”
AAC devices are electronic devices with highly advanced processors.
High-tech AT devices, such as computers and specialised software,
are more complex electrical devices that often include both hardware
and software and include numerous functionalities to satisfy a variety
of needs. High-tech AT is frequently used in conjunction with low-tech
systems that can be employed in specific scenarios or as a backup in
the event of a malfunction. Individuals with major functional
impairments are the most common users of high technology, which is
connected with almost necessary features but steep learning curves,
complex restrictions and unpredictable results make it difficult to
acquire, use, and maintain.
High-tech assistive technology aids for writing include software, apps,
and hardware devices. Text-to-speech, highlighting and notes, digital
reading aids, idea mapping, word prediction, and a variety of other
capabilities are all available in various literacy software packages.
Evernote and Notability are note-taking apps that let users create an
electronic notebook that can be shared and linked to reminders. The
speech recognition software can transcribe an audio file into a text
document when used in conjunction with a digital recorder. Smart
pens, like the Livescribe pens, employ software combined with
hardware to capture audio and sync it with notes on specific paper
and note-taking apps like Evernote.
Design Considerations for AT
The design of the assistive device system looked to be tough even
after several years of feedback. Although most assistive devices for
the disabled appear to be easy, the technology that underpins their
design and execution is usually fraught with complications. One of
these challenges is that designers cannot depend on their own user
experience since their capabilities vary markedly from those of
disabled people. Development and Engineering for disabled
individuals is a highly specialised object of research that examines
how to establish a design strategy while working with impaired
persons. There is no consensus in the scientific literature about which
design technique is the most efficient when designing for impaired
people or what aspects should be considered when picking the best
acceptable design method.
For designing assistive devices, the most extensively utilised
techniques and tools are User-Centred Design (UCD) techniques and
tools (modular elements of one distinct design method) [4, 5]. Usercentered design (UCD) is a design strategy that stresses product
adaptability to the user by involving the user throughout the design
process [5, 6].
Many alternative approaches to AT design, such as iterative process,
participatory design, emotion-driven design, USERfit & AD-SWOT &
AD-TOWS, follow a UCD approach in some ways (such as involving
users in various design stages), though the other design methodology
is claimed.
Evaluation of Functional Capabilities of Assistive
Devices
Assistive technology (AT) has a range or continuum of “low tech” to
“high tech”. Both, the amount of technology as well as training
required for the person who will be using it, decides whether the AT is
low-tech or high-tech. Each piece of AT is tailored to the individual's
needs and ability. The following steps are commonly involved in
providing an AT evaluation after you and the individual determine the
evaluation is necessary.
Referral: As a service provider, we might request that an AT
professional become involved in providing services. This typically
involves the completion of a referral form, an in-person or telephone
conversation about the person's needs and the determination of the
funding source.
Scheduling and Evaluation: An evaluation often takes place on the
job or in an educational setting. Evaluations can range in time from an
hour or less in a single visit up to several visits over several hours.
Report: The evaluator(s) generate a written list of their
recommendations that typically includes specific equipment and
services. In many cases, the individual can borrow trial equipment
during and/or following the evaluation before the evaluator makes a
final recommendation.
Implementation: Once VR approves the recommendations and
authorizes the funding for the equipment and any related costs, you
will collaborate with the individual receiving services and your team to
schedule and provide training and other services. You may need to
arrange for ongoing technical support for a prescribed time.
Possible Outcomes with AT
People's attitudes regarding today's technology range from those
who use it frequently and frequently and comfortably to those who
use it rarely and with unease. Despite the fact that there are
presumed positive correlations between AT utilization and living
standard, non-use may not rule out obtaining a significant level of life
expectancy. Those who believe capability enhancement in the context
of a comprehensive assessment of a person's interests, needs, and
life experience presume it is truly essential and cost-effective to
improve a person's life quality, not just to restore functionality; to
confront a person's emancipation necessities. Furthermore, the
dynamic interplay between functional capacities, technological
utilisation, and quality of life evolves with time. As a result, this
complex of issues must be handled on a regular basis.
The outcomes of an Assistive Technology Device framework begin
when the device is purchased or placed in the consumer's hands [7,
8]. It progresses from short-term to longer-term outcomes such as
Device Satisfaction, Effectiveness, Psychological Functioning,
Efficiency, and Subjective, along with the influence of moderating
factors such as personal and contextual factors. Environmental and
Personal Factors are used by the AT components of Participation and
Activities. All of these constructions are dynamic and recursive, which
is crucial for the examination of ATDs. That is, they can modify and
impact one another over time as a result of ATD use. As a result,
they must be re-evaluated on a regular basis when looking at both
short- and long-term outcomes.
Feature Matching
When it comes to matching a person with assistive equipment, there
are numerous aspects to consider (Fig. 3). Irrespective of a
category, a person is either a user or a non-user of the product under
review. People, on the other hand, may differ within the classifications
of use or non-use: use could be full-time and voluntary, or partial and
hesitant; non-use can be due to completely avoiding or abandoning a
gadget.
Fig. (3))
Feature Matching for the Assistance.
An individual can simultaneously utilize any number of appliances that
may belong to any number of categories. The introduction of any new
device may replace the existing one, but this can create a situation
where a user can find it more difficult to operate and adjust to the
new features. Since it is known that a system made of many
elementary supports might have an additive effect, resulting in a
condition of overwhelmingly advanced for an individual, device
configurability is expected to become a significant topic of concern as
time goes on. The formal and informal process of determining the
attributes of Assistive Technology are needed and desired as part of
the AT Assessment Process.
Ontology of Assistive Devices
The concept of ontologies is critical for facilitating knowledge sharing
and reuse. An ontology [9-11] is a formal description of concepts and
relationships that really can emerge for a community of human and/or
computer entities. An ontology is a characterization of a set of ideas
in a shared domain [5] to facilitate the dissemination of information
about technological products and best knowledge sharing, as well as
set the way for a completely standardized evaluation procedure.
There have been no specific ontological matching initiatives for
individualised preference portability across different programmes,
platforms, and devices in the realm of assistive technology. However,
the most important factor to consider when explaining the ontology of
assistive technology is 'accessibility,' which ensures that people of
various capabilities can interact with information and communication
technologies (ICTs) [12]. Generally, the Ontology of the assistive
devices can be formed on the basis of either the Matching Person
and Technology (MPT) [4, 6] or Human-activity-assistive technology
(HAAT [13-15]) models. The Human Activity Assistive Technology
(HAAT) paradigm, which focuses on the relationship between the
disabled observer and the facilitated activity in specific situations, is
the most extensively used approach in the field of assistive
technology. The Matching Person and Technology model [16] is
quantified through a set of well-grounded and reasonable
measurements which allow for a customized person-centered
strategy to match people with the best solutions for particular needs.
The Human Activity Assistive Technology (HAAT) paradigm
represents any individual engaged in a certain activity while using
assistive technology in a specific situation. The model's emphasis
may be on an individual performing a task in a specific environment.
As a consequence, any application of the framework begins with
someone doing something in context, followed by the AT. The
exercise, the individual, the Assistive Technology, and the context are
the 4 elements of the HAAT model. The model's transactional aspect
is supposed to portray an individual's experience when participating in
activities, which contributes to AT by stressing the potential influence
of the person's experience in a situation as he interacts with others
and nonhuman elements. Situated knowledge is a notion that
describes how a user's perceptions and interpretations of his current
experience influence the current circumstance.
The activity component of the HAAT paradigm assists the AT user in
comprehending the activities for self-care, productivity, and
recreation, which can be formulated in terms of time, space, and
location. It directs product development, AT selection, and functional
outcomes for evaluating AT use. The most critical part of the activity
component is to determine the impact of AT use in diverse contexts.
The human component is made up of the user's intellectual, physical,
perceptual, and expressive capacities and requires a thorough
understanding of human working nature in fundamental domains as
well as the involvement of associated technological experience from a
lifespan perspective. The term “context” refers to a physical
environment, and the HAAT paradigm aligns with the social model of
disability by making the contextual characteristics of Assistive
Technology design, and service provision. Assistive technology is the
final component of the HAAT model which comprises the
human/technology interface (HTI), the processor, the environmental
interface, and the activity output. The human/technology interface
(HTI) acts as a conduit between humans and AT. The technology aids
activity performance by enhancing cognitive manipulation, which is an
activity output. The processor connects the HTI and the activity output
to convert the knowledge into signals that regulate the activity output.
This is accomplished by the environmental interface. The processor
provides the interpreted data to the user through the HTI.
Recognizing the activity assures that the gadget will assist in the
completion of a productive task.
The Matching person and technology form a person-centered System
that usually identifies end-users preferences and needs to provide a
service to match an individual's requirements. Most of the functions
and features of the service model under this category are designed
based on the past experience of users and their feedback which may
undergo a series of paper-and-pencil measures. Hence, the Matching
Person and Technology (MPT) process usually involves both personal
and collaborative assessment [2, 5, 11].
This stage of the section- corresponds- to- Ontology-based AssistiveDevices (Fig. 4) and Applications that are among the finest in the
industry [16]. Assistive devices have indeed been explored within
commonplace, everyday contexts for more meaningful application
using the Matching Person and Technology (MPT) and/or Human
Activity Assistive Technology (HAAT) frameworks. Any individual's
expectation can be reflected by their profile which may be
implemented through ontologies. By the identification of such various
common factors among the different contexts, in the domain of
ontology of accessibility, the following aspects are explored.
Fig. (4))
Ontology of Assistive Technology.
General Purpose Assistive Technologies
Sensory Aids for Persons with Visual Impairment Assistive
technology solutions for blindness and low vision include GPS devices
with descriptive audio navigation, Smart magnifiers, Braille and
Talking watches, Text-to-speech readers and spatial-aware mobility
with IoT capability. The most prominent servicing solutions available
include voice-command computer software for internet browsing and
document management as well as bilingual display interpreting
software with sophisticated resolutions and modified versions.
Embossers, Braille displays, Keyboards and Printers with the
desktop are the other services available.
Sensory Aids for Persons with Auditory Impairment The
application integrates development tools for assistive hearing aids,
such as room-limited infrared systems, direct audio inputs, frequency
modulation and inductive looping for deaf and hard-of-hearing people.
Adjustments based on environmental conditions, Noise reduction
algorithms, Remote controls, Automated settings and Bluetooth
compatibility to access media audio and phone calls are all included in
assistive listening systems and smart hearing aids.
Enabling Function and Participation with Seating Technologies
The degree of lineation, contouring and adjustability associated with
each seating system facilitates the users by providing a balance
between stability and mobility for the maintenance of neutral skeletal
alignment to prevent skeletal deformities. Seating devices under this
category have developed as discrete areas of intervention, each
addressing the preferences of the target need to operate in all
aspects of their life, such as resolving the issues related to postural
control, tissue integrity and supporting a position to reduce user
fatigue, enhancing the respiratory and circulatory function.
Performance Areas
Assistive Technology for Cognitive Augmentation Majority of the
“cognitively” accessible technology is mostly a decade old. Cognition
refers to the mental process of knowing, which includes features like
consciousness, perception, thinking, and judgement, memory loss,
dementia, language difficulties, the ability to make decisions, and the
ability to operate independently are all symptoms of cognitive
impairments. Specially designed technology for appropriate cognitive
support (Fig. 5) can compensate for those cognitive impairments
which can not be addressed by complex mainstream technologies
[17]. The availability of soft technologies, such as appropriate
selection, training, and implementation of technology solutions, is a
critical element that makes the usage of Assistive technology for
Cognition successful.
Rehabilitation specialists, living skills counsellors and home health
care providers [18] can all provide support to individuals with cognitive
problems. Knowledge representation enables the proper interlinking
of things, ideas, and events. The ability to recognise an object and
the ability to recall the steps to do a task helps in figuring out the
need for an assistive device to aid cognitive function. A
Comprehensive evaluation of an individual's abilities relevant to the
activity offers an exact estimate of the required support. Assistive
technology selections are then moderated by the circumstance. Most
of the commonplace technologies used for micro-prompting, alerting,
storing and displaying, with reduced complexity and smart interfaces,
produce output in the form of speech or text. Such devices also
enable cognitive functions that render classifying products' functional
categories more challenging.
Fig. (5))
Assistive Technologies to Aid Cognitive Function.
Augmentative and Alternative Communication Systems The area
of Augmentative and alternative communication deals with the
complex communication needs of an individual [19]. Individuals who
have difficulties in developing speech and language abilities can use
augmentative and alternative communication devices to help them
write and communicate. Many communicators rely on “No-technology”
approaches such as speech, gestures, facial expressions, and
vocalizations to communicate.
Low-tech systems in this category, such as paper communication
boards and books, help meet communication needs quickly and
easily, whereas high-tech devices, such as picture frames,
smartphones, and computers, provide greater sophistication in
available vocabulary, communication speed, and access flexibility.
Speech-generating devices generate digitally recorded speech to
help people with disabilities communicate more effectively. Assistive
devices under this category help an individual to express their needs
and transfer information.
Technologies that Enable Mobility A person's mobility allows them
to move to a location where the activity can be accomplished.
Mobility with a wheelchair [20] is an activity that has garnered a lot of
attention in terms of describing the abilities needed to be competent.
The user must have a basic understanding of how to use brakes and
manoeuvre in a wheelchair [21]. The degree of limitation in mobility
determines the ambulation needs (Fig. 6). Individuals who are
deemed marginal ambulators are at one extreme of the spectrum.
Individuals with significant mobility restrictions who are reliant on
manual mobility and for whom powered mobility is their only
alternative for independence are on the other end of the spectrum.
Fig. (6))
Scope of Mobility Limitations.
Assistive Technology for Manipulation and Control of
the Environment
Manipulation is a term that describes the activities that we do with our
upper extremities, specifically our fingers and hands. Using assistive
devices, particularly ones that are electronic, demands a range of
tactics. A person's everyday activities are the pinnacle of these
manipulation components' integration. Special-purpose technology is
required to suit the needs of Self-care, Recreation and Work.
Assistive robotic systems are designed to help people with disabilities
move items and operate independently by acting as a natural
alternative manipulation device [22-24]. Robots are frequently used as
personal assistants, with the purpose of assisting people with mobility
impairments and/or intellectual limitations with manipulation. Everyday
actions such as eating and personal hygiene are common tasks that
are aided. Personal assistants are made up of stand-alone robotic
arms to form robotic workstations and autonomous mobile robotic
platforms that are integrated into a wheelchair.
Person-Centred care service with Assistive Technology New
technologies for home comfort and assisted-living context support
Relationship-centered care, Relational autonomy, Successful aging
and Wellness to keep the resident safe [25]. Existing monitoring
technologies such as wearables for health monitoring, fall alerts and
other connecting devices make older adults' lives more comfortable
[26, 27]. Technologies such as Robotics, Social management system,
Information communication technology, Telecare and Virtual
environments alleviate loneliness and social isolation. Residential and
Nursing care facilities may also address the needs of those with
dementia. Person-centred care service design promotes the use of
technology in healthcare. Social robot designs can be used to serve
the people with dementia. Though, Person-centered robotic design
and automated systems under this category can mimic human
sensing, cognitive behaviour and produce immediate human-like
emotional responses; they are designed specifically to focus on
individual users' perceptions, expectations and various behavioural
and physical aspects. Personhood in dementia care has been
integrated with socially supportive robots and context-sensitive
computer approaches to create symbiotic robotic systems.
Personal Emergency Response Systems Assistive devices for the
Personal Emergency Response System [PERS] help the elders and
the associated caregivers by offering reliable, quick access to
emergency assistance [28]. Because of loss of consciousness or
severe ailments, modern PERS is usually enabled by contacting
emergency assistance to aid an individual in automatically activating
the system. PERS with fall detection employ impact detectors and
analytics to recognise whenever an individual has fallen and promptly
call for help.
In-home Monitoring with Assistive Technology Without the need
for human interaction, in-home monitoring systems [29, 30] can
examine users' everyday life routines and use that information to
determine when assistance is required. Any unfavorable occurrences
recognised in a home setting equipped with sensors are transmitted
to a member of the family or a health care provider via activity
analysis. These products are highly suitable to single-occupant
families.
Assistive Technologies in the Context of the Classroom On a
variety of devices, computer-assisted schooling delivers instruction
and practice possibilities. Using software systems, high-tech assistive
solutions can be created for use in special education classrooms as
well as for individual children with learning disabilities. Text-to-speech,
Speech-to-text and word prediction programmes for desktops and
Graphic Organizers for mobile devices, Pentop computers, Optical
Character Recognition (OCR) software, Visuwords and Visual Scene
Display (VSD) platforms are some of the acceptable writing and
reading options created with Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
criteria.
Assistive Technology in the Context of Workplace Assistive
technology (AT) can help people with impairments overcome barriers
to employment and work more productively. Over time, employees
may acquire or develop disabilities. Companies that wish to help their
employees retain their skills, talent, and experience as they age
should invest in cutting-edge assistive technology. Appropriately
configured technology can help AT users in the workplace by reducing
the pain from awkward postures and movements. AT can also assist
people with disabilities in adapting to new work environments and
demands. Employing assistive technology gives businesses a
competitive advantage by allowing them to hire from a bigger pool of
eligible individuals without eliminating any.
AT-enabled Office Settings Specifically designed Adapted, and
Ergonomic keyboards can minimize strain and discomfort at the
workplace. The content on the computer screen can be read by
screen readers to produce it in a computerized voice, and Screen
magnifiers make screen text larger for the person with low vision.
Voice recognition software can help those with limited hand-use.
Screen clips and Microphone headsets decrease neck strain.
Issues Associated with Assistive Technology Practice
The enhancement in individual independence is the main motivation for
all assistive technological advances. The clinical decision-making
process for a specific individual's assistive technology should
therefore adhere to the professional and ethical principle of
autonomy. The ethical principle of justice is concerned with the issue
of fairness in individual, organisational, interpersonal and social
situations, and it emphasizes individual liberty and choice.
Despite its limitations, the assistive technology business meets the
needs of high-income environments. In low-income countries, smallscale domestic manufacturers and distributors of assistive technology
are often unable to address the requirements of everyone who needs
it [31]. Furthermore, assistive technology facilities are sometimes
scarce. Individuals with varied disabilities, ages, ethnicities, genders,
and languages often do not have equal access to assistive
infrastructure and supplies because they live in different regions of a
country, and they live in a diverse state of the economy. Rising costs,
restricted accessibility, a lack of knowledge, a scarcity of adequately
trained workers, a paucity of administration, and insufficient funding
for assistive technology all contribute to a lack of access [32].
Assistive technology is provided by the government, religious
agencies, overseas humanitarian relief, corporate, philanthropic and
the private commercial sector. Due to the challenges in delivering a
consistent supply of assistive devices and replacement parts due to a
lack of regulations, logistical, finances, innovation, and expensive
customs and excise costs, very few people receive access to a
limited selection of assistive equipment. In low-income situations,
assistive gadgets might be prohibitively expensive. Additional
problems can include indirect charges and maintenance costs.
Improper assistive devices can cause health issues thereby device
disengagement. The effectiveness of any assistive device initiative
hinges on the availability of adequate assistive device services.
Assistive devices must be tailored to an individual's context and
personal qualities to guarantee that there is a demand for them, that
they are used, and that they are safe. For a variety of assistive
devices, design standards have been developed. As practitioners and
service suppliers are unaware of the variety of obtainable assistive
devices and associated advantages, demands and incentives to
supply are restrained.
It is widely acknowledged that there is a great potential for assistive
technologies, but provision is considerably lower, particularly in lowand middle-income nations. This imbalance between requirement and
availability is a barrier to better access, and it is caused by a variety
of circumstances, including a general lack of understanding between
intended consumers, carers, and medical practitioners. In addition,
there is a substantial unsatisfied requirement for assistive
technologies in the treatment and care of illness and injuries likewise, this high degree of requirement somehow doesn't correlate
to a short supply. Overall, there is a dearth of information on the
scale of the unfulfilled demand in this sector.The majority of research
evaluating the usefulness of various forms of assistive devices leads
to high environments, which is unexpected. A dearth of elevated, welldesigned investigation in this domain has been emphasised by many
studies synthesising outcomes to date.
Attempts to Maximize the Accessibility
Affordability of Assistive Technology
and
The potential for developing and manufacturing appropriate assistive
gadgets at a reasonable price is enormous. The Worldwide
Cooperation on Assistive Technology (GATE) and the WHO's Priority
Assistive Devices List are working to promote access to affordable,
high-quality assistive products on a global scale [32]. In addition, the
WHO is assisting governments in the development of national
assistive technology programmes. Adopting an integrated approach
to assistive technology could make more economical options [33].
Market shaping could be used to lower transaction costs and balance
suppliers, thereby consumer liabilities. The cheap cost and availability
of glasses have aided a number of activities in the eye health sector
to promote access to affordable eyeglasses, such as through optical
shops and school health programmes [34]. Community-based
methods could help underserved groups gain access to assistive
technology. Non-profit organisations work to promote access to
assistive devices by donating them to people who otherwise would
not be able to buy them, albeit this model, which is based on
donations, has sustainability difficulties. International governmental
organisations, governments, non-governmental organisations, and the
corporate sector may form partnerships to provide assistive
equipment.
Research Trends and Future Research Directions
With the progress in smart technology and microsensors, wearable
and other smart technologies have made it possible to remotely
monitor the health of humans by closely tracking human activities
without disturbing the user's motions. With the advancement of the
Internet of Things (IoT) and smartphone technology, it is now possible
to use assistive technologies to remotely monitor a patient's recovery.
Wearable technologies can also be used to monitor hand joints and to
help athletes recover from running-related ailments. Smart
technologies encompass advanced materials utilised in protective
gear and clothes, as well as electronic technologies. Wearable
technology in rehabilitation gives high-quality care to a large number
of people with complex medical conditions. Disabled people can
participate in more activities with the help of remote monitoring
devices, which also improves healthcare diagnostics. Many wellknown multinational corporations are developing portable smart
assistants for daily use that can accurately detect common health
problems and provide real-time monitoring, eliminating the need for
physical testing. Smart healthcare makes healthcare solutions more
convenient and efficient by incorporating cutting-edge technologies
such as big data, deep learning, artificial intelligence, IoT, and edge
computing. Smart assistive technology improvements are targeted at
assisting users not only in converting biological, personal, and
environmental data into meaningful user cognition, but also in
translating these insights into comprehensive judgments and goaloriented activities. Microsensors, wearable gadgets, and other
intelligent technologies have made it possible to remotely monitor
people's health by carefully monitoring human activities without
interfering with their movement.
Conclusion
The capability to live independently can deteriorate as people age.
Various physical impairments as a consequence of aging in place, as
well as physical impairments, necessitate assistance with personal
care, aiding, restoration of trust, and self-esteem. The present study
explores assistive technology facets, categories, and new-age
technology support for the assistive devices adoption for the benefit
of physically and cognitively challenged persons. It informs
practitioners on the implications of how to create consistent care in
the contemporary world in order to ensure long usage of assistive
devices followed by subsequent and brief deployment, as well as how
assistive devices can become a part of people's everyday life. The
present analysis can be viewed as a first avenue in the realm of
assistive technology as it emphasizes state-of-the-art assistive
technologies. It also looks at assistive technology with characteristics
tailored to the needs of the elderly. The study has included various
aspects related to assistive technology for proposing public policies
for the elderly. Using the ageing of the population and rising life
expectancy as a preliminary step, the study emphasised smart selfmanagement as a way of empowerment through the use of assistive
technology, categories, and ontology. Performance areas of assistive
technology are explored with a distinction made between assistive
devices within various contexts. Many issues and challenges
encountered by Assistive technology are also included.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
Acknowledgment
We, the authors, would like to express our thanks to the esteemed
editors for giving us the opportunity to explore this area of our
research interests, which helped us in doing a lot of Research
throughout which we attempted to reconnoitre many interesting
paradigms related to the assistive technology domain. We gratefully
acknowledge the support from the institution for providing the
research environment with equipped facilities. We also thank the
support from our respective families, who helped us to carry out this
research work patiently.
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Accessibility
Software/Hardware
of
Meenu Chandel1, *, Manu Sood1
1 Department of Computer Science, Himachal Pradesh University,
Shimla, India
Abstract
The phenomenal growth in Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) is rapid and is responsible for changing
disruptively the way various day-to-day tasks were being
performed earlier. A plethora of user categories has
benefitted immensely from this upward growth. It is also
providing society with a multitude of entertainment options.
The support of user-friendly software platforms for various
ICT applications and tools is crucial in all these activities.
Unfortunately, in the past, the designers of many software
and hardware systems have not appropriately considered
the Persons with Disability (PwD) as the active co-fellows
of this journey and are being left behind in most of such
applications of ICT. Thus, this significant part of the world
population often seems to be neglected. Accessibility to
every user with specific reference here to the ICT has
always been a very important issue. What may be easily
accessible to a set of persons may not be completely or
partially accessible to another set of persons with
disabilities. In this chapter, we discuss various types of
disabilities along with the accessibility of hardware and
software. Further, we highlight the concept of web
accessibility and ICT accessibility for PwDs.
Keywords: Accessibility, Accessible technology, Accessible Website,
Adaptive technology, Assistive technology, Causes of impairment,
Cognitive impairment, Communication difficulties, Handicap, Hardware
accessibility, Hearing impairment, ICT, Persons with Disability,
Physical impairment, Reading disabilities, Sensory impairment,
Software accessibility, Visual impairment, Voice dictation system,
Web accessibility.
*
Corresponding author Meenu Chandel: Dept. of Computer
Science, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India; E-mail:
meenu.chandel@gmail.com
BACKGROUND
Information and Communication Technology has seen a mammoth
growth from the era of Industry 3.0 to 4.0 and still continuing into
Industry 5.0. The developments in hardware, software and
communication technologies, including the disruptive ones, continue to
touch every part of the daily life of even a common man. As per the
Internet Live Stats website, which is part of the
Real-Time Statistics Project (Worldometers and 7 Billion World), on
1st November 2021 at 3:00 pm IST, there was approximately a) five
billion internet users, b) 2 billion websites, c) 175 billion emails sent, d)
5 billion google searches, e) 5 billion videos viewed on YouTube, f) 2
billion active Facebook users, g) 380 million active Twitter users, h)
400 million active Pinterest users, i) 421 thousand computers sold, j) 2
million smartphones sold, k) 243 thousand tablets sold, l) 7 billion GB
of Internet traffic, m) 2.9 million MWh of electricity consumed. Not
only this, in one second, there were a) 9717 Tweets, b) 1112
Instagram photos upload, c) 1980 Tumblr posts, d) 6180 Skype calls,
e) 97 thousand Google searches, f) 92 thousand YouTube videos
viewed, g) 3 million emails sent and h) 132 thousand GB of Internet
traffic on the net [1]. This portrays the latest snapshot of the length
and breadth of penetration of the technology for normal human beings.
But on the other side, some segments of the population, such as the
elderly or those with disabilities, may have trouble accessing the new
technology and services that society provides to the masses in
general. Most of the software programmes overlook this
disadvantaged set of users, and may be unintentional while presuming
that all computer users can accomplish the following activities with
ease and without any discomfort [2]:
1. Reading and responding to the text and visuals displayed on the
screen.
2. Using the standard keyboard while keying in text/instructions.
3. Using the standard mouse to perform various operations on text,
images and other data.
4. Paying attention to various audio signals and responding to them
appropriately.
There are several sections of individuals who face difficulties in
performing one or more of the aforementioned activities and hence
seem unable to access many prominent computer applications [3]. To
operate a computing device, a user who is print impaired (e.g., blind,
dyslexic, cognitively disabled, or illiterate), physically disabled with
restricted mobility, or hearing impaired requires the support of some
specific assistive technology.
There is a kind of social barrier that at least restricts, if not prevents,
a Person with Disabilities (PwD) from participating in particular
activities or interacting with the environment around them. Disability is
defined as a reduction in one or more of the following faculties of a
human being: physical, cognitive, mental, sensory, emotional,
developmental, or any combination of these. This reduction in the
faculties may be by birth or may develop over a period of time [4].
The medical fraternity categorises the causes of impairment as
follows [3]:
1. Through inheritance (genetically transmitted)
2. Because of a congenital problem, infection or other diseases in
the mother during pregnancy, an immature or deadly
developmental abnormality, or an accident during or shortly after
delivery
3. Through the acquisition, such as problems brought on by an
unidentified disease or accident after birth, anytime later
This paper is an attempt to explore the role of accessibility of the
Information and Communication Technology tools and infrastructure
and the difficulties being encountered by various categories of PwDs
while interacting with them.
INTRODUCTION
According to the Global Report on Disability, disability affects almost
15% of the total global population, which is approximately one billion
people [3]. In nature, a handicap or a disability of a human being may
either be clearly evident or invisible. Physically impaired members of
society are unable to fully coordinate their physical motor abilities,
resulting in restricted body motions, lack of body coordination, and/or
decreased strength in various muscular structures. Visual impairment
is the inability to perceive items as clearly as a healthy individual can.
Near or far, vision impairment affects probably at least 2.2 billion
people globally, which includes around 1 billion with vision impairment
that might have been barred or rectified [5]. Visually Impaired (VI)
persons have to strive harder, even in their own environments, to
navigate from one location to the other and/or to locate objects
around them. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 253
million people are suffering from disabling vision impairment, out of
which 36 million people are completely blind and 217 million are
suffering from mild to moderate vision impairment [6]. Hearing
impairment refers to a person's inability to hear words or sounds
clearly and/or precisely. In such persons, any portion of the ear of a
human being might be affected by inappropriate development, injuries,
or infection(s). Hearing is a critical condition of appropriate speech
and language development. Communication difficulties also prevent
deaf individuals from socialising and working in the same manner that
normal people do. Due to their limited communication access and
engagement, deaf people frequently suffer damage and
dissatisfaction in their personal and professional life [7].
The rest of the paper has been organized as follows. After covering
the brief background and necessary introduction to the topic
concerned, different categories of PwDs have been discussed with
reference to the issue of accessibility. Next, a brief note on the
hardware and software dimensions of the accessibility has been
provided, which is followed by a detailed presentation of the role of
assistive technologies in supporting the accessibility for the PwDs. In
the subsequent sections, a cursor to disabilities and web accessibility
and a snapshot of disabilities and ICT accessibility has been
highlighted. And lastly, before concluding the paper, a few
recommendations, as well as suggestions, have been laid down for
enhancing the accessibility of ICT to the PwDs.
ACCESSIBILITY
FOR
CATEGORIES OF PwDs
DIFFERENT
Accessibility is a broad term for referring to the degree of ease with
which human beings, in general, acquire, use and apply knowledge for
gaining some benefit [8]. The main purpose of software accessibility is
to guarantee that the application software is installable and usable by
any person as and when required with equivalent user experience.
This necessitates that all the users be able to interpret and
understand regularly, with ease and without difficulty, what is being
presented to them and compulsorily includes using various controls
[9]. Accessibility refers to how a product, equipment, service, or
environment can be used and accessed by people of all abilities,
including those with disabilities. Access to technical products,
resources, and services spanning hardware and software is the major
focus of digital accessibility [10]. Around 650 million individuals, or
nearly 10% of the world's population, suffer from some form of
disability, however small it may be. Many human beings are born with
physical, sensory and/or cognitive impairment that makes daily chores
more challenging for them to perform. Others may suffer from
disabilities later in life due to some accident, sickness, or the natural
course of ageing. Many elderly people are diagnosed with chronic
illnesses leading to devastating disabilities.
Visually Impaired Individuals
There are numerous devices able to assist blind people. Some of
them take the form of one-of-a-kind gear, refreshable Braille displays,
portable CCTVs, and large-print keyboards. Furthermore, the
software seems to be the essential integral of any such technology.
Blind people, for example, frequently use screen reader software such
as JAWS [11]. For surfing and navigating a computer, several major
operating systems, such as Windows 10 and OS X, may give a
synthetic voice. Several apps are now available to enable blind users
“see” and navigate various computing systems more effectively. The
most recent smartphone applications can identify items from
photographs audibly or even provide real-time assistance from sighted
volunteers when necessary.
Physically Challenged Individuals
There are a lot of innovations that focus on providing improved input
devices when it comes to supporting easy mobility to physically
challenged people. The majority of individuals are able to comfortably
operate a keyboard and/or a mouse, but others with conditions like
paralysis, missing limbs, or neuromuscular disorders may find it
challenging. As a result, depending on the degree of difficulty in
operating the input devices, support from alternative gadgets may be
offered for such individuals [12]. A trackball or joystick may be more
effective for persons with less serious physical difficulties. Options to
operate a mouse with head movement, eye movements, and sip-andpuff gestures are also available for those with greater difficulty (e.g.,
Windows 10 supports eye-control devices). For people who only have
one hand, very efficient one-handed keyboards also offer an
opportunity.
Deaf and/or Hearing Impaired Individuals
Since most interaction with gadgets and other computing devices is
based on the ability to read and write, deaf individuals can embrace
computers and the Internet more effectively than other groups. A
growing number of gadgets and applications with Assistive Technology
(AT) for deaf individuals are being developed. Many of them are
dedicated to helping deaf individuals with common problems. Apps
that translate voice to text in real-time or create subtitles in many
languages, as well as gadgets that turn auditory cues into physical
feedback, are really quite popular.
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ACCESSIBILITY
FOR PwDs
People with substantial physical limitations may have trouble using a
regular mouse and keyboard to use their computers. They could also
have trouble operating electronic things [13]. Assistive technologies
are available, which is the most impactful. This is contingent on the
individual's personal demands and the things they desire to be
capable of completing independently. What kinds of technology may
persons with physical limitations benefit from? There are a variety of
hardware and software choices available, which may be used
independently or in combination.
Hardware Options
Given below are some of the alternative hardware options available
for different classes of the PwDs.
Alternatives to the standard mouse
Trackballs
Joysticks
Controlling the mouse with a switch and any trustworthy
body part movement
Only head movement is used to control the mouse
Only eye movement is used to control the mouse
Mouse control via sip/puff mouth movements
Alternative keyboards are capable of being programmed, handled
with one hand, or just providing larger, easier-to-select keys.
Key guards are positioned on top of the keyboard to make it
easier to choose the desired key without activating others.
Automatic page-turners aid in the reading of physical books or
magazines
Additional technology, such as voice-producing devices, can help
people with physical limitations with additional speech issues
related to independently communicating.
Integrated powered mobility controls enable power wheelchair
controls to be utilised not only to manage the wheelchair itself,
but also to operate computing and/or a speech-generating
device.
Software Options
Some of the accessibility options available to different categories of
PwDs through software are:
Voice recognition software turns speech into text without needing
to use a keyboard or mouse.
Word prediction software dramatically reduces the number of
keystrokes required to type text.
Computer access software allows users with significant
disabilities to operate any computer program with a switch or
multiple switches.
Switch training programs assist younger students in becoming
proficient in switch use.
One-handed typing tutor.
Screen enlargement software helps the users who suffer from
partial visual impairments up to some extent.
Software for converting print documents to electronic versions
helps in avoiding the need to be able to turn pages or move
papers.
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
Adaptive or assistive technologies are in the form of hardware and
software tools that have been created to provide functional
alternatives to some of the regular processes within the realms of ICT.
Many persons with disabilities have a number of difficulties when it
comes to giving input to a computing device, understanding the output,
and/or reading the documentation part [14]. People with impairments
heavily depend upon suitable keyboards, mouse, and display screens;
thus customised hardware and software are being created for this
purpose. Software for physically disabled persons has a distinct niche
among the numerous software options in the market. The application
field of such software is fairly narrow, yet this does not diminish the
demand for delivering adaptable software for persons with physical
impairments. All kinds of customers, including those with restricted
physical capabilities, are allowed to use the freedom provided by
access to the Global Web. According to Planet Health Organization
(PHO), 253 million people have a vision problems, 36 million of them
are blind, and 217 million have moderate to severe vision loss [15]. In
a nutshell, computer program design should accommodate the
capability to see, listen, perform inputs, read the text, or process
information ranging from one user to the next through time, depending
on the utilization circumstances [16]. As a corollary, ICT products and
services need to be designed to be accessible to as many users as
possible.
Gadgets, tools, hardware, and software that enable people with
disabilities to access computers are referred to as assistive or
enabling technology. It provides an alternative approach for retrieving
screen content, controlling the computer, and entering information.
The following are examples of specific computer modification software
or devices [17]:
1. Screen reading software (speaks displayed text and permits
keyboard simulation and mouse operations)
2. Screen magnification software (enlarges screen contents)
3. Braille display (displays Braille letters), alternate input devices
(e.g., screen keyboard) and special keyboards (to make data entry
easier)
4. Mnemonics and shortcut keys for the keyboard (including Sticky
Keys, Mouse Keys, Repeat Keys, Slow Keys, Bounce Keys or Toggle
Keys)
5. Alternate pointing devices (such as foot-driven mice, head-mounted
pointing devices, or eye-tracking systems)
6. Software mouse simulators (for moving the mouse pointer by
pressing keys on the numerical keypad)
7. Comprehension software (allows a dyslexic or learning-disabled
computer user to see and hear the text as it is manipulated on the
computer screen)
8. Predictive dictionary (speeds up typing by recommending words as
the user types)
Depending on the kind and degree of the disability, the abovementioned technologies are intended to be employed in the situation
of mobility, vision, hearing, and/or brain disorders. Low-vision
computer users may benefit from screen magnification software
because it enables them to understand sections of the screen more
easily by magnifying the screen's information.
It may be extremely important for physically disabled people to use a
keyboard or mouse in addition to a standard keyboard or mouse to
use the computer. Many people with disabilities use computers
without the use of assistive devices, but they navigate 1025 using the
keyboard [18]. Others enhance their interactions using hardware addons such as different pointing devices. The normal persons in their
everyday life routines hardly realize how the impaired people live their
life or the challenges they face in society. Their lives are mostly
restricted to their homes and/or offices and/or social set ups, and
their loops of interaction are thus confined to their individual social
circles only.
Under such circumstances, the sufferings being faced by the PwDs
remain largely ignored. They are compelled to lead lives with
minuscule support from society at most places across the globe. The
role ICT hence assumes a great significance under such
circumstances. Many of the roadblocks being encountered by PwDs
thus can be removed, and the sufferings of such persons are
minimized with the help of developing technologies at various fronts.
Using computing technology, students and staff with disabilities can
manage a wider range of activities independently, such as reading and
writing papers, connecting with others, and searching the Internet for
information.
The digital era has ushered in a slew of technological advancements
that essentially benefit the community of disabled persons [19].
Technology that enhances accessibility for individuals with impairments
often falls into the following three broad areas, as outlined below:
1. Assistive technology encompasses a set of specific-purpose
devices designed to improve/enhance the functional abilities of
disabled people.
2. Adaptive technology is a mechanism that permits people with
disabilities to use technology that might rather be otherwise
inaccessible to them.
3. Accessible technology comes with a wide range of innovative and
enhanced user experiences that help in breaking down some of
the barriers being faced by PwDs and making their world a more
welcoming place.
But there are several limitations that can make successful use of such
technologies difficult. These limitations, which can be attributed to the
impairments acquired as a result of some disease(s) or to congenital
impairments, include, but are not limited to:
1. Congenital impairments such as Learning problems, dyslexia, and
congenital impairments, head injuries, autism, developmental
disabilities.
2. Visual impairments such as poor vision, blindness (total or
partial), and colour blindness.
3. Hearing-related disabilities such as deafness, hearing loss, or
hyperacusis.
4. Motor or dexterity impairments such as paralysis, spastic
paralysis, dyspraxia, carpal tunnel syndrome, and repetitive strain
injury.
Persons with such impairments confront a variety of challenges when
it comes to using technology, especially computing devices. These
impediments are frequently classified into three functional groups [20]:
1. Difficulties in entering data into a computer
2. Interpreting the results
3. Examining supplementary materials
It is disheartening to note that most of the PwDs continue to
encounter challenges in accessing the full range of technology-based
opportunities accessible to non-disabled people. Challenges to
standard computer software, in particular, hinder educational and job
possibilities for some persons with impairments. Deaf pupils, for
instance, are still unable to understand a segment of a multimedia
presentation that utilizes voice delivery without captions or translation.
Similarly, an academic tutorial software that necessitates the use of a
mouse is inaccessible to a student who is unable to utilise this
instrument.
To use software applications, some of the impaired people require
specialised software and hardware that are covered under the
category of assistive technology. A blind person, for example, might
very well utilise a screen reader application with a voice synthesiser to
access a program's information and capabilities. This system
enhancement allows blind users to access text on the screen as well
as keyboard operations, but it does not allow them to examine
graphics or utilise functions that require the use of a mouse [21]. To
guarantee all possible users have seamless access to a plethora of
modern ICT tools, software developers must avoid the unintentional
creation of barriers for persons with disabilities [22]. They must
resolve to create solutions using assistive technology that is
interoperable for both impaired as well as non-impaired people.
In the history of social interactions, computer accessibility refers to
the accessibility of a computing system to any individual, regardless of
her/his degree of disability. An assistive system is a means that can
aid those who are unable to talk audibly on their own. The system
may employ speech, gesture, sign language, signals, synthesized
speech, specialised communication devices or microcomputers. Some
of the instances of assistive technology are [23]:
1. Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software packages that are
commonly used to scan printed items straight into the PC to meet
a wide range of disabilities
2. Screen readers are software programmes that output either
voice or Braille and are often used by blind or visually impaired
persons
3. Non-assistive computer systems such as electronic messaging
and instant messaging enable persons with hearing impairments
to communicate over the Internet
4. Magnification software that enhances the size of text and visuals
on computer monitors and is commonly used by those who have
impaired vision or difficulty in reading
To manage computers and dictate documents, voice recognition and
dictation system are two powerful assistive technologies that enable
people with disability to use spoken instructions. Most computer
manufacturers assist people with impairments by including
accessibility features in their operating systems, and examples are
Microsoft Windows, Apple Macintosh, and UNIX. Educational
software that delivers multisensory experiences, interaction, positive
pillars, customised teaching, and repetition might be beneficial in skill
development. Some children with learning impairments who have
trouble processing textual material might benefit from using computers
to complete writing projects, tutorial lessons, and drill-and-practice
work. A normal word processor, for example, can be a useful tool for
those with dysgraphia, or the inability to generate consistent
handwriting.
Some technologies make it possible for those who can use their
hands, either partially or not at all, to utilise a conventional keyboard.
Individuals with one finger or access to a mouth-stick, head-stick, or
other pointing devices can operate the computer by pushing keys with
the pointing device. Software tools can generate “sticky keys” which
electronically latch the SHIFT, CONTROL and other keys, allowing
successive keystrokes to submit instructions that would ordinarily
need two or more keys to be pushed simultaneously [24]. For
individuals who are unable to release a key quickly enough to avoid
numerous entries, the key repeat feature can be deactivated. Those
with impaired fine motor control can wear keyboard guards (solid
templates with holes over each key to aid in accurate selection). It is
difficult to educate pupils who have a learning impairment. Because of
their short attention span, they are quickly distracted. To guarantee an
effective learning session, a learning system that can replicate their
interest and capture their attention is required. Augmented Reality, a
teaching aid assistive technology, combines a virtual world with a real
one to make learning more enjoyable and interactive for children with
learning impairments [25].
DISABILITIES AND WEB ACCESSIBILITY
The web's power lies in its universality, remarked Tim Berners-Lee,
Director of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and creator of the
World Wide Web. Access is critical for everyone, regardless of
disability [26]. An increasing percentage of websites, tools, and
technology are being developed in such a manner that people with
disabilities can use them so as to a) observe, Perceive, Navigate, and
Engage with the Web; and b) contribute to the Web. There are four
types of limitations that impact a person's opportunity to utilize the
Internet [20]:
1. Difficulty to move, inadequate dexterity to use a mouse or
keyboard, inability to regulate undesired movement, and limb
deficiency
2. Hearing loss, which can range from partial hearing to complete
deafness
3. Impaired vision, including colour blindness and partial or complete
blindness
4. Issues with cognition and learning, also including reading,
understanding, staying focused, remembering, and writing
Some of the prominent impairments that otherwise prevent people
from using the Internet but are being catered to nowadays include:
1. Auditory
2. Cognitive
3. Neurological
4. Physical
5. Speech
6. Visual
Web accessibility has been linked to all of these above-mentioned
impairments. The W3C designed the Web Content Accessibility
Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0 and referred to web design features that
allow users to see, understand, operate, and participate in technology
on websites. The WCAG is a set of guidelines for web designers and
developers that aims at reducing accessibility problems [27]. The
practise of making websites accessible to everybody, especially
people with impairments, is known as web accessibility. As the
Internet is becoming an increasingly important element of postsecondary education, it is vital that instructional websites be built to be
accessible to disabled students. The process of creating websites
accessible to persons who need features more than those provided
by standard web browsers so as to utilize the Internet is the
underlying principle for web accessibility. In a classroom context, an
“accessible Web site” is one that enables students to access
information in a variety of ways. Most of the web site built with the
objective of artistic direction rather than universal distribution in mind.
According to Carter and Markel, only one percent of web developers
considered accessibility while creating web sites [28]. When web sites
are really not designed with disabled people in mind, impediments to
access the site's content are commonly absent. Images without
alternate text, inaccurate use of structural components on a web
page, unedited audio or unidentified video, generalized linear tables
that are hard to understand, and websites with poor de-saturated
colours are all exchanging information obstacles.
The World Wide Web Consortium is responsible for the vast majority
of web accessibility standards (W3C). 3 The World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C) is indeed an international Organisation were
members, full-time staff, and the general public collaborate to
establish web standards. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is
the leading authority on website standards, guidelines, software and
tools. The Web Content Accessibility Proposal was established by the
W3C in the 1990s (WAI). The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines
(WCAG 1.0) were established by the WAI and were modified in
December 2008 by WCAG 2.0. As WCAG 2.0 is still pretty recent,
many authoring and assessment tools, as well as Section 508's
legislative necessity, are still tailored around WCAG 1.0. In addition to
WAI standards, the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) has also created web accessibility standards [29]. Web
accessibility guidelines are also published by the ISO. ISO 9241 (titled
Ergonomics of Human System Interaction) is the most applicable for
this subject. It is a compilation of 28 sections (System Concepts,
2009). Initially, the internet helped many challenged participants to
complete new duties. It still does; however, issues have occurred,
primarily as a result of web developers' increased usage of
sophisticated multimedia and design features in their sites. “As more
sites offer interactive visuals and images, and home page clicking on a
graphic is the only way to go from page to page, the online is not a
favourable environment for the visually challenged” [30]. On a typical
homepage, there are various hurdles to seamless accessibility. Seven
common accessibility barriers are listed by the World Wide Web
Consortium [31]:
Photos that do not have appropriate text
Hotspots in image maps with no alternatives text
The use of structural components on a page that is manipulative
Audio that is not captioned or video that is not described
Lack of alternatives information for users who are unable to view
frames or scripts
Linear system tables that are difficult to read
Sites with insufficient colour contrast
The need of the hour is that the Internet should increasingly strive to
achieve higher degrees of inclusiveness as technology advances. If
the web designers fail to integrate the concept of universal design
while building the websites, a large proportion of participants would be
unable to participate and contribute. According to Waddell, a
California attorney and prominent promoter of online accessibility, “the
growth and success of the emerging digital economies require that
specific attention must be paid to the mechanism for permitting
dynamic involvement of all sections of the society” [32]. Similar
sentiments have been reflected through a study in Poland which has
suggested that the degree of digital divide being faced by the PwDs
today is really high and worrisome [33].
DISABILITIES AND ICT ACCESSIBILITY
The rapid development, coupled with the widespread adoption of ICT,
has fundamentally changed almost every aspect of life. For example,
in education, ICT has changed the very way of accessing and utilising
teaching, learning and research resources. Considering the growing
availability of technological advances and advanced assistive devices,
ICT is a potent tool to enable alternative options for learning by
visually impaired students [34]. At the same time, if not supported with
the concept of inclusiveness, the same ICT can become a nightmare
for some sections of the persons with disabilities flipping accessibility
with inaccessibility [35].
The following are some examples of inaccessibility:
1. Automated Teller Machine (ATM) at a bank may be inaccessible in
the following ways. The machine is just too high for a wheelchair user
to reach some of the controls. Low contrast between text and
backdrop, or text-only visual display, making reading difficult or
impossible for people with eyesight or reading disabilities
2. Responses and replies in an ATM are expressed in challenging
terminology or complicated language, making them difficult for those
with cognitive or learning impairments to understand [36].
3. Websites with a mix of text, images, links, buttons, tables,
interactive forms, and other content can be inaccessible in the
following ways:
1. On-screen icons are developed to adapt only to a click of the
mouse, so a person with a physical disability who cannot use a
mouse could perhaps ‘click' buttons by pressing the ‘Enter' key on
their keyboard.
2. The labels of input boxes and buttons on a payment form (e.g.,
name, choice of payment method) are presented in a way that a
blind individual's text-to-speech software is unable to read, thus
the blind person is unclear about the function of each box or
control.
4. For a control, instructions or output to be fully accessible, all users
must be able to do the following three things [37]:
1. Perceive: Be aware of its existence and be able to obtain its
contents. A deaf person, for example, may be ignorant of the
presence of an auditory alarm signal, whereas a blind person
may be unaware of the existence of a visual signal.
2. Understand: Know what that means and how to use it. A person
with a learning disability, for example, may be unable to
understand the difficult or poorly worded ATM instructions. This
can lead to hard times for that person in figuring out where to
look for help.
3. Operate: Be able to reach it and physically engage with it in order
to complete the task, which may include pressing, moving,
twisting, or tugging. A wheelchair user, for example, may be
unable to reach an ATM's card slot. A blind individual will be
unable to choose a location on a map.
Fig. (1) depicts the accessibility statistics for PwDs in terms of the
places where ICT facilities are generally used and the frequency of
their usage [38]. If the ICT industrial sector does not include
accessible design in their product development cycles and has no
motivation to do so, accessible ICT and service demands for people
with disabilities can never be addressed. It may not happen without
addition financial consideration from the respective business houses
[37].
Fig. (1))
Places/Locations for accessing the ICT facilities.
Accessibility features that are the most desired by persons with
disabilities as per the individual needs include:
1. Large print capability
2. Clear audio messages with precise interpretation to the person
3. Legible text messaging
4. Option for connecting the hearing aids
5. Suitable audio amplifications
6. Keys with large characters/Figs having good contrast ratio
7. High-quality videos, suitable for sign language, lip reading and
person recognition
8. Interoperable IP and 3G networks
9. Real-time text generator using voice with sufficient tolerance to
variations
10. Flashing light on incoming calls
11. Vibration on incoming calls
12. Video relay for sign languages
13. Captioned telephony relay services
Frequency of Using ICT Facilities
Mozilla Firefox, in many of its ongoing continuous evaluation projects,
has posted some interesting data about the usage of web services by
19 Persons with Disabilities. The participants were asked how
frequently visually impaired students used the accessible ICT facilities
to improve the quality of their learning opportunities. As indicated in
Fig. (2), eight (42.1%) of the participating visually-impaired students
used ICTs very regularly, six (31.5%) used them frequently, and five
(26.3%) used them just sometimes [40].
Fig. (2))
Frequency of using ICT facilities [40].
Challenges Constraining Access to and Use of ICTs by
the PwD
Some of the key obstacles experienced by the PwDs while accessing
and using ICT facilities in learning under UDSM's Special Education
Unit were highlighted in research undertaken by some experts. Fig. (3)
shows that 28 (77.7%) of them pointed towards ‘inadequate friendly
ICT facilities’, 20 (55.5%) attributed the difficulties to ‘ineffective ICTs
training provisions’, six (16.6%) identified ‘power cut offs’ as
impediment, four (11.1%) regarded ‘outdated ICT facilities’ as a
barrier, three (8.3%) mentioned a ‘shortage of ICT technicians’ for
repairing ICT facilities as obstacles, and two (5.5%) cited poor
Internet connectivity as the reason for difficulties [41].
Inadequate Friendliness
Fig. (3) shows that the majority of respondents (77.7%) listed poor
ICT facilities as the major obstacle the PwD students experience while
accessing and utilising ICT infrastructure for learning. In this regard,
one of the respondents stated: “The Special Education Unit's ICT
facilities are insufficient to enable effective learning” [39]. Learning
flexibility is limited as a result of this.
Fig. (3))
Challenges constraining the use of ICTs.
Ineffective Training Provisions
Considering the significance of training in improving skills and
knowledge, the UDSM's Special Education Unit did not effectively
provide training on the use of ICT tools/devices and reading abilities.
According to this data, 55.5 percent of those polled believed that the
Special Education Unit's training was unsatisfactory.
Power Supply Outages
For ICT facilities to function seamlessly, one of the most important
ingredients required is a constant power source. Power outages and
unpredictable energy supply were also mentioned as a challenge in
this study that visually impaired students encountered when using ICT
facilities. Due to their disruptive characteristics, power outages have
been proven to hinder the proper implementation of facilities and
degrade the learning process. During data collecting at the Special
Education Unit, the researchers experienced one such power outage.
The existing generator is not automated. Manually switched
generators often require a man to manage them, which may not be
adequate to safeguard against the disturbance of learning activities
caused by power outages, especially when emergency power is not
turned on promptly enough. 16.6% of the respondents agreed to
choose this factor as a barrier to learning for PwDs.
Outdated ICT Infrastructure
The ICT infrastructure is continuously evolving through new
technologies and innovations. Hence, there are ample chances of the
ICT tools and devices getting outdated before the PwD users get
accustomed to them. 11.1% of the respondents attributed the
difficulties faced by them to this factor.
Shortage of ICTs Experts and Technicians
One of the challenges impaired students faced was the lack of
specialists and experienced technicians for a) fixing the
operational/maintenance issues faced by ICT facilities and b)
innovating various applications to enhance the learning experience of
impaired students. 8.3% of the respondents blamed this factor as a
barrier.
Internet Connectivity
Mostly, the seamless Internet connection is considered essential for
connecting different important formats for facilitating successful
learning. The poor Internet connectivity at the UDSM negatively
influenced the impaired students during their learning activities. Only
5.5% of them identified it as the main difficulty. Shortcomings in ICT
facilities faced by PwDs is shown in Fig. (4).
Fig. (4))
Shortcomings in ICT facilities faced by PwDs [42].
Results of Shortage of ICT Facilities
In a study conducted by Bergman and Johnson, the authors have
highlighted some of the significant difficulties faced by visually
impaired persons. Visually challenged individual’s learning is hampered
by a lack of access to user-friendly ICTs. According to the statistical
results, 28 (77.7%) of the respondents mentioned time consumption,
six (16.7%) reported over-dependence on the readers, and five
(13.9%) cited lack of extensive access to learning resources as the
main reason that hampers their learning processes [43].
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
Various categories of PwDs suffer in isolation or with their near and
dear ones because of their different impairments. The role of ICT, as
well as accessibility, in making their lives better is too huge to be
ignored anymore. Various bodies involved in uplifting the living
standards of such people have been putting their efforts tirelessly.
One of the most significant recent initiatives has come from
International Telecommunication Union, an agency of the UN with its
headquarters in Geneva. Under its Study Group 1, Question 7
initiative, this body has made some meaningful recommendations and
suggestions based upon its studies during the period 2018-2021 that
have been listed here for ready reference. These are: a) overhauling
of existing policies, regulations, legislations etc., related to ICT, b) indepth interfacing with PwDs or their representative bodies for
consultations and due approvals of such changes, c) Spreading
awareness among PwDs about the existing provisions and the
suggested changes after approval related to the accessibility to ICT,
d) Large scale adoption of related prescribed norms/ standards/
guidelines regarding QoS and other technical standards, e) Revisiting
the definitions and related legislations periodically, f) provisioning for
impairment specific QoS and other ICT services for such people [44,
45].
CONCLUSION
Although individuals with disabilities comprise a significant and diverse
subset of the entire population on this earth, this subset is generally
overlooked, maybe obliviously. Their needs and expectations are not
getting sufficiently aligned with the normal requirements of the
software and hardware designs and their subsequent advancements.
Much of the problem arises due to the lack of awareness about the
general-purpose as well as disability-specific needs of the PwDs,
although designing accessible hardware/software makes them more
usable for all such subsets of users. Accessibility is a critical issue for
facilitating the assurance of equal opportunities not only for people
with disabilities, but also for the plethora of other user categories.
Hence, the accessibility inclusively needs to be aimed at improving the
user interfaces and simplification of ICT operations for such people. It
has been clear from what has been presented in this paper that there
is an urgent need to address this issue so that persons with all kinds
of specific disabilities can also use ICT to their advantage. The
challenges and the specific solutions in reference to accessibility for
each type of disability/impairment can be further taken up as future
work.
The study offers a number of recommendations for the parent
institution to increase access to and use of ICT facilities to assist the
PWD's learning activities, based on the study's results and conclusion.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Declared none.
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Computer
Vision-Based
Assistive Technology for Blind
and Visually Impaired People: A
Deep Learning Approach
Roopa G.M.1, *, Chetana Prakash1, Pradeep N.1
1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Bapuji Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Davangere – 577004, Visvesvaraya
Technological University, Belagavi – 590 018
Abstract
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a
minimum of 2.2 billion individuals worldwide have impaired
vision or are blind. In contrast to hereditary blindness,
gained visual impairment is frequently identified as a result
of aging, lifestyle habits, or hereditary influences. Agingrelated presbyopia has the largest influence on visual
impairment and is the second most prevalent cause of
blindness globally, and the rate of acquired blindness is
predicted to rise dramatically as life expectancy rises.
When performing most of the everyday tasks that nondisabled individuals do, visually and blind people face
several problems. Thus, assistive gadgets have been
utilized to help the blind and visually impaired overcome
physical, social, infrastructural, and accessibility hurdles to
independence, allowing them to live engaged, creative, and
fruitful life as equal members of society. The usage of
assistance equipment has increased, and numerous
electronic help devices have been produced in recent
years, which have been superseded by traditional aid gear,
such as white canes. Currently, ATs are created by
integrating various types of sensors, cameras, or feedback
channels that combine with various implementation
methodologies to increase movement for the visually
handicapped. Assistive systems based on computer vision
or machine learning approaches have emerged, and as
technology has advanced, so has assistive technology.
Assistive technology is a priority in the field of education
and rehabilitation for individuals with blindness or low vision
because it “equalizes the ability to access, store, and
retrieve information between sighted people and those with
visual impairments”. Nowadays, technological advances
are making a difference in their ability to overcome
difficulties to some extent. Every day, they encounter a
slew of challenges, the most significant of which are
establishing one's position, determining one's heading and
movement directions, and comprehending the placements
of things. The goal of assistive technology is to boost
impaired people's faith, comfort, security, independence,
and quality of life by enhancing their mobility and
decreasing their impairment.
Keywords: Assistive Technologies, COCO-Dataset, Computer Vision,
Object Recognition, OCR, TESSERACT, Visually Impaired, YOLO-v3.
*
Corresponding author Roopa G.M.: Department of Computer
Science and Engineering, Bapuji Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Davangere- 577004; E-mail: roopa.rgm@bietdvg.edu
INTRODUCTION
The globe is transforming from machinery-employed or industrial
economies to intelligence and information economizing in the twentyfirst century. The goal of knowledge economy development is to
address conventional societal hurdles, such as spatial variability of
citizens, linguistic or knowledge barriers, handicaps caused by
impairments or environmental circumstances, social position, and
global influence. This might imply that the “digital divide” among
developed/developing nations is diminishing. Will individuals with
disabilities be included in the digital age resulting in considerable
development and improvement in living circumstances in developing
nations? The answer to the query will be “yes” when adequate
attention is paid. The entry to the knowledge-based economy is
Information and Communication Technology (ICTs), which consists of
systems, conventional and smart cell devices, and laptops. Internet
access is very important for disabled persons than the common public
since they have fewer options for retrieving data or participating [1].
Currently, there are several methods in which ICTs are accessible and
employed as assistive technology (ATs).
On the other side, a critical element is the fast evolution of technology
that acts as a tool and has a significant impact on how we acquire,
play, and operate. This reliance on technology may be discretionary
for most of us, but it is far less for individuals with disabilities, who
frequently rely on technology to access jobs, complete everyday
chores, and fully engage in the community; ICTs transforming the
technology alternatives available to persons with impairments.
Advanced materials also improve comfort and prevent skin
deterioration in seating systems [2]. Wheelchairs and other mobility
goods are becoming simpler to use and move in vehicles as materials
get lighter. Changes in conventional home products (food preparation,
self-care) are being created to suit elderly people who have arthritis,
hearing problems, or vision loss. Notably, huge items, ranging from
vehicles to household equipment with features, improve accessibility
and usefulness for people with disabilities. As a result of such
reasons, there are many more technological alternatives accessible to
suit the requirements of disabled people. Some of them are popular
items, while others are developed specifically for individuals with
impairments.
The function constellation of ICTs like mobile devices is similar to
those necessary for various ATs related to mainstream techniques or
custom-built devices. All that remains is to ensure that this occurs with
new technology. One of the most precise technologies that can aid the
blind incorrectly exploring their environment is the object detection
system for the visually impaired [3]. This assists in recognizing the
barrier and traveling from one location to another. Finally, it generates
audio data about the item. Consequently, it would be easier to operate
and portable for the visually handicapped. It also helps the blind
understand their surroundings without the help of another person.
In its broadest sense, the term “Assistive Technologies” (AT) relates
to any grouping of technological advances (items, environmental
modifications, facilities, and procedures) that may be utilized to
address deficiencies and/or improve human function. AT, in particular,
strives to assist persons with impairments or learning difficulties in
coping with their daily surroundings and obtaining a greater quality of
life. In general, AT is utilized in two major application scenarios: 1)
health care, which attempts to alleviate (remediate) cognitive and
behavioral deficits, and 2) social, which works on the surrounding
community and focuses on social barriers and injustices.
In the past few decades, there seems to be a tremendous increase in
demand for novel technology that would enhance the quality of life, for
example, for elderly people or individuals with different talents, as well
as for those who have various disorders but wish to improve their
comfort. Researchers from many areas have used their knowledge to
build new technologies to satisfy the demands of various assistive
device application settings.
To summarize, at least one innovation is created every day throughout
the world, and progress in the field of automated systems is quick and
constant. Without this, the world would not have envisaged visually
challenged individuals wearing a digital helmet integrated with a
portable monitor, audio sensors, and stereo headphones to assist
them in navigating. Thus, the breakthrough in wireless technology uses
a sensor to take photos and process the acquired images to
recognize things and give an audio message via stereo headphones.
This may be useful in any indoor/outdoor setting.
In this chapter, we examine the broad range of developing technical
capacity as well as the particular significance of such technologies for
persons with impairments. Few studies have noted that “although an
advancement of technology and consumerism which is so concerning
in other ways, many individuals remain excluded and handicapped by
design which does not recognize their talents.” Inscribing this problem
by gaining access to specialized and mainstream technology will allow
persons with disabilities to engage fully in all society sections.
Furthermore, a camera, a machine, and an audio output device
comprise the main component based on computer vision for locating
and navigating help for blind people [4]. A mini-camera installed on a
hat or sunglasses will gather visual data, while an image processor
and voice output will be given by a computing device (with speech
output via a Bluetooth earpiece). Auditory signals can be used to
communicate the recognition output to blind users (speech/sound).
The primary objective of this research is to assist visually impaired
persons in detecting and identifying objects. Blind individuals would be
able to utilize this technology to recognize the texts displayed on the
objects as well. This experiment is intended to assess the YOLOv3
algorithm's capacity to find items, detect text, and provide audio
output to aid a blind user in recognizing an object.
The organization of the sections in the chapter includes the
introduction, background theory exploring the drawbacks of the
existing approaches, challenges, the methodology proposed, System
Architecture with module description, details on the YOLO algorithm
and COCO dataset, experimental setup, results and discussion,
conclusion/future scope of the work and references.
THE GLOBAL ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
COMMUNITY AND ITS IMPACTS ON PEOPLE
WITH DISABILITIES
Assistive technology (AT) is commonly defined as “any object, unit of
machinery, or product/service, generally purchased commercially off
the shelf, adapted/customized to develop, preserve, or enhance
cognitive skills of persons with impairments.” Few changes are
integrated into standard devices, where a majority of custom-made
ATs satisfy the particular needs of disabilities. This constant stream of
functionality has been going on for quite some time. Cassette
recordings and rapid records were created to aid speaking books for
the impaired. The typewriter was created for the impaired, the
fountain pen for people who cannot pick a pen with a point owing to
poorly skilled tasks, and the expert miter block for those who could
not chop with both hands. Telephones were created to help the deaf
and blind, but their effects were viewed largely in the broader society,
effectively suppressing the deaf and hard-to-hear.
However, the same technology that permitted telephony was also
useful in detecting and magnifying sound in hearing aids. Furthermore,
the revelation that phone lines could be utilized to send digital
information via routers alleviated the issues of severely deaf persons
[5]. This enabled the TTY to be used as a visual replacement for
audible information transmitted through telephone lines.
It also enabled the use of such SMS (texting) on mobile phones.
Material and manufacturing processes are also included in the
contributions to the general concept design, materials, and techniques,
initially designed for individuals with disabilities. This “transition” of
functionality from ATs to a model defined and again has aided a wider
trend centered on universal design.
PRESENT-DAY SCENARIO
Around the years from 2013-2014, wearable devices became popular.
This method refers to gadgets that may be worn on the wrist/neck.
Fitbit, Pebble watches and Google glasses are notable features of
wearable technology products. A technique called Finger-Eye
comprises an electronically worn finger-like device with an integrated
camera on the fingertips. The camera scans the text beneath the
user's finger and reads it out to the blind user. However, the finger-eye
was not completed successfully and was only evaluated with a
mounted camera. Few researchers have presented an event camerabased approach for self-driving automobiles. Action cameras are a
camera that captures events or changes in intensity values, which
distinguishes their output from that of ordinary cameras. These action
cameras function as motion sensors, detecting the motion of nearby
objects and eliminating redundant data.
GENERAL
DESIGN
IDEAS
USABILITY OF DAILY ITEMS
AND
THE
Donald Norman pioneered the notion of daily object design in the
1990s. Concerned by the difficulties he and others had faced
employing everyday products that were badly built, he aimed to
improve the architecture of the things that were encountered regularly.
Norman noticed that the performance of many goods was neither
apparent nor simple. He described this discrepancy between visible
characteristics and functional activity using the notion of “affordances.”
Affordances are defined as the “perceived and real characteristics of
the item.” The word limitations were used by Norman to describe the
restrictions on the number of alternative applications for an object.
Norman's limitations fall into four categories: physical (based on
actual-world qualities), semantic (based on significance), cultural
(based on recognized customs), and logical [6]. The link between the
spatial and physical arrangement of elements and the activities they
govern is described in the latter category.
Errors occur as an output of incorrect aim in mind, described as
system affordances, behaviour impressions, and user device
characteristics. Norman recommended linking affordances and
restrictions be utilized to produce potential executions of every item to
enhance the design. He also discussed perceptual models, which
allow for predicting the influence of actions on an item. The sensory
input that the object offers to the user is influenced by object
perception. This feedback can be physical (for example, switch click
or the force required to turn a knob), visual (for example, moving when
triggered, lights or other indications), or aural (e.g., auditory
alarms/signals).
EVOLUTION OF ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGIES
In recent years, several assistive technologies based on cameras,
computer vision and IoT, have been released to aid blind people.
Whereas such approaches have their own set of advantages and
disadvantages. Handheld assistive gadgets, for example, rely on
embedded systems like the Raspberry Pi. In these applications,
computer vision is also used to detect logos and inscriptions on
packed items. These gadgets are only useful for assisting blind
individuals while shopping at a store. The battery backup of such
devices, as well as the device's limited computing capacity, are other
causes of worry. Mobile devices, which are more portable and include
an integrated camera, are another option for aiding the blind. Few
studies have suggested Suitable Parameter (QR) code-based
systems for recognizing items. This technology is also connected with
supermarket shopping and can recognize goods with QR codes. To
make this gadget work, every product must be labelled with a QR
code, which is impossible.
Many works have presented a smartphone strategy for aiding blind
individuals by identifying food types. As this version is based on the
OCR algorithm, it inherits both the algorithm's benefits and
shortcomings [7]. This software fails to recognize the product sign in
the context of the size and illumination changes. Based on the
shortcomings of current assistive offerings, there has been an
advancement of assistive technologies that use current innovative
technologies, and an effort was made to implement an efficient and
robust
object
detection and recognition service (object
detection/recognition with text-to-speech AT), which can assist people
with intense impaired vision to autonomously navigate the world [8].
So far, numerous assistive techniques (vision substitutes) have been
created, which may be classified as RFID-based methods, sensor
methods, image processing ways, and computer vision approach.
Amongst them, computer perception techniques for object recognition
appear to be the most promising.
It is witnessed that technological development in recent years,
encourages us to create a system for the less privileged people.
Numerous electronic assistance systems have been created so far,
but relatively few of them use computer vision, while vision-based
devices are gaining traction in the latest studies.
In Fig. (1a) camera gadget is designed to be worn on the finger and
aimed in the desired direction. In Fig. (1b and 1d ) are cameras
placed on an eyewear system that is meant to function like an eye,
allowing a person to turn his head in the direction of a possible object.
In Fig. (1c and 1f ) a stereoscopic cane is displayed, which uses 3D
imaging to obtain depth information. Fig. (1e) shows a smart cane with
a laser vibratory component A few of these devices are connected for
navigation, while others are designed for specific applications like
banknote identification, as in Fig. (1d)
Fig. (1))
Assistive Devices using Computer Vision
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGIES: FUNCTIONAL
FRAMEWORK
The variety of technological choices available to individuals with
impairments for functional assistance is expanding. Major mainstream
gadgets are now being utilized to give functional support that formerly
needed specially developed assistive technology. However, specialists
ATs are still necessary in many cases with a combination of
technologies capable of meeting a wide range of requirements [9]. At
one end of the spectrum are gadgets that give minimal help or
increase a person's capacity to fulfill a job. For instance, a person with
autism may be able to talk, but their speech can sometimes be hard to
appreciate. In these cases, they may use a letter panel to spell out
terms that are not comprehended. A person having respiratory issues,
for example, can ambulate within their home but, due to limited
stamina, may need a motorized wheelchair to conduct their shopping
unassisted [10]. ATs that replicate substantial quantities of capacity to
create functional results are at the opposite end of the spectrum.
Some people, for example, have no vocal communication capacity and
may need the gadget to communicate. Similarly, some people rely
entirely on a conventional or power wheelchair for independent
movement [11].
Hard-Soft Technologies
Hard technologies are elements that are widely accessible and may
be procured and integrated into AT devices. This ranges from basic
mouth sticks to computers and software. AT device largely relates to
hard technologies as defined by a few researchers. The fundamental
trait that distinguishes hard technologies is their tangibility. Soft
technologies are related to human domains to draw decisions,
initiatives, learning, idea creation, and service provision. Soft
technologies may be classified into three types: humans, speech, and
computers. These components of technology, without which hard
technology never succeeds, are far more difficult to get since they rely
heavily on human understanding rather than actual items [12]. The
creation of successful usage methods also has a significant impact on
the effectiveness of the AT method. Initially, the creation of these
techniques may be highly reliant on the AT practitioner's expertise,
experience, and inventiveness. With increasing expertise, the AT user
develops methods that promote effective device usage [12].
In the current human/device interface, it is possible to assign certain
tasks to the human, a few to the device, and others to personal
assistance. We can assign certain tasks to humans, a few for
technology, and others to a private assistant in any human/device
system. Few studies describe various functional allocation techniques
that are utilized in common human aspects of designing [13]. A few of
these apply to design AT devices that help assess how and what sort
of AT would be serviceable for individuals. The most basic method is
comparative allotment which works to be completed and is entirely
allocated to a human or a gadget in this case. The user's abilities
determine the tasks that may be allocated, and the technology's
features decide which abilities are allotted to it.
A telephone, for example, is constructed with the presumption that the
person can handle the device, ring up, perceive another person, and
talk over the phone. All of such responsibilities have been delegated to
the user. However, if the user is unable to complete any of these
activities, the AT must give an alternate series of tasks. Assume, for
example, that a certain customer can do all duties except hold phone
dialing. Using a Bluetooth headset eliminates the need to clench the
phone, and automated voice recollection may be used to input
numbers and operate menus. The AT component of such a system is
composed of these. When matching technological features to a
consumer's talents, we frequently utilize comparative allocation. We
employ this technique in AT devices wherever practical by combining
the usage of the AT systems with Personal Assistance Services (PAS)
[14]. The extent of the users and technological elements is not set;
rather, it varies depending on the precise activities and tasks to be
performed. Initially, a beginner mobile phone user may depend on
instinct and use most often basic capabilities, such as dialling every
number. More sophisticated capabilities, like contact lists, messaging,
and others, can be employed as the understanding of the device's
functionality grows, and methods are established. More duties, such
as memorizing numbers, are allocated to the gadget in this manner,
freeing the user to perform other things [15].
OBJECT RECOGNITION
Object detection is an integral component of a vision system that
allows sustaining in this universe. Humans and other life forms can
execute immediately and effortlessly, but this is a difficult problem for
devices to solve since each object in the 3d environment can set an
unlimited amount of 2D predictions owing to affine reconstruction,
lighting changes, and camera angle. Object detection is a welldesigned area with two main categories: simplistic learning and deep
learning object identification procedures. The first technique leverages
hand-designed attributes, such as SIFT, SURF, and HOG in the first
phase, and the different stages are generally containers of quote and
maze matching, with the later phases of such a channel being a
classifier such as Classification Algorithm (SVM), K Nearest Neighbor
(KNN), Artificial Neural network (ANN), and so on. While these
approaches are extremely effective for specific applications, hand
pattern descriptors are not as effective for generic item detection due
to the significant diversity in form, texture, and so on. The most current
technique for solving the object recognition challenge is to use Deep
Learning-based methodologies, which involve designing a deep neural
network and further training with huge instances in a supervised
aspect, which consumes huge time to instruct but outperforms all
hand-drawn techniques [16]. Deep learning model design may be
taught in two directions: supervised learning with huge examples and
unsupervised learning with small data. Unsupervised learning trains the
network using unlabeled data, which requires an extremely small
learning curve and does not require tagged input [17]. Convolutional
neural network (CNN) and recursive neural network (RNN) are
employed in a single stream. Gabor attribute extraction is headed by a
pooling process that passes to the iterative neural network in the
second stream. The merged attribute vector is employed to train the
Softmax classifier to gain higher accuracy while requiring fewer
features for faster operation [2]. Fig. (2) shows the general pipeline
for object detection. While all these methods can be applied to
classification or semantic segmentation tasks by simply averaging
samples, this is not the case for object detection, where detection
sample bounding boxes must be accurately associated and merged
[10].
Fig. (2))
Typical object recognition pipeline.
BACKGROUND THEORY
In this part, we present related research on assistive technologies for
people who are blind and object identification algorithms. We explore
the algorithms’/systems’ capabilities as well as their disadvantages
and limits.
Object Detection Algorithms
SIFT (Scale Invariant Feature Transform) Algorithm
Ever since Deep Learning gained control, the SIFT method being one
of the most used techniques for object identification. Few works have
demonstrated various methods for object tracking and identification in
images. The SIFT technique is used to extract important
characteristics in the frame. Then, these important characteristics are
clustered to recognize the moving object using an enhanced k-means
clustering method, which has employed log-polar transformation for
stabilizing the video, making the video frame resistant to scale and
rotation [18-21]. The results of the preceding tests demonstrate that
SIFT has good precision but is sluggish. The results demonstrate that
their technique generally operates well but suffers from standard item
identification challenges such as scale, clutter, and variations in
lighting.
SURF (Speeded Up Robust Features)
SIFT’s accuracy was good, and it could manage to scale. The
downside was the algorithm’s pace, which was extremely sluggish. A
new method, SURF, was developed to improve the efficiency of object
identification. These researches cover SURF effectiveness advances
as well as compare studies with approaches like SIFT, ORB, BRIEF,
and others. The improvements are intended to make the SURF
algorithm illumination stable and achieve greater matching frequencies.
The following are the results of their experiment:
Using SURF in association with the optimal bin first algorithm
leads to quicker matching. This could, however, improve matching
quality.
If geometrical mathematics is added to SURF, additional key
points may be identified.
Splitting the sampling units into two groups may decrease the
descriptive dimensions.
Illuminating variability may be accomplished by extracting
descriptors from an image’s brightness order sequence.
SURF over-performs SIFT in noisy pictures.
SURF demands lower computational resources than SIFT.
OCR(Optical-Character-Recognition)
Another frequently used approach for object detection is OCR. It has
mostly been used to identify text in images. The following tasks
employ the OCR technique for item identification: Few observations
have been conducted about using the OCR method for object
detection [7, 22]. This study includes several tests, such as utilizing
the OCR algorithm to identify food labels, expiration dates, and ID
card details. All of these tests yielded the following results:
OCR operates well when interpreting data, with an efficiency of
70-90 percent.
OCR suffers from fluctuating illumination and rotations.
Reflective surfaces also cause problems for the OCR algorithm.
OCR delivers correct information retrieval.
Performance reduction in face detection instance.
Only a few studies used button detecting to assist robotic systems in
traveling to their designated floor [23]. The authors merged OCR with
Faster R-CNN to create OCR-RCNN, a single neural network. The
testing results demonstrated that their method performs well even on
untrained elevator panel pictures.
YOLO (You Only Look Once)
Since its inception, the YOLO (You Only Look Once) algorithm has
gained popularity. The name implies glancing once to identify an
object. Yolo exhibits a one-shot detector that supports the localization
and classification of images in a single movement rather than two. This
accelerates the entire process of object detection while introducing a
small loss of accuracy. The YOLO algorithm has undergone two major
upgrades over the years: Yolo v2/v3, with the initial method known as
Yolo v1. Such techniques employ a pre-trained prototype produced by
priming a dataset on a deep-learning model. The outcomes show that
YOLO v3 is quicker and more accurate than its previous versions.
YOLO and Faster-RCNN exhibit comparable accuracy. Moreover,
Yolo v3 outperforms R-CNN in terms of accuracy rate.
Combining Spatial Hierarchy with YOLO can enhance the
algorithm’s mean Average Precision (MAP).
Increasing the detection scale can assist with identifying a smaller
object.
YOLO3 acquires some issues from YOLO v1, such as location
issues when many small objects are close to one another.
R-CNN
Some studies offer MaskLab as a solution, for instance, Segmentation
issues in their work. MaskLab is constructed over Fast-RCNN, and
attribute selection is made with ResNet-101. MaskLab comprises
three key features: box recognition, feature extraction, and direction
prediction. They evaluated MaskLab’s effectiveness using the COCObased classification benchmark. MaskLab’s experimental examination
yields some encouraging findings.
These investigations involve offering an enhanced version to
incorporate lighting awareness, optimizing regional proposals, and so
on. They developed the system by utilizing a ResNet-101 model and
Feature Pyramid N/W (FPN) [24]. The outcomes of these trials may
be summed up as:
The experimental outcomes indicate that techniques could show
the learning connections between various components.
Optimizing the localized proposal production demonstrates
efficient iterative refinements and outperforms previous RPN
algorithms using AFW, WIDER, and Pascal Faces.
Incorporating an illumination awareness network into Faster RCNN increases its efficiency for pedestrian identification when
compared to normal Faster R-CNN.
Using huge instances and basic heuristics programs enhances the
algorithm’s efficiency.
Gaps Identified
Some gaps that are addressed concerning object identification are:
Several situations lead to incorrect outcomes in identifying the
objects.
Today’s assistive devices can genuinely help blind people with
special software, and using customized hardware may result in
higher expenses.
Existing Assistance solutions for Blind People
Existing vision-based technologies assist visually challenged
people in navigating their environment. This system is made up of
a camera, a haptic response device that alerts impaired people
for object detection, and an integrated system [23, 24]. This
technology is worn by visual individuals, allowing them to move
about. To find vacant spots along the travel path, regional
suggestions are employed. The authors put their system to the
test by having blind individuals go through a maze while wearing
their gear [9]. The findings of these trials demonstrate that this
technology substantially assists a blind user in navigating a track
without colliding. However, navigating with this technique is slower
than with a cane. The pace of navigation could be increased if this
technology is paired with a walking stick for the visually impaired.
Using the OCR technique, an assistive system is suggested to aid
blind people in reading. This device takes the shape of a glove
with camera-integrated indices that the blind user may wear. After
putting on the glove, the impaired user would move their index
finger from right to left over the first text. The camera beneath the
finger executes the text pictures and provides audio output. The
trial findings demonstrate how the finger can effectively read the
text underneath the camera, however, the procedure is sluggish
since the procedure creates a high-quality image by combining
numerous photos with similar frames [24]. The practicality is
indeed a factor to consider, as the trials were carried out using a
camera set on a table to read the text. If a fingertip camera is
utilized, the real outcome may differ.
Few of the works suggested an assistive device to aid blind people;
their method employs Raspberry Pi, an embedded computer used to
process text in pictures. The camera is placed on the user’s
spectacles and is linked to the Raspberry Pi. The experimental study
demonstrates that the OCR system performs well when reading text,
but performs poorly when detecting faces. With a fast detection rate,
YOLO can achieve an accuracy of about 83%. Details of the Existing
Assistance solutions for Blind People are given in Table 1.
Table 1 Existing Assistance solutions for Blind People
Algorithm
Advantages
Limitations
Requires high
processing power,
High precision and robustness to
limited speed, poor
SIFT
scaling.
performance with
interference, fading,
and changing light.
Maximum speed, robustness to
Reduced accuracy
transformations, and minimal
over SIFT, finds few
SURF
computational power are all
important points than
necessary.
other algorithms.
Algorithm
Advantages
Limitations
The image prediction
Text recognition is even more
accuracy is poor, but
OCR
accurate.
it is not lightsensitive.
The time needed to
develop the model is
Regional
Efficient, equipped to handle
rather long; it is a
Proposal transitions, and adept at coping with
two-stage procedure
Networks
lighting changes
that is slow than
SSDs.
It executes all computation in a single
Single
step, rendering it the quickest of all
Shot
algorithms and resistant to
Lower precision than
Detectors modifications. Performs effectively in
SIFT
(YOLO)
the presence of obstruction and
variations in lighting.
PRIMARY OBJECTIVE OF COMPUTER VISION
Computer Vision comprises two objectives. From the standpoint of
biological research, computer vision seeks to develop statistical
methods of human vision. From an engineering standpoint, computer
vision attempts to create autonomous devices capable of performing a
few tasks that the visual system is capable of performing. Many vision
challenges are linked to extracting 3D and periodic content from timevarying 2D data acquired with one or many news crews, as well as
the general comprehension of such dynamic situations. The two
objectives are inextricably linked [25]. Researchers creating computer
vision solutions are frequently inspired by the features and
characteristics of visual perception. In contrast, computer vision
algorithms can provide information about where the human visual
system functions.
METHODOLOGY PROPOSED
Input: IP webcam is utilized to send images to the model created at
60 fps, and an additional process is performed on alternative frames
to increase performance.
Dataset: Common objects are used to prepare the model in context
dataset.
Model: You Only Look Once (YOLO) is a model that has gone
through several confusing transformations.
Text-to-Speech: The identified items class categorization from every
frame would be a message, such as cat. We will extract the image's
object attributes and include the top/mid/bottom & left/center/right
positions in the cat class prediction. To convert the string to vocal
output, we utilize pysstx3.
Tesseract: It is the most popular OCR engine, with a high-quality
OCR corpus. OCR employs AI for text recognition and picture
recognition. Tesseract- OCR detects patterns in pixels, letters, words,
and phrases.
Output: It is frame stream as a video referee after obtaining the
bounding box coordinates for each item recognized in our frames. For
every 30th frame (30 fps), a voice response is planned, e.g., bottom
left cat – a cat was spotted in the view of the camera at the bottom
left. The proposed methodology followed to carry out the work is
given in Fig. (3).
Fig. (3))
Proposed Methodology adopted.
YOLOv3 ARCHITECTURE
You Only Look Once, Version 3 (YOLOv3) is an object identification
system that detects particular items in films, live feeds, or pictures. It
is a sophisticated convolutional neural network (CNN) for real-time
object identification. Furthermore, it is well-known for its great
accuracy and ability to operate in real-time or be utilized for real-world
applications. The YOLO method “just looks once” at the source
image, which means it only needs one forward propagating pass via
the network to generate predictions. Fig. (4) shows the standard
YOLOv3 framework.
Fig. (4))
YOLOv3 Framework for Object Detection.
CNN's are classifier-based systems capable of processing incoming
pictures as organized arrays of data and detecting patterns between
them. YOLO has the benefit of being far quicker than some other
networks while maintaining accuracy. It enables the model to examine
the entire image at the testing phase, allowing its predictions to be
informed by the image's globalized world. Regions are “scored” by
YOLO and other deep neural network algorithms based on similarities
to specified classifications [15, 26]. High-scoring areas are recorded
as positive detections of the class with which they most strongly
identify.
The previous version was updated for incremental progress and is
now known as YOLO v3. There have been numerous object-tracking
algorithms for a long time, so the rivalry is mainly on how precise and
rapidly things are recognized. YOLO v3 has everything required for
real-time object recognition and object classification.
The improved design has residue skip connections as well as sampling. The most notable characteristic of v3 is that it detects
objects at three distinct scales. YOLO is a deep convolution system
that generates its output by employing a 1 x 1 kernel to a feature
space. In YOLO v3, detection is accomplished using a 1 x 1 detecting
kernel on feature vectors of various sizes at three distinct locations
throughout the network.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
MS COCO (Microsoft Common Objects in Context) is a large-scale
dataset for object recognition, segmentation, key-point identification,
and labeling dataset. There are 328K pictures in the collection.
Annotations: The dataset includes annotations for:
Bounding Box Predictions: Provides object score for every
bounding box. The objectiveness score is predicted using
regression analysis.
Captioning: Image interpretations in natural language (refer to MS
COCO Captions).
Key-point Detection: Over 200,000 images and 250,000 human
instances were tagged with 17 key points.
Image extraction: Per-pixel separation masks for 91 different stuff
categories.
Panoptic: Complete scene classification with 80 item categories
(such as human, bicycle, and elephant) and a subset of 91 thing
categories (grass, sky, road).
Dense Pose: Dense Pose annotations have been applied to over
39,000 pictures and 56,000 person samples; each identified
person is labeled with a sample id and a mapping among image
pixels belonging to that human body and a reference 3D model.
Only the annotations for training and validation pictures are made
public.
The COCO dataset has been labeled, so it may be used to train
supervised computer vision techniques to recognize similar objects in
the dataset [20, 27]. These models are, of course, very far from
perfect, therefore, the COCO dataset serves as a baseline for
assessing the periodic development of these approaches through
computer vision study.
This project aims to achieve real-time recognition accuracy for blind
individuals to make traveling and mobility easier for visually impaired
people by utilizing handheld camera equipment. To assure the test's
independence, the test participants were blinded at every trial and
confused at the start of every trial. We used a head-mount for the
mounting method of any compact camera equipment. As an
experimental configuration, we utilize a Smartphone placed on the
head using the Android app “IP Webcam.” The subjects that wore our
system found it easy to transport because it is wireless and
lightweight, and any tiny dimensions portable camera equipment may
be put on it. Following the system's startup, the performance of the
test subject was monitored to ensure that the items in the environment
were properly detected and that the output help was adequate. The
individual was then requested to match his knowledge with what the
software was assisting him with, and the aided results were compared
with the real necessary results to confirm the system's accuracy in
detecting numerous items in the surroundings. It is also examined to
see if the items identified are in the places suggested by the program.
The patient recognized the various things without using his hands or
any other physical help. Here's how to construct a basic head mount
that will allow us to transmit video from the forehead to our
smartphone.
Materials and Tools: Cotton belt/strap, rubber bands, and hard
cardboard, as shown in Fig. (5).
Fig. (5))
Materials and tools required.
The supplies listed above are needed to create a small handmade
experimental setup, which includes a cotton strap to wrap as a
headband. In addition, cardboard and rubber bands are utilized to
provide movable support, as shown in Fig. (6).
Fig. (6))
Basic experimental setup.
The image above depicts the whole configuration of our portable
device, which can be used with any portable camera equipment. This
setup prototype is the basic form; it may be adjusted and extended
further based on the demands and standards. The primary objective of
this research is to assist visually impaired persons in detecting and
identifying objects. Blind individuals would be able to utilize our
technology to recognize the texts displayed on the objects as well.
This experiment is intended to assess the YOLOv3 algorithm's
capacity to find items, detect text, and provide audio output to aid a
blind user in recognizing an object.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The suggested framework is made up of two components: object
detection and OCR. Object detection's primary goal is to evaluate the
existence of items in the view in front of people, whereas OCR
delivers text to users.
For the gross orientation challenge, the system performed quite well.
Objects within several meters of the observer were identified
efficiently. As every 30th frame is collected and analyzed, real-time
processing with a continual change in location was occasionally
complex but typically acceptable. It has been noted that the vocal
output for the identified items was straightforward and intuitive to
comprehend and that it is successful since it does not cause an
overload of information and consumes less effort to get used to it.
Following that, the simplicity of usage was enhanced. During OCR
detection, the system identified the text extremely rapidly, and it was
subsequently transformed into spoken output with quite a high
accuracy, including local languages.
System Work-Flow for Object Detection
Fig. (7a and 7b) shows the system workflow and the object detection
module adopted.
Fig. (7))
(a). System workflow diagram. (b). Object Detection Module
Fig. (8))
A person and cell phone is detected with their correct spatial positions
Fig. (9))
Table and chair are detected with their correct spatial positions.
Fig. (8 and 9) shows the details of the object detected with their
correct spatial positions
SMART READING SYSTEM FOR VISUALLY
IMPAIRED PEOPLE USING TESSERACT
We present a smart device that helps the visually impaired read
paper-printed text. A camera is used as a device that can be used for
reading text documents. Based on studies with Blind people, the
design is made portable. The proposed system feeds data into the
system using a portable IP webcam which is then processed by
Tesseract [6, 28]. The OCR software and the Text-to-Speech (TTS)
are the fundamental blocks used as the basis for most access
technology solutions designed for people with blindness and reduced
vision. Optical character recognition (OCR) is the translation into the
machine-encoded text of the recorded images from printed text. OCR
is a mechanism in which objects (letters, symbols, and numbers)
relate a symbolic value to a character’s image. Optical character
recognition is also beneficial for people who are unable to read a text
document but intend to know its content. OCR enables the use of
machine translation, text-to-speech, and data extraction techniques in
recorded or scanned documents. The final accepted text document is
fed to the output system or a speaker that can read out text aloud.
FLOW PROCESS OF TESSERACT
Image Capturing: It is the step where the cell phone captures the
image with text on it. To provide quick and consistent identification
through the high-resolution camera, the image quality should be
high.
Pre-processing: Noise is removed in the pre-processing stage.
The image is scanned for skewing. Skewing can occur either in
the right or left orientation. The image is brightened before moving
to further processing.
Segmentation: The picture is then transferred to the segmentation
stage after pre-processing. In this process, it attempts to break
down a picture of a series of symbols into the individual symbol
sub-image. The picture histogram helps to measure the horizontal
line width. The width of the words is detected using histograms.
They are then broken down into symbols that use symbol width
calculation.
Feature Extraction: Feature extraction is the process of mining
out features from a picture that are defined by character, height,
and width, the horizontal and vertical lines, pixels in the various
regions, etc.
Image to Text Converter: The ASCII values are processed for
known characters. Here each character matches its equivalent
pattern and is saved as a regularized transcript of the text.
The fundamental block of this system is Tesseract and gets; below
(Fig. 11) demonstrates the workflow of the proposed system.
Fig. (10))
(a). System work-flow of OCR (b). Text Recognition System.
Fig. (11))
The text on the screen is detected with an accurate output.
Fig. (12))
The text on the screen is detected with an accurate output.
Fig. (13))
The text on the screen is detected with an accurate output.
The flow diagram of the OCR working in an experimental setup is
shown in Fig. (10a and 10b) where the live video captures the text
images as input which is then fed to the server for processing, and the
subject is assisted with audio output. Fig. (11-13) shows the accurate
output drawn by detecting the text on the screen.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Despite recent advances in object recognition, some issues demand
special consideration.
From the most recent developing trends, such as brain-inspired
computation and collaborative learning.
The benefit and advantage of object recognition may be
increased or employed in other modalities, such as gesture
recognition.
Particular components of object recognition are rudimentary and
require substantial improvements, such as tagged training sets
and large amounts of data to train.
The computational tool proved efficient and successful in a
specific sector while also developed as a powerful generalized
tool.
Lacks a basic detector that meets the complete criteria.
An innovative method for optimizing hyper-parameters for deep
learning modules.
CONCLUSION
Almost every element of our daily life is influenced by technology. Only
a few tasks are performed without the aid of technology. AT is
generally conceptualized as technology designed specifically for
persons with disabilities to augment or replace function. This word is
frequently used to describe the devices required by several pieces of
policy that aid in the accessibility and inclusiveness of individuals with
disabilities. However, in recent decades, technology developed for
common use (i.e., currently accessible and not specifically created for
persons with disabilities) has proven useful to people with a wide
range of abilities. Information, communication, and computing
infrastructure, particularly, contain features that allow them access to
consumers of varying capacities. YOLOv3 is a revolutionary deep
learning-based system for object identification and categorization. Our
suggested application captures images in real-time and sends them to
the obstacle recognition system. The experiment results demonstrate
the deep efficacy of the system, which is capable of not only
displaying the output of the obstacle identified and classifying the
obstacle but also generating audio output in their native languages.
The use of obstacle detection and categorization for visually impaired
individuals would improve their safety and comfort, resulting in a higher
quality of life daily. We plan to investigate the distance between
visually impaired persons and barriers in the future. We intend to
investigate a comparable triangle, Euclidean distance, and other
hypotheses before incorporating them to enhance the application.
Consent of Publication
The Figures used in this chapter are in the public domain (copyrightfree) and are under other open licenses. Hence, no consent is to be
taken from anyone for the materials used in this chapter.
Conflict of Interest
The authors have no Conflict of Interest to declare. All co-authors
have seen and agree with the contents of the manuscript, and there is
no financial interest to report.
Acknowledgment
The authors of the chapter would like to acknowledge our colleagues
who initially reviewed the chapter before submitting it to the editors.
Also, the authors are thankful for the non-teaching staff who stayed
with us after working hours while documenting and fine-tuning the
chapter.
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Assistive Technology
Comfort and Care
for
Home
Annu Rani1, *, Vishal Goyal1, Lalit Goyal2
1 Department of Computer Science, Punjabi University Patiala (Punjab), India
2 Department of Computer Science, DAV College, Jalandhar (Punjab), India
Abstract
Every second, individuals with physical and cognitive disabilities
struggle so much to do some actions that normal people easily do
within seconds. Assistive Technologies (AT) are those modules or
sets of arrangements that aim to make life easy for disabled
people, by stopping blockage and improving their mental and
physical power. They improve their working capability, confidence,
standard of living, and optimism. In modern times, Artificial
Intelligence (AI) and technologies are developing rapidly, and new
machines, motors, and mostly electronic devices powered by
powerful batteries are being built every second. These are making
it possible for disabled people to become self-dependent. Today,
Assistive technology devices are efficient and suitable for disabled
people. This chapter aims to provide in-depth knowledge about
various types of disabilities, how disabled people face different
problems and challenges, and how they can select and use
assistive devices and mobile apps to live independently and
comfortably.
Keywords: Ability, Activities, Aids, Assistive Technology, Comfort,
Communication, Devices, Disability, Disabled People, Disease, Difficulty,
Guardian, Help, Independence, Home, Individual, Mobility, Obstacles, Product,
Person, Services.
*
Corresponding author Annu Rani: Department of Computer Science,
Punjabi University Patiala (Punjab), India Mob. 94787-75953; Tel: 9478775953; E-mail:annurani800@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Assistive technologies are devices used to support the health and every activity
of a disabled person [1]. It promotes the ability of a disabled person to
perform activities of daily living (ADLs) independently. ADLs are self-care
activities, such as eating, bathing, dressing, toileting, mobility, and personal
device care. Assistive Technologies help to perform major and daily life
activities that are otherwise impossible for the individual to carry out. The great
principle of promoting ability includes a higher level of independence, reduction
of spending
time in daily living activities, and greater satisfaction in participating in daily
activities. For example, wheelchairs provide great help in independent mobility
for those who cannot walk, assistive eating devices can enable people who
cannot eat food themselves, and hearing aids are useful for hearing-disabled
people to hear more clearly, etc [2]. By using assistive technology, a disabled
person has an opportunity for a positive and independent lifestyle and
increased participation in social activities. This technology has proved a boon
for disabled people by providing entertainment, security, a comfort zone,
independent life, etc. Today, a lot of disabled people have gained high fame
and name in the world by using AT. Several companies, such as Apple,
Facebook, Flipkart, Google, Tata Group of Industries, and IBM Corporation,
have increasingly focused on making their services more accessible for
disabled people and building adaptive devices to improve their user’s quality of
life. By current estimations, more than 4,000 assistive technology devices have
been invented for elders and disabled people. This equipment includes
everything from wheelchairs to a wide collection of high-technology devices,
and many firms today are turning their focus and research to assistive
technologies. There is an urgent requirement to consult a health care provider,
such as a doctor, pharmacy technician, psychologist, or physical therapist to
find out what is best available to fit the requirements. Various public and
privates sources, such as UCP Bellow Funds, American Council of Blinds,
Muscular Dystrophy Association, US Department of Veterans Affairs, National
Multiple Sclerosis Society, etc. provide funds for AT devices.
The organized structure of the chapter is as follows: Sect. 2 presents the
disability and types of disabilities, Sect. 3 presents the common barriers faced
by people with disabilities, Sect. 4 presents the principles for providing
assistive devices, Sect. 5 presents various types of assistive technologies,
Sect. 6 presents different types of mobile apps for disabled people, Sect. 7
presents the benefits of assistive devices in individual life and Sect. 8 includes
a conclusion.
DISABILITY
More than one billion (1,000,000,000) people worldwide, making up
approximately 15% of the total population, live with some kind of disability [3].
According to the WHO disability report, the population of disabled people is
increasing daily because of the global rise in severe health conditions related
to disability, such as hypertension, diabetes, respiratory illnesses, heart
diseases, and mental disorder. Other environmental elements, e.g., floods,
volcanoes, earthquakes, inaccessible transportation, road accidents and
quarrels, are also responsible for increased disabilities.
Disabled people often face discrimination in recruitment, salary, promotion,
work, healthcare services, and educational institutions [4]. Usually,
organizations and governments often overlook the needs of disabled people,
even though people with disabilities are among the weakest, with lower
educational success, lower job opportunities, and the poorest people. Poverty
can be reduced if we include and take disabled people together.
Types of Disabilities
According to the RPWD (Rights of Persons with Disabilities) Act 2016, the list
of disabilities has included a total of 21 disabilities, and all the disabilities are
explained below.
Blindness
Blindness refers to a person with a blindness disability who is altogether
unable to see by both eyes or sightless at all [5, 6].
Low Vision
Low vision refers to the vision loss caused by a disease of the eyes, which
cannot be improved or corrected via regular glasses, surgery,
pharmaceuticals, or contact lenses.
Hearing Disability
This disability includes those people who are partially or completely deaf. They
often use hearing aids and sign language for interaction with normal people.
Hearing aids assist the hard of hearing people to hear sound clearly. Sign
Language is a visual gesture language used by deaf people to convey what
they want to say.
Dwarfism
Dwarfism or short stature, is a growth disorder characterized by a smaller
height than usual.
Intellectual Disability
Intellectual disability, also called Mental Retardation (MR) or learning disability,
is characterized by below-average brain functioning (decision-making, learning,
thinking, and reasoning) and a lack of skills required for everyday life activities
[7]. A person with an intellectual disability can learn new activities, but he/she
learns slowly compared to normal people [8].
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
ASD is a developmental and neurological disorder that causes troubles in
social communication and behavior. The developmental disorder can be
diagnosed in early childhood. Autism largely affects non-verbal communication,
behavior, cognition, social interaction, speaking skills, physical health, and
feelings of the affected person.
Mental Illness
Mental health disorder or mental illness means a substantial disorder of
memory, thinking, spirit, mood, observation, orientation, or perception that
grossly impairs judgment, emotions, manners, power to recognize real life, or
capacity to meet the normal needs of life [9].
Locomotor Disability
A person with a locomotor disability faces difficulty in mobility or walking from
one place to another. Usually, it is considered a disability associated with legs,
feet, limbs, injuries of the spine, and joints. It causes difficulties in individual’s
movements, e.g., Holding objects in hands, raising both arms altogether or
walking [10].
Leprosy Cured Persons
Leprosy is an infective disease, also called Hansen’s disease (HD), caused by
a slow-growing bacterium called Mycobacterium leprae. People with Leprosy
suffer from loss of sensation in feet and arms, skin sores, disfigureuring lumps,
peripheral nerve damage, loss of eyelashes, and pain in the joints [11].
Muscular Dystrophy (MD)
Muscular dystrophy is a set of abnormal genes or inherited diseases that
cause muscles to become weaker and lose muscle strength.
Chronic Neurological Conditions
Neurological diseases include a group of diseases such as Parkinson’s
disease, Huntington’s disease, headaches, Stroke, cognitive disease, and
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis [11].
Specific Learning Disability
Specific Learning Disabilities include a collection of disabling conditions that
curb a person's ability to reason, identify the character, learn, think, read,
write, logic, listen, and correct spelling.
Multiple Sclerosis(MS)
MS is a potentially disabling disease that attacks the spinal cord and brain that
cause interaction troubles between the brain and the rest of the body. MS
symptoms include blurred vision, thinking problems, bone stiffness, weakness,
fatigue, fuzzy memory, etc.
Speech and Language Disability
Speech and language disorder affects speech and learning ability due to
various causes, such as brain injury, cognitive disorder, neurological disorder,
hearing loss [12], etc.
Thalassemia
Thalassemia is a hereditary blood disorder in which the body produces
abnormal or less hemoglobin. It is the responsibility of hemoglobin to carry
oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body. Consequently, there is a
decrease in the excessive number of red blood cells, which leads to a new
disease called anemia.
Hemophilia
Hemophilia is a blood disease due to a lack of clotting factors in the blood. A
person with hemophilia may bleed for a longer period after a wound or injury
than normal [13].
Sickle Cell Disease
Sickle cell disease is a genetic set of blood disorders due to RBC (Red Blood
Cell) breakdown. The main symptoms of sickle cell disease are pain, delayed
growth, swelling of feet, dizziness, fatigue and infections.
Multiple Disabilities, including Deaf-Blindness
Multiple disabilities combine two or more disabilities that affect listening,
learning, visual and thinking power. Deafblindness is a multiple disability, the
combination of both hearing impairment and visual impairment [14]. A person
with a deaf-blindness disability faces extreme challenges in his life.
Acid Attack
An acid attack is a kind of cruelty or violence in which corrosive or acid is
thrown at girls or women to kill them [15].
Parkinson’s disease (PD)
PD is a brain disease that generates difficulty in movements, balance, fatigue
and sleeping problems.
Cerebral Palsy (CP)
CP is the most common disability that occurs in children before birth because
of abnormal brain development. CP disability affects the child’s ability to move
and maintain balance and body posture.
Types of disabilities are shown in below Fig. (1)
Fig. (1))
Different types of disabilities
COMMON BARRIERS FACED BY PEOPLE WITH
DISABILITIES
Every human being faces problems, tensions, and hardships at one time or
another time. But, people with disabilities have more frequent and challenging
hardships than healthy humans. Often there are various obstacles in the life of
the disabled person, making it difficult or impossible for him to function.
Communication Problem
Communication problems are faced by those who have disabilities in speaking,
hearing, understanding, reading, or writing, and they use different approaches
to interact with normal people.
Examples of communication obstacles consist of the following:
Audible messages may not be accessible for those people who have
hearing disabilities consisting.
Videos are playing without subtitles or captions.
Verbal interactions without associated manual interpretation (such as
British Sign Language).
Normal people want to interact with Deaf people. But both of them do
not know the other language. Deaf people cannot understand normal
people’s language, and normal people do not know sign language.
Here, the language is a communication barrier between both
communities.
Written messages may not be accessible for those people who have
vision disabilities consisting.
Use a small font size of print material without proper alignment.
Braille is not available for the community that uses a screen reader.
People with cognitive disabilities may not understand long sentences,
technical words and some words with many syllables.
Physical obstacles
Physical obstacles are structural barriers in artificial or natural environments
that stop or obstruct mobility. There are some examples of physical obstacles
consist of:
Curbs and Stairs prevent an individual with a mobility disability from
entering a shop, educational institute, hospital, restaurant, bank, etc.
Not sufficient space around toilet rooms and other areas makes it difficult
for a wheelchair person to turn around.
Mobility impairment students also faced the trouble of congested
classrooms, lack of seats in the lab, classroom, etc [16].
Heavy doors will be hard for people with a mobility disabilities to open.
Social Obstacles
Social obstacles are related to the situations in which human beings are
born, grow, understand, observe, feel, think, live, and operate– or social
determinants of health care– that can put up to reduced working power
among disabled people.
People with disabilities get fewer jobs than normal people [17].
A few students with disabilities get a high school education compared to
students without disabilities.
Employees with disabilities get lower incomes as compared to healthy
people.
Attitudinal barriers
Attitudinal obstacles are the most fundamental and put up to other problems.
For example, some people probably do not realize that troubles in getting on
time or into a place can stop or limit a disabled person from participating in
daily life activities. Some examples of attitudinal obstacles consist of:
Misconception: In society, normal people have wrong beliefs about
disabled people. For example, normal people assume disability is a
personal tragedy, a curse of God, and wrong deeds in the previous birth,
etc. These beliefs make disabled people alone in society.
Stereotyping: People sometimes think about disabled people, they are
unfit, and the quality of their life is poor because of their disabilities.
Discrimination and favoritism: People sometimes assume that people with
disabilities are not able to do good quality work or are unable to
participate in the decision-making process because of their disabilities.
That’s why people with impairment get less employment and salary
compared to healthy people.
Transportation obstacles
Transportation obstacles are due to insufficient transportation that obstructs a
person’s capability to be self-determinant and to operate freely in society.
Some examples of transportation obstacles consist of:
Lack of convenient transportation for those who cannot drive due to
cognitive, vision or physical impairments.
Unavailibity of public transportation, perhaps at unsuitable locations.
Overcrowded public transportation, limited reserved seats and sometimes
reserved seats already occupied by healthy persons.
The conductors of the vehicle have no time for the person with disabilities.
PRINCIPLES FOR PROVIDING ASSISTIVE DEVICES
The main goal of assistive devices and technologies is to maintain or improve
an individual functionality and performance and help them live independently in
society. A variety of devices are available in the market for disabled people.
For example, vision aids, hearing aids, wheelchairs, and special computer
software improve visual, hearing, mobility, and learning capacities.
Availability
Products and services are within easy reach in adequate amounts as close as
possible to infants' or children’s communities. The children can obtain more
benefits by using adaptive devices and live a more enjoyable life.
Accessibility
Products and services are reachable to everyone who requires them. Their
supply or delivery should be without discrimination of color, age, religion,
impairment groups, gender, creed and socio-economic groups. Physical
accessibility means physical access to products and information; for example,
easy entry into buildings, sufficient space to move around for wheelchairs,
lights are appropriate, symbols presented in Braille format, seat availability,
electronic switches, translating devices etc. Cognitive accessibility means that
audible and written documents and instructions are in simple and unambiguous
language, signs are presented in concrete format rather than abstract,
services are easily available, and products are user-friendly—all from the
perspective of disabled people [18].
Affordability
Products and services are reasonably priced for the family of every person
who requires them. Many of them will not be able to buy assistive technology
devices unless it is delivered without any charge or subsidies.
Adaptability
Products and services are modified and changed according to the demands
and requirements of the person. They must adapt to differences in the
condition of environmental elements (for example, physical, environment,
cognitive environment, and society) as well as individual facets such as health
condition, body posture, body capacity, intellectual level, age, and habits.
Acceptability
Products and services are suitable for every person. Factors such as
efficiency, affordability, reliability, robustness, user-friendly, simplicity,
protection, comfort and aesthetics should be considered to ensure that related
services and equipment are suitable to the individual. In addition, available
product designs, equipment materials, and colors should satisfy both girls and
boys.
Quality
Services and products are well fit for use by an individual. Product quality can
be estimated using technical standards or instructions in terms of safety, price,
design, preference, shape, strength, user satisfaction, durability, and comfort.
ASSISTIVE
TECHNOLOGIES
FOR
HOME
RELAXATION AND CARE FOR DISABLED PEOPLE
In modern times, different assistive devices are available online, in the shop,
malls, and markets. According to the requirement, disabled people select
assistive aid to live an independent and comfortable life.
Mobility aids
A person who has a physical disability may require support to walk. Mobility
devices targeted to assist with mobility aids include manual and powered
wheelchairs, canes, crutches, walkers, scooters, prosthetics, artificial legs,
supportive seats, corner chairs, walking sticks, tricycles, walking frames and
orthotic aids [19]. These devices assist the user in various ways, including selfesteem, increased self-confidence and independence [20]. Different types of
mobility devices are shown in below Fig. (2)
Fig. (2))
Mobility devices for disabled people [21].
Wheelchair: Wheelchair is a chair used by those people who cannot walk
due to spinal cord injuries, cerebral palsy, muscular dystrophy, disability,
illness, and problems related to old age, etc. Wheelchairs are also more
comfortable for people with serious impairments or when traveling a long
distance is required. Wheelchairs come in various designs, or formats to
meet the specific requirements of their users. Examples of specific kinds
of wheelchairs include powered wheelchairs, folding wheelchairs, standing
wheelchairs, sports wheelchairs, etc. Wheelchairs target to promote selfdependence during mobility or walking, increase security and selfconfidence and decrease the burden on guardians.
Scooters: Scooters are useful for those people with mobility disabilities.
Like wheelchairs, a scooter has a seat set on a peak of either four or five
wheels. The disabled user puts his feet on foot placements and controls
direction using steering wheels.
Crutches are medical equipment for those patients who can use their
shoulders and arms strength for weight-bearing and not just for stability
and balance. Single crutch equalizes 80% burden-bearing support, and
both crutches equalize 100% weight-bearing support. Platform, Forearms,
and axillaries are three types of crutches.
Canes are helpful for people at risk of suddenly falling and having trouble
with stability and balance [22]. In contrast, the user walks with a walking
stick or cane and feels secure and safe [23]. White cane, forearm cane,
and quad canes are common types of canes, and different types, designs
and colors of canes are available in the market [24].
Listening and Hearing Aids
Hearing-impaired people can hear more clearly by using hearing devices. A
hearing aid is a small-size battery-powered tool that wears in a person’s ear or
behind it to improve his hearing power [25]. It amplifies sound signals so that
he/she can interact and participate in daily activities. It has three components.
The sound signals are obtained with the help of a microphone which translates
the sound propagation into electrical signals. These signals are passed to an
amplifier that amplifies the power of signals and sends them into the ear using
a speaker. Behind-the-ear, in-the-ear, and canal hearing aids are styles of
hearing aids.
Hardwired ALDs (Assistive Listening Devices) use a concrete wire or
coil to broadcast the audio signals, binding the listener to the source of the
sound. A wired ALD device is typically cheaper, user-friendly, and easy to
move. It is the best choice for circumstances where the speaker and
listener are not in longer distances, such as in a hotel, an automobile, a
theater, or a television viewing. A drawback of the instrument is limited
mobility and restrictive seating places determined by the length of the
wire. This limits the utility of hardwired devices in larger interaction or
communication situations such as in a group discussion, lecture, meeting,
or seminar.
Wireless ALDs: Wireless devices send the signal without the direct
physical connection of a cord between the sound source and the listener.
In this technology, a voice transmitter is attached to the source of the
sound, and the receiver wears wireless listening devices. The wireless
communication between sender and listener can be infrared lights,
induction loops, and electromagnetic energy or FM radio waves. Wireless
systems can be more movable depending on the power of sound signals
and the range of devices and can be restricted by a line of sight and
security purpose of the signal.
FM system: FM is a wireless ALSs (Assistive Listening System) that uses
radiocast technology. It is frequently used in the academic world and
offers portability, mobility, adjustability, and flexibility when fit on movable
body-worn transmitters. FM system works with good adaptability and
elasticity for all listening circumstances, but it is necessary that the sender
and receiver work on an identical frequency [26].
Closed Captions and Subtitles: The individual with a hearing problem
can watch TV news, programs, and movies by reading subtitles. By
reading subtitles, the users can build their vocabulary and reading skills.
Cognitive Devices
Cognition is identifying, recognizing, and understanding via thought and
processing information. It refers to the cognitive operations of the brain, such
as memorizing, planning, creating ideas, reasoning, and problem-solving. Longterm stress, Brain injuries, dementia, social isolation, intellectual impairment,
childhood abuse, mental illness, and bereavement are some of the many
states that may affect a person's intellectual ability.
Cognitive devices such as educational software, alarm, calendars, lists,
computers, word prediction software, diaries, or electronic assistive devices
(e.g., pagers, mobile phones, etc.) help people with cognitive impairment with
attention in recognizing, decision-making, problem-solving, matching,
reasoning, perceptual skills, association, memorizing etc.
Comforting Aids
A person with cognitive impairment can feel good or happy by holding his
favorite objects such as a toy, a cup, a favorite color bed sheet, a blanket or
other personal object. Pets can also assist in making someone feel
comfortable or happy. They can cheer, pacify, support, and comfort people.
Another device for supporting and comforting people with cognitive impairment
is the “Squeeze Machine”. The machine is designed to calm oversensitive or
intolerable people, generally those with an autistic spectrum disorder.
Limit Motor Skills Aids
The people with limited strength in their hands, or those with no hands, use
different body parts, such as the forehead, elbow etc., to do their work.
Adaptive Switches: Adaptive switches enable people with physical
disabilities to operate and use any switched-enabled equipment like
computers, mobile phones, or tablets. The physically disabled person can
use the head, toe, thumb, chin, forehead, and elbow to press these
switches, whatever fits the person with a physical disability.
Mouth Stick: A mouth stick is a stick that is placed in the mouth of a
physically disabled person so that she or he can touch the phone screen,
play games on the computer, and even press keys on a keyboard. A
person with neurological disease or spinal cord injuries can use a mouth
stick to perform various activities such as drawing, turning pages, lifting
clothes, playing games, etc.
Environmental Control Devices: Nowadays, the physically disabled
person can easily use Environmental Control Devices if he or she can use
some different input mode so that they can easily control electronic
instruments at home such as heaters, cookers, fans, tube-lights, and
electronically controlled doors.
Personal Emergency Response System: A personal or Medical
Emergency Response System is a tool that can assist a person with
physical disabilities. Usually, this equipment comes in the form of a
wearable wristband, pin, or clip attached to clothes, or transmitters worn
around the neck or in the pocket. By pressing a button on the equipment,
the individual can send an alert signal to the selected caretaker in case of
any type of emergency.
Speech and Voice Recognition Devices: Speech and voice recognition
are valuable devices for differently-abled people who cannot enter data
into a computer by typing keys from the keyboard or touching a touch
screen. Some special speech and voice recognition software make it
possible to insert data and instructions into the computer by only talking to
them [27].
Google Home: Amazon Echo or Google Home is an assistant device for
those people who can limit the use of their hands, fingers, and arms to be
able to use their game devices, computers, and phone. These tools can
perform a set of everyday tasks such as making movie recommendations,
playing a song, making an invitation, and responding to basic queries
expressed by the client about the event.
Vision Aids
Visual impairments or low vision significantly impact an individual’s skill to do
everyday activities. A variety of assistive technology devices (cheap to
expensive) can be used to build confidence and increase participation and selfdetermination, including the Braille system, mobile phones, radio, low vision
lamps, screen readers, white canes, magnifiers, large and bold font print
books, Glare Control Devices, Telescopes, translation system, Closed Circuit
Television(CCTV), etc.
Optical magnifiers: Optical magnifiers magnify or enlarge the image
formed on the eye’s retina. For example, dome, hand-held, hanging,
illuminated stands, spectacles, telescopes, pocket magnifiers, etc.
Low vision lamps: Enhanced, or good lighting may help people with low
eyesight to read and write documents easier, thereby improving their
writing and reading performance. These devices include pure vision2,
compact fluorescent (CFL) Miroco LED, Tao Tronics LED, halogen lamps
and portable desk lamps, etc. Various brightness levels will be helpful in
writing, creating art, and reading. The low-vision lamps can be easily
found at various malls, online stores, or in catalogs.
GPS Locator: GPS locator is a device that is helpful for low vision or
visually impaired people. By using this device, visually impaired people can
travel independently without fear of making the wrong turn or getting lost.
Braille Translator Software (BTS): Braille conversion software converts
electronic data into Braille format and passes it to a Braille embosser
which generates a printed copy of the original data. BTS can read a range
of digital text files, for example, plain text documents, MS Word, RTF
files, PDF, log files, and HTML files [28]. The common conversion
software contains Euler, Duxbury Braille Translator, Dolphin Easy
Converter, Index Braille app, Braille 2000 US, etc.
Screen Readers: Screen magnifiers of enlargement are the applications
that help those with low vision read data on the screen [29]. Screen
enlargement enlarges the text as we write them to make it more
comfortable to read [30].
Audio Format Materials (AFM): It is very helpful for numerous people
and students with low vision and visual impairments. This format enables
the students to get or read the materials, information, and documents via
hearing devices, e.g., I-Pod, CD Players, DAISY (Digital Accessible
Information System), computer software, etc.
Eye Trackers: Eye-tracking is a device that follows the action and
movement of the eyeballs, and eyelids and allows disabled people to use
their computer, or mobile by movements of their eyes [31]. The individual
who is disabled can type data by looking at key symbols or data
presented on the visible screen. But everyone cannot purchase this device
because it is very expensive.
Talking watches are helpful devices for blind or visually impaired students
who are learning day’s names and time scheduling skills. Numerous
brands of talking watches in a variety of designs, colors, and sizes are
available online, in stores etc.
Digital audio recorder: It may assist those students who are visually
impaired or blind and can record lectures, e.g., ICD-PX470, Roland R07,
Zoom H4n Pro, Olympus WS-852, etc.
Talking calculators are specially designed for blind students studying in
academic classes. Talking calculator reads aloud each operator, and
number key that the student press, and also speaks the result to the
question.
White cane: It is a mobility device for people with vision loss or blind for
safe and independent travel. Blind people can identify uneven surfaces,
edges, steps, pits, dents, etc. Some users pick to use a white cane to
walk from one place to another, while others use it to tell people about
their blindness or visual disability. Various kinds of sticks, like guide cane,
mushroom tip, long cane, symbol canes, and all-white sticks, are used for
various purposes.
Home Security and Safety
There are plenty of devices that provide a safe and secure life for disabled
people at home. Smart locks, doorbells, smart windows, and small gadgets lift
the security system to their homes and reduce the anxiety of their guardians.
These devices also help the guardians to monitor the visitors that might be
visiting them. Smart lighting, power plugs, carbon monoxide detectors, fire and
smoke alarms, alert sentry systems, and water overflow sensors are very
useful for helping disabled individuals live independently for longer [32, 33].
Daily Living Aids
Self-helping aids help the person with impairments in everyday living activities
such as cooking, bathing, washing, dressing, eating, home maintenance,
drinking, etc., including pen holders, dressing aids, bath chairs, bathtub seats,
eating utensils, adapted clothing, adapted books, powered lift, specialized
feeding spoon, grooming, transfer board, folding chair, shower chair, alarm,
toileting accessories, time scheduled aids, specialized handles. Various types
of daily living aids are shown in Fig. (3) Common subclasses are also
explained below.
Fig. (3))
Daily living aids [34].
Cooking and eating aids: AT provides different types of devices for meal
preparation, including spread boards, Slicers, scales, cooking baskets,
and chopping aids. These devices are specially designed to assist anyone
with limited power in their hands or strength to securely and independently
cook their own food. But, before selecting cooking and eating aids, you
should identify your own personal requirements. Because some devices
are more useful for people with one hand and other devices are more
suitable for those with limited mobility in the wrist or hands [35].
Dining aids: Dining and drinking aids benefit people who face intricacy
while eating and drinking. Dining aids include easy-grip utensils, rotating
plates, easy-hold forks and spoons, a mug with a built-in straw, a steady
spoon, a scoop dish plate, a plate guard, etc. These devices help users to
eat and drink by themselves. For example, for a person with a weak grip
who has difficulty using a spoon, adaptive dining devices such as an easyhold spoon or fork may be beneficial for him to feed himself independently.
Dressing and clothing aids: Dressing and clothing adaptive devices are
uniquely designed for people with restricted dexterity, bending
precautions, restricted reach, limited mobility, and lack of strength in
hands can make it tough to put on the dress [36]. AT offers a variety of
dressing aids, including dressing sticks, button hooks, hip replacement
packs, zipper ties, ring zippers, elastic shoe laces, etc.
Toileting and showering aid: Bathing and toileting equipments for
disabled people can make it feasible for them to take comfort showering
without any dependence on guardians or caregivers, and privacy in the
toilet and bathroom [37]. A wide range of assistive devices, including
elevated toilet seats, toilet transfer benches, toilet safety frames,
splashguard, bath lifts, grab bars, bathroom trolleys, shower commodes,
grab rails, etc., are available in stores and online.
Computer Access Aids
People with disabilities can access the computer at home, school, and office,
enabled by hardware and software products. It includes adapted or alternate
keyboards, touch screens, specialized translators speech to text, light
pointers, adaptive mouse, modified keyboards, text readers, head pointers,
etc., that enables disabled people to use the computer.
Table 1 Different types of assistive devices for disabled people.
Disability
Mobility
Vision
Hearing Communication Cognition
Devices
Manual
Walker, White cane, Headphones, Communication Adapted
devices wheelchair, magnifier, hearing aid cards, boards, keyboards,
cornerBraille
tubes,
communication adaptive
chair,
system,
microphone with signs and
mouse,
walking
Braille
pictures.
modified
frame,
chess,
keyboards,
walking- Braille slate,
head
stick, hand- Eyeglasses,
pointers,
splint, leg low-vision
toys,
splint,
lamp, Braille
games
standing
compass,
frame,
walking
stick with
seat,
ferrules
shoes,
Disability
Mobility
Vision
Hearing Communication Cognition
Devices
Artificial
stairOCR
Doorbell,
Electronic
voice
Intelligence climbing
(Optical
amplified
communication recognition,
(AI) based wheelchairs, Character telephone, equipment with
text
devices
bionic
Recognition) vibrating
recorder
readers,
prosthetics, system, alarm clock,
touch
limbs
talking
hearing loop,
screens,
calculator,
amplified
light pen,
talking
cordless
trackball,
watch, phone, visual
specialized
artificial
alert.
translators
eyes, Voice
speech to
Over, KNFB
text, light
Reader
pointers,
The Table 1 above represents a wide range of assistive devices for disabled
people [38].
MOBILE APPS FOR ALL DISABILITIES
A Mobile App is a kind of software application specially devised to execute on
hand-held devices such as Android phones, watches or tablets. Mobile apps
provide those similar services to users that are accessed on laptops or
computers. A wide range of mobile apps has been developed that not only
assist normal users but also disabled people in performing their day-to-day
activities. Mobile apps help disabled people to enhance their self-confidence,
management of accounts, traveling, and social communication [39].
Voice4u AAC (Augmentative and Alternative Communication): This is
a picture-based app specially designed for people facing communication
challenges. This app has more than 180 pre-loaded symbols to assist
users with speech-challenged. With this app, you can correctly understand
the needs and desires of your loved ones and remove the interaction gap.
Voice4u app allows the users to extend the built-in library by adding more
icons with their own recorded voice.
Be My Eyes: This app is particularly designed for blind and low-vision
users to assist them in finding their lost things, visiting new places,
shopping at malls or stores, etc. Be My Eyes linked the blind user with the
sighted volunteer through a video call. The sighted volunteer assists that
individual in negotiating unknown environments. This tool is free of cost to
use and accessible on both android and IOS.
Subtitle Viewer: This app displays open subtitles in real-time on iOS
devices. It is beneficial for people with hearing disabilities. They can enjoy
TV programs by reading subtitles without the assistance of other family
members. Deaf people can learn the spelling of words, understand
technical terminology, and increase their reading skills by reading subtitles.
Normal people also watch TV shows through subtitles in noise-free
environments, like offices, hospitals, libraries, etc. This tool covers a large
number of users because it supports twenty languages.
Speak for Yourself (SfY): SfY app was built by speech therapists. This
app is being downloaded and used by a large number of users worldwide
with limited speaking strength, preschool kids, autism disorder, and
cerebral palsy.
ModMath: ModMath application was built for parents of kids with
intellectual disabilities. This app assists disabled children with dysgraphia,
dyscalculia, and dyslexia to easily solve mathematics problems through
iPhone. It provides a virtual grid graph that allows the learner to solve
math questions on a graphical paper that is comfortably readable for
them. But besides basic mathematics calculations, this application also
handles large and complicated equations.
NotNav GPS Accessibility: NotNav app is specially designed for blind
and visual-impaired users. This application is more advanced than
traditional GPS tools by declaring your direction, turn, compass heading,
address of the nearest street and all details of nearby places. It is simple
to use and free of charge.
Tap to talk: It is a brilliant mobile that can speak words for someone with
speech problems. The user just taps on the words that are present on the
display screen, and the tool verbalizes the words on behalf of the user.
For people who have speech or communication troubles, this tool could
build their confidence to face their daily life activities.
Roger Voice app: In the modern era, everybody has a smartphone and
enjoys telephone calls with their loved ones. But the deaf people cannot
make telephone calls because of their hearing disability. That is why deaf
people feel a more difficult life than normal people. To overcome this
problem, an app came is known as the Roger voice app. This app
converts what an individual says on the telephone call into real-time
transcription on the individual's screen. Today, deaf people enjoy
telephone calls using the Roger Voice app.
Voice Dream Reader: This app is specially designed for students with
learning disabilities. This tool provides many reading or learning options,
including sentences paragraph, chapter vise, adding special notes,
pronunciation of words, etc. The app supports other features such as
audio synchronization, a reading speed controller, better color animations,
user-friendly text, font size, and many file format options. This app
supports more than 20 languages and is available for Android and iOS
devices.
Learn Braille alphabet: It is an advanced app for blind people. Using this
app, the kids, and students can learn how to listen, pronounce the words,
and write 26 Braille alphabets. This is specially developed with learner
interaction, a user-friendly layout, and good color combinations. The app
is gentle and simple to use.
Light Detector: Light detectors support blind users in doing their
everyday activities independently. It is very simple to run. Just open the
app and place your iPhone camera at your desired source or direction.
The user will listen to a high-volume or low-volume sound depending on
the intensity of light. The user will listen to a high-volume or low-volume
sound based on the strength of the light.
Color App: This is developed for blind or low-vision people by Research
Center for Technology Development for Differently Abled Persons, Punjabi
University Patiala. By using this app, blind people can gain knowledge.
This app is simple to use. By focusing the camera on the object, blind
people get to know the color of the object.
Spoken AAC: The spoken app uses a predictive technique to solve
communication problems for people with language and speech disabilities.
Not only limited to basic words and phrases, the tool predicts the next
terms you are expected to use to create full sentences. You can quickly
write full sentences on your iPhone, iPod, and android smartphone.
Divyang Sarathi: The main target of this app is to provide all important
information related to Persons with Disabilities (PwD), e.g., different
schemes, Acts, Policies, Rules, job opportunities, and disability services in
an attractive and accessible format. The other features of this application
such as audio notes, adjustable font size, user-friendly layout, and bilingual
(both English and Hindi).
P3 App: This app allows the user to make a video call on his mobile via
mobile data or Wifi (Wireless Fidelity) connection. It is designed for the
hearing community, targeting to make communication simple. Now deaf
people can communicate through the P3 app with their friends, family
members, etc. With the P3 app, you not only talk but also see your loved
ones who live anywhere.
Spread the Sign: This app is the world's biggest sign dictionary because
it consists of more than 300,000 signs in 20 different languages. All the
signs have been presented by the deaf to increase the accuracy of
communication. Spreading the sign is beneficial not only for the deaf
community but also for normal people. You can learn many signs in
different languages at home using the spread sign application [40].
Learn ISL: This app is developed by Research Center for Technology
Development for Differently Abled Persons, Punjabi University Patiala, for
deaf and normal people to learn ISL. In this app, the basic words are
translated into human sign videos. This app is interactive to learn ISL
because it also consists of games. The learner can learn ISL easily and
quickly through this game mode.
Wheelmate: This app is used to locate wheelchair-accessible restrooms
and parking spaces at your nearby locations.
Wheelmap: It is an interactive and beneficial app for people with mobility
impairments. This app allows mobility-impaired people to locate
wheelchair-accessible hotels, cafes, restaurants, theaters, restrooms,
malls, and clubs. The Wheelmap app allows users to leave comments and
upload photos of accessible places with others. The users can also put
marks for more accessible and less accessible locations for the upcoming
times by using the get engaged function.
Ghotit Real Writer: It is specially designed for those people who face
difficulty in English writing and spelling correction due to dyslexia and
dysgraphia disabilities. This app automatically checks and corrects
wrongly spelled words, grammatical rules, structure formation, and
punctuation. This tool is designed with many features, such as a grammar
checker, word prediction, default font size, option for text sharing, and a
dedicated dictionary along with explanations.
Spy Sam Reading Series app: It is dedicated to students with dyslexia.
Learning to read is a difficult task for those students with dyslexia. This
app makes learning to read very interestingly by including adventure
stories. Every page has restricted but simple vocabulary words. The app
mainly interacts with the text, which is why the kids mainly concentrate on
reading text rather than pictures.
Make sentences: The tool is a small and creative app to build sentences
in a wide range of ways; pick words and fit them in the sentences where
you see more suitable. This app is an educational and amazing app for
children who want to learn sentence structure and improve their English
reading and writing skills simply.
Book Creator: This app brings creativity among the children to make their
poetry books and interactive stories and convey their final result in the
form of iBook. The story can be fairy tales, king-queen tales, adventure
tales, picture albums, or comic books. This app allows the children to
design anything that they think or feel. Book Creative tool is more popular
and beneficial for children with autism disorders.
Look at me: Kids with autism disorders face challenges in identifying their
emotions and making continuous eye contact with other people. Look at
me tool targets to assist better communication skills in kids with autism
disorder. The kids learn to read the emotions of a person, recognize
faces, read an individual’s face, and click photos themselves in different
styles and poses through this app.
Medication Reminder: This app is extremely helpful and acts as an
organizer and reminder for tablets and medication. This tool is really
valuable for those people who often forget to take their vitamins and
medication at the proper time. By following simple and easy steps, you
can put the name of your pills and obtain reminders for taking medicines.
Millions of users use Medication Reminder to manage their medicine as
prescribed [41].
Finger Print Magic: People with dementia can keep their brains sharp
and inventive daily by using the Finger Print Magic app. This app is simple
and enjoyable for anyone. You can relax your mind by painting with a
combination of lots of colors using your fingers on the phone.
Care Zone: The main target of the care Zone app is to create and
organize health information in a simple and easy way. You can create a
medication plan for yourself, your loved ones, your parents, and anyone
who suffers from dementia. This app supports many features, such as
keeping track of your appointments with a doctor and noting down your
new medicine and doctor’s guidelines.
Autism Care Skills: This tool supports children with autism disorder in
learning interaction, academic, emotional, and social skills. The app
provides a wide range of academic learning levels, such as sorting words,
color concepts, and simple word spelling. Children with autism disorders
learn these academic concepts simply and with more fun by using the
autism core skills app.
BENEFITS OF ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY DEVICES
IN INDIVIDUAL'S LIFE
A disabled person can do his work using assistive technology, and he/she does
not need to depend on others. AT improves the quality of individual life of the
disabled person and reduces the anxiety of guardians [42]. Today, many
people with disabilities have good educations, independent life, and participate
in home, school, social activities, etc., through technology. They are breaking
the barriers in their path and getting more confidence by using technology.
Parents with disabilities can take care of their children by using AT devices. A
blind mother could use Braille layout to assist her child with a math assignment.
A paralyzed mother could walk with her child by using a wheelchair. A father
with hard of hearing could use a hearing aid to discuss a reading lesson or
story with his kid. Students unable to move their hands can type documents
and even draw using a mouth stick. AT contributes to special education,
providing equal opportunities and helping disabled students to attain their
goals. In short, we can say that AT teaches disabled people how to live in the
world.
CONCLUSION
This chapter presents deep information regarding impaired people suffering
from enormous disabilities. Today’s growing technologies have made a great
contribution for specially-abled people to make their lives self-dependent and
more enjoyable in society. Various devices and mobile apps have been
invented and launched in the market for people who need a little bit of help to
do their day-by-day activities. People with low vision or visual impairments are
helped by Eyeglasses or Braille format, and people with hearing disabilities are
assisted by hearing aids, etc. In short, we can say that the assistant devices
provide the working scenarios and make them independent.
CONSENT OF PUBLICATION
The authors consent to publish this book chapter in “Computer Assistive
Technologies for Physically and Cognitively Challenged Users” by Bentham
Science.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is very thankful to Dr. Vishal Goyal, Professor, Department of
Computer Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, and Dr. Lalit Goyal, Associate
Professor, DAV College Jalandhar, for their kind guidance and supervision
throughout the present work. They helped me and provided ideas to complete
the book chapter.
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Technologies
for
Hearing
Impaired People Using Indian
Sign
Language
Synthetic
Animations
Rakesh Kumar1, *, Lalit Goyal2, Vishal Goyal3
1 Department of Computer Science, University College Miranpur,
Patiala, India
2 Department of Computer Science, DAV College, Jalandhar, Punjab,
India
3 Department of Computer Science, Punjabi University, Patiala,
Punjab, India
Abstract
This chapter discusses various technologies developed for
deaf people using Indian sign language synthetic
animations. An automatic translation system for English
Text to Indian Sign Language synthetic animations in the
real domain has been developed, which consists of a
parsing module that parses the input English sentence-tophrase structure grammar representation on which Indian
sign language grammar rules are applied to reorder the
words of the English sentence. The elimination module
eliminates the unwanted words from the reordered
sentence. Lemmatization is applied to convert the words
into the root form. The words (or their synonym in case
the word is not available in the database) in the sentence
are replaced by their HamNoSys code. In case the word
or its synonym is not present in the lexicon, the
HamNoSys code will be taken for each alphabet of the
word. The HamNoSys code is converted into SiGML tags,
which are sent to the animation module, which converts
the SiGML tags into synthetic Animation using an avatar.
Prototypes for announcement systems for deaf people at
railway stations, airports and bus stands have been
developed. The announcements are categorized and sent
to the system in written form. These announcements are
dynamically converted to ISL sentences and then
animated using HamNoSys and SiGML tags.
These translation and announcements systems are the
only systems in the country that use continuous synthetic
animations of the words in the sentence. Existing systems
are limited to the conversion of words and predefined
sentences into Indian sign language, whereas our
conversion system converts English sentences into Indian
sign language in the real domain.
Keywords: Cued Speech, HamNoSys, Hearing impaired people,
Indian Sign Language, Lemmatization, Parsing, SiGML, SiGML
Stanford Parser, Stemming, Synthetic Animation, Translation System,
Visual special Language.
* Corresponding author Rakesh Kumara: Department of Computer
Science,
University
College
Miranpur,
Patiala;
E-
mail:rakesh@pbi.ac.in
INTRODUCTION
There are almost 7117 living languages in the world, which are
organized into 153 language families. One of the 153 families of
languages used by deaf people to communicate is sign language.
This language family includes 144 different sign languages from all
around the world, depending on the locality (SIL International 2021).
Almost 72 million individuals worldwide are deaf or hearing impaired,
out of a total population of nearly 7.5 billion. Only about 4.3 million
individuals use Sign language out of such a large number. The
remaining almost 67 million deaf and hard of hearing persons do not
communicate using correct sign language. As a result, approximately
90% of deaf people have limited or no access to schooling and other
informational needs [1].
Deaf people communicate using different hand shapes, facial
expressions, finger formations, mouth gestures, and movement of
other body parts [1]. The signer uses the 3D space around the body
to convey an event, making it a visual-spatial language [2]. Prior to
Stokoe's pioneering study, it was thought those sign languages
lacked a well-defined structure and syntax. The grammatical rules
employed by ISL were discovered by Stokoe's research study,
however they are not full-fledged. These signs are only accepted in
the small world of deaf people rather than there acceptability in the
outside world also. Until the 1960s, sign languages were thought to
be nothing more than a collection of gestures and mimes. Dr.
Stokoe's research on American Sign Language established that it is a
complete language with its own grammar, syntax, and other linguistic
characteristics. Other sign languages, such as Indian Sign
Languages, are being studied to see if they contain linguistic structure
[3].
A sign in Sign language can be made up of both manual and nonmanual parts, or both. Hand formations, hand orientation, hand
location, and hand movements are the primary components in the
manual element of the sign (straight, circular or curved). Facial
expressions, eye gazing, body postures and head movements are
primary components in the non-manual element of the sign [4].
Some signs, on the other hand, may comprise solely manual or nonmanual components. The sign “Yes,” for instance, is made with a
vertical head nod and lacks any manual sign. One-handed, twohanded, and non-manual signs are three categories of Sign Language
signs. The- Indian- sign- hierarchy- is depicted in Fig. (1).
Fig. (1))
Hierarchy of Indian Sign Language Signs.
One-Handed Signs: A single dominant hand is used to depict the
one-handed signs. Static or dynamic (having movements) one-handed
signals are both possible. Manual and non-manual signs are assigned
to each of the static and moving signs. Examples of one-handed
static signs with non-manual and manual components are shown in
Fig. (2) below.
Fig. (2))
One Handed Non-Manual Sign (Headache) and Static Manual Sign
(Ear)
Two-Handed Signs: Both of the signer's hands are used to make the
two-handed signs. Two-handed signs can be classified in the same
way as one-handed signs are classified. Two-handed signs with
movements, on the other hand, can be divided into Type 0 and Type1
signs.
Both hands are actively involved in Type 0 Signs.
One Hand (dominating one) is more actively involved in Type 1 Signs
rather than the second hand (non-dominating one), as depicted in Fig.
(3) below.
Fig. (3))
Two-Handed Sign “Flag” (only the dominating right-hand shows
movement) and “long”(both the hands show movement
FACTS ABOUT INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE
Sign language evolves the same as any natural language based on
some facts about which people are not familiar or unaware. Some
facts about sign languages are as follows:
The Sign Languages are NOT similar in all the regions globally.
Each Sign Language follows its own grammatical structure rather
than just using gestures and pantomime.
Sign Languages are confined to a limited vocabulary as
compared to other speaking languages all over the world.
Unknown words are Finger-spelled in sign languages.
Signs of some words may be joined together to form a single
sign, e.g., to sign breakfast, the signer must do the signs of
Morning and then sign of Food ”Morning+ Food”.
The use of adjectives is done after the noun in many of the sign
languages, e.g., Coat Blue.
Linking Verbs such as “am, are, was, and were” are Never used
in Sign Languages.
Sign Languages Never make use of “word-endings/suffixes”.
Always Present Tense is used to sign the words in Sign
Language.
Sign Languages don’t make use of articles like “a, an, some,
the”.
Sign Languages always put WH-questions at the END of the
sentence, e.g., “You go where?”
Sign Languages don’t make use of gerunds. “(-ing)”.
Sign Languages mostly give more weightage to the use of nonmanual features/expressions such as the Movement of
eyebrows, Movement of eyelids, showing different facial
expressions, head movement and movement of the upper torso.
Sign Language comes into existence in hearing-impaired and
deaf communities.
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN
HEARING COMMUNITIES
DEAF
AND
Deaf and hearing impaired communities encounter a lot of problems
in common places like post offices, railway stations, airports,
hospitals, govt. offices and banks due to a lack of communication.
Hearing people are unable to understand any sign shown to them by
deaf communities due to a lack of sign interpreters and vice versa.
So automatic sign language translation systems that can help deaf
and hearing impaired communities understand what is being conveyed
at these common places is the need of hour. To bridge the
communication gap between hearing and Deaf communities, sign
language translation systems must be bidirectional, as shown in Fig.
(4).
Fig. (4))
Deaf and Hearing Communities’ communication mechanism.
Sign language is a physical movement-based language. It is also
called the mother language for deaf people. Sign language is used by
a person who is unable to speak or by a person who can hear
properly but cannot speak. Sign language is recognized as the first
Language for deaf people. In sign language, hands and heads are
used to express our thoughts with others. There are a number of sign
languages used around the world. Each nation has its own sign
language, which is different from others. Observing and
understanding sign language is very difficult.
It is very difficult for deaf communities to comprehend any kind of
information because hearing communities without any sign
interpreters cannot get what deaf people want to convey. Therefore,
these problems make deaf people isolated from the rest of the world.
Deaf people cannot interact with people in common places because
their communication is different. Our goal is to help Deaf people in
these kinds of situations. Our developed technologies will interpret
the text input into three-dimensional avatars.
In sign languages, word-to-word mapping is impossible due to the
different word structures between English and sign language. For
instance, the word little in English possesses distinct meanings. Little
means short, or one can say little knowledge, i.e., not enough
knowledge. The same word, “Little” is represented in English,
associating with distinct meanings, but the word “Little” is
represented, conveying distinct meanings with distinct gestures and
signs. Therefore, sign language is not just a representation of the
given the word; rather, the distinct meanings are conveyed with the
help of Sign language.
Finger-spelling is another type representing signs where fingers are
used to spell the letters which constitute the word. Finger-spelling is
extensively used in parallel with any Sign Language because of the
smaller vocabulary of Sign Language.
Cued Speech is another alternative to Sign Language. In the cued
speech, mouth movements are used along with hand shapes and
placement to display/show the sounds. Cued speech works in a
similar manner to any speaking language by merging visible hand and
mouth gestures to represent sounds just like phonemes [5].
In different parts of India, different types of languages are spoken.
Still, many researchers in Indian Sign Language (ISL) have
discovered that just one sign language is the primary Language of
deaf people. However, different sort of dialects made use of it.
Despite variations in SL's lexicons, the grammar rules of all these
dialects of SL stay constant. Indian Sign Language is a complete
natural sign language with its own syntactical and grammatical
structure, phonology, and morphology.
ENGLISH TEXT TO INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE
TRANSLATION SYSTEM
Knowledge about the lexical and syntactic structure of Indian sign
language is necessary for the English text-to-Indian sign language
translation system to succeed. The lexicon for “English word to ISL
sign” has been developed as illustrated in the following section. The
complete system architecture of the sign language translation system
is demonstrated in Fig. (5) below. The translation system is built of
seven different modules:
Text Parser Module to parse the English textual data.
Sentence Reorder Module using ISL grammatical rules.
Elimination Module to eliminate the unrequired words.
Lemmatization Module to find the root form of each word, and
the Synonym Replacing Module to use synonyms in place of
unknown words.
Word-to-SiGML Translation Module using Hamburg Notation
System Structure.
Translation Module using Synthetic Animations.
The system's input is written English text, which is processed to
obtain the sentence's phrase structure and grammar representation.
The parsed sentence is then submitted to the conversion module,
which reorders the English sentence's words according to ISL
grammar rules. As English employs the SVO order, and ISL utilizes
the SOV order with other variations for interrogative and negative
phrases, reordering is required. Unwanted words are deleted from
the sentence once it has been formatted according to ISL grammar.
This is due to the ISL's usage of just words with some meaning and
omission of all aiding words, such as linking verbs, articles, and so
on. The lemmatization module receives the output and transforms the
words to their root form. This is because, unlike other languages, sign
language uses the root form of each word in its phrases, whereas
other languages use suffixes, gerunds, and past and future words.
Because ISL has a restricted dictionary, unknown words in sentences
are replaced with their synonym counterparts; if the synonym is not
accessible, the term is finger-spelled character by character. The
sentence is now ready to be animated. The English Word-HamNoSys
dictionary is used to replace each word in the phrase with its
HamNoSys: Writing Notation of the Signs [6] counterpart, and the
HamNoSys string is transformed to SiGML (Signing Gesture Markup
Language) code using SiGML rules. This SiGML code is transmitted
to the SiGML animation tool, which then renders the synthetic
Animation.
Fig. (5))
Architecture of English Text to ISL Synthetic Animation System
English-ISL Lexicon
A bilingual dictionary is required when translating from one Language
to another. When an English text is translated into ISL, a bilingual
dictionary of English and Indian Sign Language is formed, which
includes both the English word and its Indian sign equivalent. The
Indian sign corresponding to the English word can be viewed as a
real person video, a signed picture, a coded sign language text, or a
synthetic animation. All methods have advantages and disadvantages,
but synthetic animations are particularly well adapted to translating
spoken Language to sign Language. In Table 1 below, you can see a
comparison of all the media:
Table 1 Comparative analysis
Representation of the Signs
Media type
Advantages
of
Different
Media
for
Disadvantages
• It takes a long time
to generate
• It uses a lot of
Sign
• Realistic
memory
Videos
• Easy to create
• The translation
system doesn't
support it
• It takes a long time
to generate images
• Lacks realism
Sign
when compared to
• Uses a small amount of memory
Images
videos
• It isn't supported
by a translation
system
Coded
• Low Memory Requirement
• Difficult to read
Sign
• Supported by a translation
and understand
Language system because it is written and
• Must be learned
can be processed quickly
Text
• It uses very little memory
• It is easy to recreate
• Avatars are not as
Synthetic
• Supported by a translation
realistic as human
Animations
system
sign videos.
• Avatars can be customized
This system uses synthetic animations to make signs matching to
English words because synthetic Animation backed by the translation
system is more realistic than photos or coded text. Each English
word requires a written form of the sign to be animated. Researchers
have worked hard to develop notation systems that allow a threedimensional sign to be written down. Because synthetic Animation, as
opposed to photos and coded text, is far more realistic, synthetic
animations have been created for the appropriate English term in this
translation system.
A textual form of the symbol is used to produce the Animation of each
English word. Despite the fact that a 3D sign cannot be written,
researchers have worked hard to develop a notation system that
allows a three-dimensional sign to be expressed in written form.
Stokoe Notation [7], SignWriting [8], Hamburg Notation System [9],
and others are written forms for three-dimensional signs. The
dictionary was created using the HamNoSys (Hamburg Notation
System) notation [10]. Thomas Hanke developed a HamNoSys
alphabet with roughly 200 symbols that cover practically all hand
shapes, hand placement, hand/palm orientation, hand movement, and
non-manual parts of the sign (Unicode of this notation system is
accessible) [11]. The HamNoSys has the following basic structure, as
shown in Fig. (6).
Fig. (6))
HamNoSys Notation Structure
Every English word is translated to HamNoSys Notation, as shown in
Fig. (7), according to the rules of the Hamburg Notation System.
Later, this HamNoSys can be transformed into SiGML code, which
can then be animated using an Avatar by an animation tool, as seen
in the architecture.
Fig. (7))
Architecture to produce the Animation from the English words.
The faculty of Disability Management and Special Education [12] has
collected the most commonly used words, and a video dictionary has
been created. A list of 1818 of the most regularly used English words
by differently-abled people was used to create a bilingual dictionary
of English words and HamNoSys notation in this research study.
Parts of speech are assigned to the words, which are then coded into
HamNoSys (FDMSE)
Text Parser Module to Parse English Sentences
The grammatical structure of the source language is necessary for
rule-based language conversion so that the words of the source
sentence can be reordered according to the grammar rules of the
target language. Parsing is a technique for determining a sentence's
grammatical structure. Parsing is used to determine the grammatical
structure of English sentences using third-party software. For this
research work, we employed the Stanford parser [13], which uses
unlexicalized PCFG (probabilistic context-free grammar) and has an
output accuracy of 86.36 percent. The probabilistic parser is trained
on hand-parsed sentences and then used to parse new sentences
using the knowledge obtained. Part-of-speech tagged text, contextfree phrase structure grammar representation, and type dependency
representation are all possible outputs of the Stanford parser. The
Stanford parser parses the English text using Penn Tree tags. We
employed phrase structure grammar representation in this project
because, in a rule-based approach, the grammatical structure of the
English sentence was necessary to transform it into the target
language's grammatical structure (Indian sign language).
Grammatical Rules for Transformation of English to
ISL Sentence
When both languages have different grammar rules, translating one
spoken Language to another is a difficult task. When the source
language is spoken, and the target language is sign language, the
complexity is multiplied by a factor of ten. A comparison of the
grammar of both languages, given in Table 2, is required while
translating an English text into Indian sign language:
Table 2 Comparative analysis of ISL Grammar and English
Grammar
English Grammar
ISL Grammar
English Grammar
ISL Grammar
Being well-structured, a sufficient ISL was created for deaf people,
amount of research work has been and there has been very limited
done to define the English grammar research into ISL grammar. ISL
rules. It works in the following
sentences are structured in the
order:
following order [14]:
“Subject-Verb-Object”
“Subject-Object-Verb”
Depending on the type of
In most of the situations, ISL
sentences, the English Language
employs the root form of the
employs a variety of verbs and
word rather than the inflections
adjectives. In addition, English
(gerunds, suffixes, or other
sentences use a lot of word
forms).
inflections.
There are just about 6000 words
The English Language has a bigger
in the Indian sign language
dictionary than other languages.
lexicon (FDMSE, 2021).
In English, the question word
The question word is always a
comes first in interrogative
sentence ending in Indian sign
statements.
language [15].
In English sentences, many helping
There are no conjunctions,
verbs, articles, and conjunctions articles, or linking verbs in Indian
are utilized.
sign language.
To transform an English sentence to an ISL sentence, all of the verb
patterns [16] are investigated, and rules are created to transform an
English sentence into an ISL sentence. The parsed sentence is sent
into this module, where the noun and prepositional phrase are frozen,
but if the sentence does have a verb phrase, it is checked recursively
since the verb phrase might be made up of a noun phrase, verb
phrase, prepositional phrase or even the entire sentence. Table 3
below lists some of the conversion rules:
Table 3 Examples of Grammatical Reordering of Words of
English Sentences
Input
Output
Parsed Sentence
Sentence
Sentence
come
(VP (VB come) (NP
Home
verb + object VP NP
home
(NN home)))
come
(NP (NNS dogs)) (VP
subject + verb NP V dogs bark
dogs bark
(VBP bark))
(NP (PRP$ her) (NN
subject + verb +
her sister
her sister,
NP V
sister)) (VP (VBD
subject
became a
a doctor,
NP
became) (NP (DT a)
complement
doctor
became
(NN doctor)))
(NP (FW i)) (VP (VBD
subject + verb +
I gave
NP V
gave) (NP (PRP him)) i him my
indirect object +
him my
NP NP
(NP (PRP$ my) (NN car gave
direct object
car
car)))
(VP (VBP show) (NP him your
subject show him
subject + verb
(PRP me))) (NP (PRP$ teeth
+ verb your teeth
your) (NNS hands))
show
subject + verb +
(NP (PRP he)) (VP
he
The food
direct object +
(VBD cooked) (NP (NN
NP V cooked
for all of
preposition
food)) (PP (IN for) (NP
NP PP food for
us
(NP (DT all)) (PP (IN
+prepositional
all of us
cooked
of) (NP (PRP us))))))
object
(VP (VB show) (NP
subject + verb +
show
your teeth
V NP
(PRP$ your) (NNS
indirect object +
your teeth
to him
PP
teeth)) (PP (TO to)
direct object
to him
show
(NP (PRP him))))
subject + verb +
He is
(NP (PRP he)) (VP
He, for
preposition
NP V looking
(VBP is) (VP (VBG
Naresh is
prepositional
PP
for
looking) (PP (IN for)
looking
Naresh (NP (NN Naresh)))))
object
Verb Pattern
Rule
Eliminator Module for Removal of Undesired Words
Sentences in Indian sign language are made up of major words.
There are no linking verbs, articles, or suffixes in the sentence. The
ISL phrase is formed once the grammatical rules are applied, and all
undesired words must be eliminated. Parts of speech that are not
part of an ISL sentence are identified and removed from the
sentence. The various parts of speech that do not form part of an ISL
sentence, Out of 36 POS tags, are TO, MD(Modals),
POS(possessive ending), CC(coordinating conjunction), FW(Foreign
word), NNS, NNPS(nouns plural, proper plural), JJR, JJS(adjectives,
comparative and superlative), some DT(determiners like a, an, the),
RP(particles), Interjections, SYM(symbols), and non-root verbs. The
ISL sentence gets free of the above-mentioned undesirable terms.
Table 4 below shows examples of unwanted terms that have been
eliminated.
Table 4 Removal of not required words
English
After Phrase
Final ISL Sentence (post
Sentence as
Reordering
removal of unwanted words)
Input
Come home
Home come
Home come
Dogs bark
Dogs bark
Dogs bark
Her sister
Her sister a
became a
Her sister doctor became
doctor became
doctor
I gave him my
I him my car
I him my car gave
car
gave
Show him your Him your teeth
Him your teeth show
teeth
show
He cooked food He food for all
He food all we cooked
for all of us
of us cooked
Show your teeth Your teeth to
Your teeth him show
to him
him show
He is looking for He for naresh is
He naresh looking
naresh
looking
Lemmatization and Synonym Replacement
The root words are used in Indian sign language sentences. There
must be no suffixes, gerunds, or inflexions in any of the words that
are utilized. If a word in an ISL sentence is not a root word, it is
changed to one after it is passed to the stemmer, and lemmatization
rules are applied. Stemming is done with a porter stemmer [17].
The ISL phrase contains only the root words after converting the
inflections of the words to their corresponding root words. Each root
word is now tested in the English-ISL dictionary for availability.
Despite the fact that this dictionary only comprises 1478 words, a list
of synonyms is developed to strengthen the system and increase the
number of hits in the dictionary. Rather than compiling a list of all
English synonyms, an indirect approach is employed. Only 1478
words have had their synonyms collected (the words which are in our
bilingual dictionary). Our database contains roughly 4000 synonym
terms. It was considered to eliminate word duplication and the parts
of speech of each word. For instance, the word inaugural is an
adjective; its equivalent is opening as an adjective, but the word
opening can also be employed as a verb. The verbs irate, insense,
enrage, and infuriate are all synonyms for anger(v). Anger(n) also has
synonyms such as annoyance, irritation, anger, rage, resentment, and
hostility, all of which are nouns. The word is spelled if it cannot be
found in a dictionary or synonym list. In this case, spelling the word
entails finger-spelling, which entails taking each character of the word
and determining which sign will be created. The database now has
signs for all of the English alphabet, bringing the total number of
words in the dictionary to almost 6000. All personal nouns (names of
people, places, and things) are finger-spelled.
Sign Animation using Avatar
It becomes ready to be animated after all the processing on the
English sentence has been completed to convert it to an ISL
sentence. Synthetic Animation (using a computer-produced avatar
known as an Avatar) is most suited for creating the sign, as
previously stated. We used the Animation Programme SiGML Player
to animate the sentence [18]. The input for this tool is SiGML (Signing
Gesture Markup Language) tags, and the output is animations of the
Avatar performing the signs.
Fig. (8))
Methodology to generate the synthetic animations from the English
word.
Each word of the ISL sentence is substituted with its HamNoSys
code to generate the SiGML tags. Each character (alphabet) of the
word is replaced with the matching HamNoSys code of the
corresponding letter for words that are not in the English-ISL
dictionary database. The HamNoSys code for the entire ISL phrase is
now available. Using HamNoSys-SiGML conversion rules, the
HamNoSys code is now translated to SiGML tags. When we have all
of the SiGML tags for the entire sentence, we send it to the
animation tool, which turns it into an animated Avatar. The complete
Methodology to generate the synthetic animations from English words
is depicted in Fig. (8).
ANNOUNCEMENTS SYSTEM FOR RAILWAY
STATIONS
In terms of size, Indian Railways is the world's fourth-largest railway
network. In the year 2018-19, a total of 8,439 million passengers
were served the services of travel on trains at 7321 railway stations
[19]. Apart from these many numbers, the metro railways and other
local area trains work independently. Navigating railway stations is
very difficult for members of the Deaf community because no station
in India uses ISL for announcements.
A prototype has been developed for announcements at railway
stations [20], in which the announcements have been divided into
three categories, as shown in Fig. (9).
Fig. (9))
Categorization of Railway announcements.
Static announcements are those which are fixed and do not change.
These announcements are free from factors like time, train numbers,
train names, platform numbers, etc. We have collected 67 such
announcements. In our developed protocol, these announcements are
preloaded. Playing a particular announcement is just selected, and
the Avatar plays it.
Dynamic announcements include the time (in hours and minutes), train
number, train name, platform number, source station name,
destination station name, via station name, etc., within it. We have
collected the dynamic announcements and divided them into ten
categories: Arriving, Arriving shortly, Available, Departure, Departure
shortly, Expected to arrive, Running late, Special train, Empty train,
and Train cancel. In all these categories, the changing factors are
time, train number, train name, platform number, source station name,
destination station name, and via station name. In our developed
protocol, these announcements are generated dynamically by
selecting the dynamic fields: time (in hours and minutes), train
number, train name, platform number, source station name,
destination station name, via station name, etc.
Special announcements can also be called instant announcements.
These announcements are not available in the database; rather, they
are generated instantly on special occasions, like during accidents or
any natural calamity. In reality, these announcements are spoken
instantly by human beings as per the situation. In our proposed
protocol, these announcements can be produced in ISL using the Text
to ISL conversion system, which has already been discussed in detail
in the previous section.
ANNOUNCEMENTS SYSTEM FOR AIRPORTS
India is the world's third-largest domestic civil aviation market after
the United States and China. The Airport Authority of India (AAI), a
government-owned company, operates 449 airports, including 126
commercial airports. Approximately 341 million passengers are
handled by these commercial airports [21].
Announcements at the airports of India do not use ISL, so deaf
people face many problems at the airports. A prototype has been
developed for announcements at airports [22]. The announcements of
the airports may be static or dynamic. Again, these announcements
are categorized as shown in Table 5:
Table 5 Examples of Airport Announcements
Sr.
English Sentence
No
1
Pre-Flight Announcements
Announcements
Type
Sr.
No
English Sentence
Kindly switch off all personal electronic devices,
including laptops and mobile phones.
Pre-Boarding/Final Boarding
2
Announcements
This is the last boarding call for passengers
______ (name) and ____ (name) booked on
flight _____(No.) to _____(City).
3.
Inflight Announcement
Our flight time will be of ____hours and ____
minutes.
4.
Gate Change Announcement
You are requested to proceed to gate
number_____ for boarding
5
Refreshment Announcement
Passengers travelling to_____ (destination) on
_______ flight ______ (flight number) are
requested to proceed to_____ (area) for
refreshment.
6
Paging Announcement
May I have the attention of Mr/Ms.________
travelling on flight _____ to _______
7
Delay Announcement
We are sorry for this delay and sincerely
apologize for any inconvenience caused to you.
8
Security Announcement
Passengers are requested to kindly pass
through Security Check and await departure
announcement in the ground-floor/first-floor
security area
9
Safety Briefing Announcement
Announcements
Type
Static
Dynamic
Dynamic
Dynamic
Dynamic
Dynamic
Static
Static
Sr.
No
English Sentence
To operate your seatbelt, insert the metal tip
into the buckle to tighten and pull the loose end
of the strap
10
Post Flight Announcement
The temperature outside is _____degree
Celsius
11
Miscellaneous Announcements
Have a pleasant flight
Announcements
Type
Static
Dynamic
Static
The corresponding Indian Sign Language translation of the above
announcements was done with the help of an Indian Sign Language
Interpreter. The ISL translation of the above announcements was
being used in the developed system and shown to various deaf
school teachers and students. The response from their side was very
satisfactory as they were able to understand announcements being
displayed using synthetic animations.
ANNOUNCEMENTS
STANDS
SYSTEM
FOR
BUS
India is a big country having 29 states covering a major area of Asia.
Each state runs many bus stands.
A system prototype of the Bus Stations System for hearing–Impaired
to announce bus stations announcements or instructions having a rulebased MT approach is proposed. It is the first-ever MT system being
proposed in the public domain of bus stations for easy and
understandable conversion of all the announcements/instructions
being made at bus stations into Indian Sign Language (ISL) synthetic
animations. This proposed MT system prototype accepts inputting of
all the instructions/announcements in the English text and converts
them equivalent Indian Sign Language (ISL) synthetic animations as
output using the corpus of a developed bilingual English-ISL made for
the public domain. Announcements at bus stations in India do not use
Indian Sign Language. Therefore, hearing-impaired people face many
problems at bus stations. A system prototype has been developed
for announcements at bus stands/terminals. The announcements of
the bus stands may be static or dynamic. Some sample
announcements are given in the following Table 6:
Table 6 Examples of Bus Stands Announcements
Sr.
Announcements
English Sentence
No
Type
1
Bus Arrival Announcements
Passengers, your attention, please. Bus
number........... From.............. via…………
Dynamic
to.................... is just arriving shortly on
Counter number ……….
2
Bus Departure Announcements
Passengers, your attention please. Bus
number..............from ............to……… will
Dynamic
leave shortly from counter number …………..
3.
Security Announcements
Please do not leave your luggage unattended.
Static
4.
Instructional Announcements
Do not throw waste material around; please use
Static
the dustbins provided.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
This chapter presents various technologies developed for better
communication for Deaf/hearing-impaired people. The automatic
translation system converts the English text to Indian sign language
synthetic animations and is the first ever translation system for Indian
sign language in the real domain. Currently, the system has been
created for context-free conversion of simple English sentences to
synthetic animations.
Human evaluation is the best method for MT evaluation, and if the MT
system is from text to Sign Language, it becomes almost essential to
test the system on human beings. This is because the grammar of
Indian Sign Language is still not standard, and the Language used
varies to some extent depending on the region. Due to lack of time,
cost, and, most importantly, the interpreters, it becomes impractical.
Overall conversion accuracy has been checked by demonstrating the
system in various deaf schools. After evaluating our system on 647
simple sentences, it is found that the overall accuracy of English text
to the Indian Sign Language Machine Translation system is 82% on
the basis of the accuracy test.
The announcement systems using ISL synthetic animations for
Railway stations and Airports have a strong potential to benefit the
Deaf community. As per the available information, the announcement
system for railway stations and airports will be the world's first
announcement system.
We are committed to working on some other projects which might
prove useful for deaf people. We are currently working on
Development of an automated system for news telecast by
animated Avatar through Indian sign language for deaf people.
Development of a system for automatic translation of complex
and compound English sentences to Indian sign language
synthetic animations.
Machine translation system from Punjabi text to Indian sign
language synthetic animations
Automatic conversion of human sign video to SiGML tags using
machine learning technique.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The Figures used in this chapter are in the public domain (copyrightfree) and are under other open licenses. Hence, no consent is to be
taken from anyone for the materials used in this chapter.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This chapter and the research behind it would not have been possible
without JASigning software, which has been made downloadable and
can be used for evaluation and individual research purposes.
JASigning has copyright UEA(2005-2014), and its development was
supported by the EU Framework 7 project Dicta-Sign.
We are very much thankful to SAAR Municipal Services
Management Company for supporting us financially in the
development of an automatic conversion tool for public
announcements at airports in Indian sign language synthetic
animations.
We are very much thankful to LET’SIGN for their linguist support of
sign language.
We acknowledge the teachers and students of the deaf schools of
the region who have supported us in the guidance and evaluation
process of our systems.
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Augmentative and
Communication/
Impairments
Alternative
Hearing
Jestin Joy1, *, Kannan Balakrishnan2, M Sreeraj3
1 Department of Computer Applications, St. George’s College,
Aruvithura, Kerala, India
2 Department of Computer Applications, CUSAT, Kerala, India
3 Sree Ayyappa College, Eramallikkara, Alappuzha, Kerala, India
Abstract
Data-driven technologies aid in effective communication
for deaf people. Research on sign language recognition,
sign language generation and tools based on them is
going at a fast pace. With the easy availability of depth
sensors, specialized data sets, efficient machine learning
algorithms, and computational capabilities provided by
specialized hardware, the development of efficient data
science-based solutions for deaf users and people with
difficulty in hearing is possible now. This chapter focuses
on recent research on Automatic Sign Language
Recognition (ASLR), Sign Language Production (SLP) and
tools based on them. A major focus of this chapter is
research and tools using Sign Languages since they are
the most commonly used communication medium by deaf
people. Research on sign languages from different parts
of the world as well as the effectiveness of Machine
Learning techniques for ASLR and SLP, are discussed in
detail.
Keywords: Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC),
Automatic Sign Language Recognition (ASLR), Avatar, Corpus, Deaf,
Depth Sensors, Generative Adversarial Network (GAN), Gesture,
Indian Sign Language (ISL), Kinect, Leap Motion, Machine Learning,
Neural Network, Pose, Recurrent Neural Network(RNN), Recognition,
Sign Language, Sign Language generation, Sign Language
Production (SLP), Vision, Variational AutoEncoder (VAE).
*
Corresponding author Jestin Joy: , Department of Computer
Applications, St. George’s College, Aruvithura, Kerala, India; Email:jestinjoy@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) refers to the
communication methods used to aid or replace speech or writing for
those with spoken or written language impairments. According to
estimates, around 2 million people use AAC. AAC can be aided or
unaided. In an unaided approach, no
external tools are used. Sign Language is an example of unaided
communication. Aided approaches make use of some devices for
communication. This can range from simple ones like pen and paper
to complex speech-generating devices. Sign language is one of the
major communication mediums for deaf people. It involves gestures
for communication. There are different sign languages around the
world. Not only deaf people but parents of deaf people, researchers,
social workers etc., also need to learn sign language. Since it
consists of gestures, sign language is not easily represented in
printed media. Two things are important for communication:
translating gestures to text and vice versa. These two things are
difficult because gestures are difficult to process using current
techniques. Sign language gestures are made up of manual and nonmanual components, making communication difficult. Though tools
exist that help in a limited domain, full-fledged communication
systems are an active area of research. Accuracy, ease of use and
affordability are some important considerations in selecting sign
language-based assistive tools.
Understanding the adoption of assistive technology tools is critical for
its design and development. Studies have shown that adoption rates
of assistive technology tools are very low. A major problem facing
hardware-based assistive products developed is the high cost
incurred. This bars people from using it. Even if these assistive tools
reach their intended audience, most of them are abandoned over a
short period of time. Studies show that the abandonment rate ranges
from 8% to 75%. It has also been observed that, due to the lack of
feedback from the users, most people are unhappy with the assistive
tools they are using.
Data-driven technologies that aid effective communication for deaf
people play an important role in developing assistive technologies for
the Deaf. This includes techniques for sign language recognition, sign
language generation and lip reading identification. With the availability
of enough data, efficient applications based on these are possible.
Each gesture in Sign Language comprises a number of building
blocks, including articulation points (from joints such as the finger,
arm, wrist, and elbow), hand configuration, action type, hand
direction, and facial expression. Recognising sign language, which
consists of finger spelling and varies across languages, is critical.
Most sign languages use two-handed gestures, though some of the
letters of the alphabet need one hand. Since it requires both hands,
feature occlusion and computer vision techniques may fail to extract
these features. Most data-enabled research for deaf people revolves
around Automatic Sign Language Recognition (ASLR). Various depthenabled sensors are used to efficiently recognize different sign
language gestures. Due to the complexities involved in sign language
grammar, current systems can only efficiently recognize isolated
words.
Sign Language Production (SLP) is an emerging research area mainly
based on using avatars. With the emergence of Machine Learning
based techniques, the generation of natural-looking sign videos is
possible. Research has shown that avatars that closely match human
gestures are also possible using machine learning techniques. Text
and video are the two input modalities for SLP. The linguistic
complexity of sign languages makes it difficult to transform text to
sign language gestures. Processing RGB videos is also a challenge.
The huge amount of data involved makes it computationally intensive.
This chapter is organized as follows. After discussing the background
of sign languages, sign language recognition, generation techniques
and data, science-based AAC solutions are discussed in detail.
Background
Signs in sign language are analogous to morphemes, and the
articulations of the hands and body can be described as phonemes.
Chereme (in Greek, meaning hand) is used to represent the smallest
meaning-bearing word. A sign is a sequential or parallel construction
of these smallest meaning-bearing units. Unlike spoken languages,
sign languages allow simultaneous signs. The lack of iconicity
exhibited by sign language makes learning difficult for early-stage
learners.
The availability of a corpus plays a major role in the development of
any language. Very few corpus projects exist for Sign Languages.
RWTH-Phoenix-2014T [1] is one of the most popular datasets used in
sign language translation. It consists of data from German public TV
weather forecasts. Along with the corpus information, results suitable
for translation and recognition tasks like hand tracking, sign
recognition and sign language translation are provided by the dataset.
Content4all [2] is a much larger dataset from an open domain. It
consists of 190 hours of news footage annotated with sign language
information. Content4all is a collection of six datasets. Swedish Sign
Language Corpus Project, DGS-Corpus project, Corpus NGT project,
BSL Corpus Project and How2Sign are some of the other major
corpus projects around the world. Like corpus projects, dictionaries
also play a major role in language development. Some of the corpus
projects, like the DGS-Corpus project, have dictionaries also included
with them. HandSpeak, ASL-LEX, LSE-Sign and ISLRTC ISL Signs
are some of the sign language dictionary projects from around the
world.
Different projects exist around the world to help deaf people. Most of
these involve providing accessible facilities for deaf people.
ViSiCAST(Virtual Signing: Capture, Animation, Storage, and
Transmission) is a European Union-funded project focusing on its
citizens. The virtual avatars Simon, Tessa and Visia, which form the
basis of earlier projects, also form the foundation for ViSiCAST.
eSIGN is another European Union-funded project to provide
information in sign language. Avatars are used to provide information.
It aims to provide solutions so that developers can integrate them into
web pages. A sign language notation system was also developed as
part of these projects. DICTA-SIGN project provides interaction with
users through the sign-wiki solution. It was also provided with web
pages in mind. Greek Sign Language (GSL), British Sign Language
(BSL), German Sign Language (DDGS) and French Sign Language
(LSF) are supported by DICTA-SIGN. A major highlight of DICTASIGN is that it provides a sign recognition module making use of a
Kinect sensor. SignSpeak [3] project was also proposed with sign
recognition in mind. It aims at a continuous translation of sign
language to spoken language text. With the availability of recognition
datasets, projects focussing on automatic sign language recognition
have become available. The contributions provided by these projects
to the deaf and research community are immense.
A sign language gloss is a typed approximation of it. Sign Language
gloss enables the transcription of Sign Language. Though not much
practical use, these are helpful to represent sign language as the
written text. Sign Language transcription looks at the representation
of signed utterances in a two-dimensional, linear format. As forms
can be executed simultaneously, signal language transcription is a
very challenging task. This is true for recognition also. Stokoe
notation, SignWriting and SigML are solutions that aim to solve this
problem. These systems are very helpful as they are used as
intermediate forms in the sign-generation process. This is discussed
in the later section on sign language generation. This is very important
since the grammar of a spoken language is different from sign
language; intermediate forms help to easily translate spoken
language text to many different sign languages.
Sign language recognition and generation are two important
techniques essential for the efficient communication of deaf people.
Machine Learning techniques have introduced efficient mechanisms
for both. The following section discusses sign language recognition,
generation techniques and data science-based AAC solutions.
Sign Language Recognition
Scholarly approaches for overcoming disability-related challenges are
many, and they differ according to the setting. Sign language
recognition (SLR) systems, which are used to convert SL signals into
text or voice in order to communicate with those who do not know
these signals, are one of the major treatments. SLR systems may be
roughly grouped into two: Sensor-based and vision based. This is
shown in Fig. (1).
Fig. (1))
SLR system category.
These methods are used to track hand settings and identify
movement. SLR glove systems are one of the most important
initiatives for gathering data on human hand movement. A sensorbased system needs sensors, while a vision or image-based system
only requires a camera which is less expensive than the previous
type. Both necessitate keeping track of hand motions.
Sensor-based System
Sign detection depends on extracting data with respect to some
parameters. In terms of hardware, the glove-based recognition
system consists of taking input, processing and output. This is shown
in Fig. (2). The most prominent motion that the four fingers (pinkie,
ring, middle, and index) can do is bending towards the palm and then
returning to the previous position. The thumb has a notable advantage
over the other fingers in that it may freely move in six directions.
When it comes to fingers, the most common action in SL is bending.
As illustrated in Fig. (2), the gesture data is collected from a specific
type of gloves equipped with several sensors, including flexion (or
bend) sensors, accelerometers (ACCs), proximity sensors, and
abduction sensors through input devices made up of microcontrollers.
For sign recognition, features such as finger bend angles, abduction
between fingers, wrist orientation (roll, pitch, and yaw), and degrees
of freedom (DoF), are extracted using feature extraction algorithms.
Depending on the number of sensors in the glove, these gloves can
give anywhere from 5 to 22 degrees of freedom.
Fig. (2))
Architecture of the glove-based system.
Glove-based systems have a substantial advantage over vision-based
systems in that gloves may convey critical and needed data (degree
of bend, pitch, etc.) to the computing device in the form of voltage
values [4], eliminating the need to translate raw data into usable
values. Vision-based systems, on the other hand, must apply specific
tracking and feature extraction algorithms to raw video streams,
which increases the computational load [5, 6]. The wearability aspect
is a major disadvantage of glove based system.
Vision-based Systems
Cameras are the primary tools employed by vision-based systems to
collect critical input data in the form of images. This is shown in Fig.
(3). The major advantage of utilising a camera is that it eliminates the
need for sensors lowering the system's construction costs. Most
laptops have high-resolution cameras for capturing data. After
obtaining data, a data augmentation process is carried out. Despite
the high-resolution camera available in most smartphones [7], there
are several difficulties, such as the capturing device's limited field of
view, high computational expenses [8, 9], and the need for many
cameras to obtain trustworthy results (due to depth and occlusion
issues [10, 11]). These issues are inherent in the technology,
rendering it difficult to develop real-time recognition applications. To
obtain the features, various feature extraction techniques such as
Orientation Histogram, Combined Orientation Histogram and
Statistical (COHST), Wavelet Features, and local binary patterns
(LBP) with and without
Fig. (3))
Vision-based system.
conditionality reduction techniques such as principal component
analysis (PCA) may be used.
Features from sign images are obtained by the algorithm itself in
deep learning-based methods for recognition. By using different
models, training and validation can be done. Shallow machine learning
employs a variety of methods for training and recognition, including
Neural Networks (NN), Support Vector Machines (SVM), k-NN, PulseCoupled Neural Networks (PCNN), Hidden Markov Models (HMM)
and others. In addition, multiple transformation techniques (such as
Fourier, Hartley, and Log-Gabor transforms) were used [11] to
extract and summarise attributes from a collection of sign frames.
Hybrid methodology integrating glove and camera-based technologies
is also employed by researchers. This approach involves mutual error
elimination to increase overall accuracy and precision. However,
because of the high cost and computational overheads of the entire
system, little study in this field has been done. Nonetheless,
augmented reality systems show promise when paired with hybrid
tracking approaches [12].
Challenges and
Recognition
motivation
of
Sign
Language
When humans communicate with one another, they utilise their voices
and gestures. Gestures, particularly in the case of those who are
deaf or hard of hearing, can either supplement or completely change
their communication. However, because so many people use diverse
gestures to represent the same notion, people have difficulty
interacting with others and regularly find themselves in awkward
situations. Fig. (4) illustrates the Challenges and motivation of Sign
Language Recognition.
Fig. (4))
Challenges and motivation of Sign Language Recognition
Commonly used Sensors
The flex sensor is the most popular of sensors [13-17], which detects
the amount of finger curvature and is utilised by a wide spectrum of
researchers and developers. Resistive carbon components are used
in flex sensor technology. When the substrate is bent, the sensor
outputs a resistance proportional to the radius of the bend—the
smaller the radius, the greater the resistance. As a result, as the
component's body bends, the flex sensor's resistance increases. The
flex sensor is incredibly thin and light, making it quite convenient to
wear, and it is available in two sizes: 2.2 inches and 4.5 inches.
Surface Electromyography (sEMG) sensors measure the electrical
potential produced by muscles. When placed on the forearm over big
muscles, only particular hand and finger motions may be recognised.
Each sEMG sensor has a threshold value that is generally specified,
and the muscle is meant to activate when the electrical potential
surpasses this threshold.
Optics technology is utilised to determine the shape of the finger
curvature by measuring the amount of light streaming through the
channel [18-20]. Optical sensors are electrical detectors that convert
light or a change in light into an electronic signal. Furthermore, a
combined pair of light-emitting diode-light dependent resistors (LEDLDR) is used to detect finger bends. LDR is a component that has a
(variable) resistance that varies with the quantity of light it receives
[21]. Both of these optical devices work by determining light density
when the finger is straight. Both of these optical devices measure
light intensity, thus, while the finger is straight, the density of incoming
light is quite high; when the finger bends, the converse is true.
A sensitive sensor is a durable polymer-thick film device that alters
resistance by applying a force. This sensor measures the strength
between 1 and 100 kN. The tactile sensor resistance changes as
extra pressure or force are applied. If no pressure is applied, the
sensor looks like an open circuit, and the resistance decreases when
the pressure is increased [4]. The tactile sensor, therefore, detects if
the finger is curved or even by determining the force applied to it [16,
22]. A circular area diameter of a tactile sensor spans between 0.16
and 0.5 to 1 inch.
Another technique, using the Magnetic Sensor Hall Effect (HEMS), is
to determine the shape of the finger using an applied magnetic field
and monitor the voltage fluctuation over an electrical conductor. The
unipolar Hall Effect Sensor (MH183) is used to detect and readily
access the magnet's southern poles. Effect sensors are put on the
fingertips, and the palm is positioned on the magnet with the South
pole pointing up.
Although SL postures include movement of the hand and wrist, they
should be investigated. In addition to detecting the shape of the
finger, the ACC sensor's characteristics distinguish the movement and
rotation of the pencil as additional consideration. The 3-axis ACC,
which gives acceleration differences on each axis, is therefore used
to detect the direction and velocity of the handle, allowing the sensor
glove to work properly. The ADXL335 (Adafruit Industries, New York,
NY, USA) is a small, thin, low-power three-axis accelerometer with
voltage signal conditions. It measures velocity and has a total
minimum range of 3g. In tilt-sensor applications, this device measures
static gravity acceleration as well as dynamic acceleration caused by
movement, shock, or vibration. When coupled with a 3-axis ACC and
a 3-axis Gyroscope on the same board, it is useful for monitoring
tracked movement; the device gives acceleration data in all three
directions as well as rotation around each axis [19, 23, 24].
Gyroscopes measure the angular speed and the rate at which an axis
spins. An accelerometer may not provide enough information to
properly determine the orientation of a moving object.
Companies such as Microsoft, Leap Motion and Intel, have developed
several ways of detecting and tracking the user's movement by
introducing the Kinect and the Leap Motion Controller (LMC),
respectively. Kinect can track human movement via an RGB camera,
a depth sensor, and a multi-array microphone. Thus it recognises the
human skeleton and tracks its hands, while LMC just tracks hands
utilising integrated cameras and infrared sensors [25, 26]. The LMC
is a low-cost portable peripheral palm device designed for tracking
hand and finger movement in 3D Cartesian coordinates, similar to the
sensor module. This device is made up of two monochrome cameras
and three LEDs [25] and has a field of interaction that is about 8
cubic feet above the equipment. The LMC includes an API that allows
users to collect hand-and-finger data such as fingertips, hand-painted
position, and so on [25].
Different Recognition Models
Recognition may be divided into three types depending on machine
learning algorithms: unsupervised, supervised, and deep learning.
Unsupervised learning includes techniques such as dimensionality
reduction, clustering, and ensemble methods. For dimensionality
reduction, several methods, such as Principal Component Analysis
(PCA) and Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) were used. The
clustering technique included k-means, Gaussian Clustering, and SelfOrganizing Feature Maps (SOFM). Various combinations of models,
such as neural networks (NN) and hidden Markov models (HMM),
decision trees (DT) and NN, DT and HMM, SOFM and NN, and so
on, were also used. For classification, algorithms such as Nave
Bayes, Decision Trees, Random Forests, Shallow Neural Networks,
Support Vector Machines (SVM), and k-Nearest Neighbour (k-NN)
were commonly employed. Researchers chose Convolutional Neural
Networks (CNN), DeepNeural Networks, Long short-term
memory(LSTM), and Recurrent Neural Networks for deep learning.
Although decision models based on value, policy, and fuzzy rules
were analysed in the context of reinforcement learning.
The technique proposed by Razieh Rastgoo et al. [28] proposed a
vision-based model of sign language recognition utilising deep
learning algorithms, which showed substantial improvement in
accuracy. Because CTC (connectionist temporal classification)-based
sign language recognition techniques struggle to anticipate output for
longer videos, Liqing Gao et al. [29] proposed an RNN-Transducerbased SLR architecture. A visual hierarchy transcription network is
built in this framework to collect the required details. A lexical
prediction network is used to extract effective contextual information
from output predictions. Sara Askari Khomami et al. [30] presented a
low-cost sign language recognition device. It was built with surface
electromyography (sEMG) and Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)
sensors and is utilised by 10 volunteers. When the 25 highest-ranked
features of the two modalities (sEMG, IMU) were retrieved and
categorised using the kNN classifier, the average accuracy was
96.13%. According to Nayan M.Kakoty et al. [31], identification is
accomplished by the use of an indigenously created data glove. The
glove is used to measure the angles of the finger and wrist joints,
after which the data is filtered and scaled. It is made up of an
accelerometer, a microprocessor, and an FSK transceiver module
that transmits data between the glove and the sign language
recognition unit. Using a label-matching approach, the detected sign
language is translated into related speech. Using this approach,
average recognition rates of 96.7% were obtained. M.A.Ahmed and
colleagues [32] developed a real-time system using wearable sensing
gloves. It includes 17 sensors and 65 channels for capturing hand
motion data. A 3D-printed humanoid arm was used to validate the
sensor. As a consequence, the accuracy for numbers, alphabet
letters, and words was 99 percent, 96 percent, and 93.4 percent,
respectively. Hasmath Farhana Thariq Ahmed et al. [33] proposed a
recognition system based on WiFi. This system can identify 30 static
and 19 dynamic sign motions. The suggested system made use of
machine learning classifiers such as SVM, kNN, RF, NB, and CNN, as
well as a deep learning classifier. A dynamic Persian sign language
recognition system was described by Saeideh GhanbariAzar et al.
[34]. A simple region-growing approach was used to extract handshape information from a collection of 1200 videos. These timevarying trajectories were then modelled with the Hidden Markov
Model (HMM) and Gaussian probability density functions as
observations. These trajectories were then modelled with a Hidden
Markov Model (HMM) and Gaussian probability density functions as
observations.
Sign Language Generation
Compared to sign language recognition, research in sign language
generation has not progressed much. Sign language generation is
challenging since visual and linguistic characteristics are essential.
Initially, manual animation of 3D avatars is used to provide
information. This is a very difficult task, considering the complexity of
sign language and the difficulty in animation. Annotation of non-manual
features is also a challenge. The lack of non-manual features is cited
as a drawback for many existing 3D avatar-based models. Utilizing
motion capture data for animation provided better results but was
limited in the set of signs that could be provided. Due to this, datadriven techniques provided a promising future.
Most works [35-37] in sign language generation use RGB videos as
input. Each video represents a single sign or a sentence. Extracting
individual signs in a sentence is also a challenging task. Processing
RGB videos is a computationally intensive task. Extracting skeleton
data [37] from RGB videos and using it for sign language generation
is also explored by researchers. Convolutional Neural Networks
(CNN) can easily extract features from RGB videos which can later
be used for sign language production. Features provided by CNN can
also be used as input for Recurrent Neural Network
(RNN)/Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN) based networks. An
overview of works that use these is discussed in this section. When
the input is text, sign language production is more complex. Spoken
language text to sign language is a very difficult task because of a
number of reasons. Since sign languages have visual modality, in sign
language conversion, textual data should be converted to a
completely different form as far as textual data is concerned.
Research on sign language grammar is very little, making the
conversion process more difficult. Though sign language possesses
all the properties of a spoken language, the complexity of sign
language grammar makes conversion difficult. Neural Machine
Translation (NMT) techniques can be used for machine translation.
S Stoll et al. [35] proposed a Neural Network (NN) based approach
for sign language generation. The system proposed by S Stoll et al.
comprises three stages. A text-to-gloss network, a gloss-to-pose
network and a Variational AutoEncoder (VAE)/Generative Adversarial
Networks (GAN) based sign generation network. The authors also
introduced SignSynth [36], another data-driven sign language video
generation system making use of Generative Adversarial Networks
(GAN). NN-based techniques have been shown to have superior
results as compared to traditional methods. The architecture of the
method is given in Fig. (5).
Fig. (5))
Architecture of NN-based SL generation proposed by S Stoll et al.
[1].
Three networks form the core of this. The first network is text to
glose, which converts textual input to sign language gloss. Glose to
Pose network takes this input and generates pose. The final network
is Pose to Video, which takes pose and outputs sign language video.
Pose to video network uses a Generative Adversarial Network (GAN)
for sign language video generation. In that, a generator G is engaged
in generating video based on the pose and discriminator D tries to
differentiate real or fake outputs. As time progresses, G is able to
create more realistic sign videos making it difficult for D to correctly
classify real or fake outputs.
Heike Brock, Felix Law et al. [37] proposed a pipeline for generating
skeleton data from Sign Language videos. Single-camera sign
language videos are used for the input, and the proposed system
could generate three-dimensional skeleton data. These can be used
for Sign Language synthesis using a virtual avatar. Generation
process is divided into two stages. This is shown in Fig. (6).
Fig. (6))
Sign generation process as described in Heike Brock, Felix Law et.
al. [37]
In the first stage, full-body joint positions are generated using pose
estimation techniques. Three Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN) are
made used for this. In the second stage, these are fed to the Inverse
Kinematics (IK) calculator to generate angular and translational
displacements of joints. These can be used for avatar animation. This
work uses two types of data are used, 2D joint positions obtained
using pose estimation and 3D absolute joint positions obtained from
motion capture data. Three RNN’s are used for inference of 3D joint
position of face, finger and rest of the points in the global coordinate
system.
For training of RNN’s, motion capture data corresponding to the sign
videos is used as the target. Input is the pose estimated sign video.
The study has found that RNN’s could correctly predict the depth
information from horizontal and vertical information. First RNN outputs
3D finger points, the second RNN outputs 3D face points, and the
third RNN outputs the rest of the 3D points. Upper half of the body is
enough for Sign Language generation tasks since not much difference
exists for the lower half of the body.
B. Saunders, N. C. Camgoz, and R. Bowden [38] proposed a
transformer-based model for sign language production. It converts
spoken language sentences to 3D sign sequences. It uses two
transformer architectures; a symbolic transformer for textual input to
gloss and a progressive transformer to translate gloss to 3D poses.
They also experimented with a model using transformers to directly
translate text to 3D sign sequences. This uses a single progressive
transformer model. In their study text to pose network has better
accuracy as compared to text to gloss to pose network.
Data Science based AAC Solutions
Advancements in sign recognition accuracy have opened options for
the development of applications for deaf people using machine
learning techniques. Though processing facial expressions and fullbody movements is still a challenge, applications with a focus on
learning are possible [39-42]. These solutions are possible for
different sign languages and focus on early-stage learning. Most of
the solutions make use of Automatic Sign Language Recognition
techniques. Authors couldn't find any large-scale use of the sign
language recognition-based tools.
SmartSignPlay [42, 45] is an application for learning American Sign
Language for deaf/hard of hearing and parents of deaf children. A
gesture-based learning mechanism using CNN is proposed in it.
Evaluation of the prototype developed shows that SmartSignPlay is
favoured by participants. Helene Brashear [43] proposed an
improvement to copycat games using ASLR for American Sign
Language (ASL). The main aim of the project is to help children
practise ASL. Using the proposed Sign Language Recognition
technique, users can interact with the game using gestures. It
proposed a user-independent recognition mechanism for ASL hand
gestures.
Sensor-based solutions are also tried by researchers. Kinect-sign
[44, 46] is a kinect-based solution for sign language learning. Kinect-
Sign uses matching techniques for Portuguese Sign Language
recognition. Kinect was selected because of its ability to record depth
data so that recognition accuracy could be improved. In the Kinectsign skeleton, data is captured using Kinect and Region of Interest
(ROI) is calculated. This is then converted to grayscale, and nearest
neighbour interpolation is done for recognition. This mechanism could
work when the number of gestures to be recognised is small and fails
when the number of gestures increases. Researchers employed
various machine learning algorithms since it provides better accuracy
on depth data from these types of sensors [47].
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The availability of depth sensors, specialized data sets and efficient
machine learning algorithms and computational capabilities provided
by specialized hardware made it possible for the development of
efficient data science-based solutions for deaf users and people with
difficulty in hearing. Since sign language is made up of manual and
non-manual components, the development of solutions that solves
real word problems is still a challenging task. Results from sign
language recognition tasks show that reasonable accuracy can be
obtained if the correct sensors and algorithms are used. Compared
to this, sign language production is in a nascent stage. Advances in
3D avatars and depth estimation made it possible to model manual
and non-manual components in Sign Language.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Declared none.
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Hardware
and
Software-based
Accessibility Innovations to Help
Physically Disabled User
Bhagvan Kommadi1, *
1 Director of Product Engineering, Value Momentum, Hyderabad, India
Abstract
Initially, text-based terminals were used as computers with DOS
OS. The terminal had a cursor, and text was typed into the
terminal. Accessibility for users was provided by using the text
and events related to the user. The accessibility formats were
voice and text in various font levels. The web has evolved, and
accessibility support for the web is very important. HTML5 helps
us to design websites for PDAs, Mobile, TV browsers, and other
devices. Web browsers use the accessibility API for disabled
users. Accessibility APIs used in the browsers are MSAA, UIA,
and Microsoft UIA. This chapter in the book talks about
accessibility software and hardware used in software design and
development.
Keywords: Accessibility, Design, Hardware, Platform, Software.
*
Corresponding author Bhagvan Kommadi: Director of Product
Engineering,
Value
Momentum,
Hyderabad,
India;
E-
mail:bhagvanarch@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
This book will highlight the accessibility of software and hardware
implemented in software projects. Desktop, web, and mobile are designed
using various tools to implement accessibility requirements. We will look at
different elements of the accessibility design, development, and deployment
platforms.
Accessibility is important for many users with disabilities, such as blindness,
deaf, and others. They have problems like website content, color, images,
and contrast. They use screen readers to change the content to voice for the
disabled. Popular screen readers are listed below: Jaws, Window-Eye,
NVDA, Seortek System Access, Apple VoiceOver, PRCA, BRLTTY,
Emacspeak, WebAnywhere Spoken Web ChromeVox, ChromeVis.
Screen readers help the users for changing the content to a format that the
user can understand and act upon it. Screen readers have features such as
text-to-speech, braille display method,and piezo effect-based crystals. You
can use other
software and hardware assistive techniques for accessibility support Table 1.
There are devices like sip and puff switch and others for the disabled user
for content typing and reading.
Table 1 Accessibility Matrix .
Context/Disability
Situation
Vision
Mobility
Hearing
Cognitive
Object holding in the
hand
Noise
Temporary
Head
concussion
arm injury
Head
concussion
Permanent
Blind
Repetitive Stain
injury
ACCESSIBILITY FOR DIFFERENT DISABILITIES
All operating systems have accessibility support, and users can handle
content types like images, videos, and audio. OffScreen model for the
content is created using API calls, such as retrieving text, images, events,
formats, and actions. Screen readers, voice dictation software, and speaking
word processors use this offscreen model. The offscreen model can have
objects, context, user actions, and OS native calls. This model can be OSindependent, and it can have content-specific features, such as white
spacing, content alignment, and formatting specifications.
Accessibility can be not only due to disability but also low bandwidth, lowspeed internet, and mobile capabilities. Blind users and users with low-level
vision and color blindness might be targeted for accessibility support. Some
users might not have limbs or disabilities, which prevent them from typing
properly. They can be provided hardware that has voice support for speechto-text conversion. Audio content can be an issue for deaf users. Captions
and voice/video alternatives are provided to deaf users. Accessibility support
is provided for other groups of users who might have schizophrenia, dyslexia,
depression, and ADHD.
Compliance standards have evolved in the accessibility area, such as
WCAG, WCAG 2.0
WCAG 2.1, Section 508, and CVAA. ADA act stipulates the content design
that needs to target disabled readers. WCAG compliance is used to certify
the content for levels like A, AA, and AAA.
Accessibility software and tools have features for users who have issues in
the following areas: Reading, Writing, Scanning Content.
Accessibility software needs to support industry standards and best
practices [1]. It needs features to handle multiple operating systems, device
types, and content types. This software needs to be audited and certified
using checklists and best practices. Reports can be generated for
accessibility compliance, violations, compliance rates, the severity of the
issues, noticeability issues, tractability issues, and recommendations related
to accessibility. Accessibility software needs to support the following: content
types, controls, input indicators, signals, and alerts. It needs to provide
features related to cognitive accessibility, which are: memory issues,
processing speed issues, organization, problems coordination problems
Accessibility certification and verification is another project in the software
lifecycle. It consists of the following phases: Planning, Analysis, Design [2]
Development, Testing [3] and Maintenance.
This project involves the following areas: website design, structure outline,
web page template development, template integration, content creation, and
website publishing.
It would be best if you had a team for accessibility project execution.
Accessibility architects, developers, and testers are needed for design and
accessibility-certified website publishing. Testing tools [4] and software are
required for verification and certification purposes. Different companies, like
Microsoft, sell accessibility-specific tools to verify accessibility requirements.
Project managers are needed on the team to manage the complex project
related to accessibility.
The design of the accessible website will depend on the following key
elements: charts, graphs, trees, outlines, page tabs, dialogs, calendar
controls, animations, dynamic content, mobile, multi-media, control playback,
typography, menus, navigation, page structure, color, contrast, forms,
images, keyboard, links, language, typography, frames, data tables, dialogs,
authoring tools and layout tables. Accessibility requirements related to text
readability are listed below: sentence length, paragraph length, language
complexity, content headings, content headers, content footers, content type,
UI controls and usage, voice-over features, text hierarchy, bulleted lists, text
font types, spelling issues, idiomatic English grammar-related issues.
Addressing the text readability requirements helps in avoiding tiring and
mental taxation for the users. Session management requirements are as
follows: session time outs, expiry, communication channel support, action
time for completion.
Content-type related requirements are related to the following: user’s
interaction avoid confusion, distraction prevention, flashing effects, parallax
effects, motion effects, screen size, Page-level settings and global-level
settings.
The issues related to content types such as animations, images, videos, and
others are as follows: Seizure, Dizziness, Vertigo motion, and Distractions.
These content types need to have captions, subtitles, and transcripts to help
disabled users. Icons should not have too much information.
Internationalization and localization might create different issues related to
accessibility. Cultural differences might result in choosing different colors and
themes, which might be an important design factor for accessibility.
Navigation and inks need to have the right positions and targets. Automatic
refresh is not a good design for accessibility. CSS design needs to factor in
the colors and themes suitable for accessibility.
Accessibility software-specific content needs to be designed and rendered
offscreen. The order of web page elements and the content needs to be
mentioned in the correct place. Image maps and images need to have the
right Alt Text. Keyboard accessibility design needs to factor in the focus
order of the elements. Assistive hardware and software for input entry need
to know the element order.
Aggregator platforms that gather content and collate it based on categories
must factor in the accessibility requirements. The published content must
abide by the accessibility guidelines and requirements. Content needs to be
scrollable and resizable based on the accessibility design requirements.
In the next sections, we are going to look at critical elements in the
accessibility ecosystem, designing for accessibility, best practices, digital
accessibility, accessibility project lifecycle, planning for accessibility, and
accessibility platform.
CRITICAL
ELEMENTS
ECOSYSTEM
-
ACCESSIBILITY
The reader will be aware of the essential factors of the accessibility
ecosystem. We will focus on key elements (Fig. 1) which affect accessibility,
such as charts, graphs, timber and outlines, web page tabs, dialogs,
calendar controls, animations, dynamic content, mobile, multi-media, and
typography.
Every user and reader has equal rights to the content material and the facts
provided. When the user accesses the content material for a unique task, the
content material needs to serve the accessibility requirements of a disabled
user. The incapacity can be associated with hearing, imagination, and the
prescient moves of the body. Tools should be used for making the content
material created accessible. Microsoft and different software programs
furnish accessibility and precise equipment to repair the documents.
Fig. (1))
Accessibility Ecosystem.
The software program which publishes the content consists of accessibility
tags Table 2. Authors should exhibit the impact on the conversation channel.
The channel can be a picture, audio, or video. Accessibility and best
assurance are very important steps in the publishing process.
Table 2 Accessibility Tags
Colorblind Screen
Braille Haptic
Access/Device Monitor
Printer
Plotter
palette reader
embosser Device
Keyboard
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Mouse
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
JoyStick
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Game
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
Controller
Microphone
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Touch Screen
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Webcam
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
Eye Tracker
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
Laser Pointer
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Accessibility Device and Access Options
Accessible content should be furnished to the customers from the aggregator
platform. The publishers who furnish the content material will comply with the
suggestions for integration with assistive technological know-how tools. The
required tags and labels for accessibility should be treated at some point in
the facts switch and aggregation. The content material should be examined
for assistive equipment through the usage of the accessibility guidelines.
The repositories which hold the content material should make sure of the
accessibility requirements. The repository property should be cataloged and
be searchable by using the user and the reader. Designing the content
material repository website is very necessary from a low imaginative and
prescient user and cognitive overload issues.
We have been discussing key elements, such as menus, navigation, content,
web page structure, color, contrast, forms, images, keyboard accessibility,
links, and language. Now let us focus on the typography and different key
factors. The internet web pages reflow should not have a loss of content.
Content needs to be resizable. The person can override the textual content
spacing and have the content material on hand for the reader. The horizontal
scrolling must be limited. Regarding mobile content material and accessibility,
let us look at iPhone accessibility alternatives available. iPhone’s accessibility
selections Table 3 for imaginative and prescient and speech are presented
below:
Table 3 Accessibility Device & Access Options
Value/Access
Voice Over
Zoom
Magnifier
Invert Colors
Greyscale
Speech
Larger Text
Bold Text
Yes
On
On
On
Yes
Yes
Yes
On
Yes
No
Off
Off
Off
No
No
No
Off
No
Value/Access
Button Shapes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Vision and Speech Accessibility Options
The selections for speech and interplay Table 4 of iPhone accessibility are
presented below:
Table 4 Vision & Speech options
Value/Access
Larger Text
Bold Text
Button Shapes
Increase Contrast
Reduce Motion
On/Off Labels
Switch Control
Assistive Touch
Touch Accommodations
Yes
On
Yes
Yes
Yes
On
Yes
On
On
On
No
Off
No
No
No
Off
No
Off
Off
Off
Speech and Interaction Options
The choices for interplay and listening Table 5 to iPhone accessibility are
presented below:
Table 5 Speech & Interaction Options
Value/Access
Keyboard
Shake to Undo
Vibration
Call Audio Routing
Home Button
Hearing Devices
LED Flash for Alerts
Mono Audio
Yes
Yes
On
On
Automatic
Yes
Yes
On
Yes
No
No
Off
Off
Manual
No
No
Off
No
Value/Access
Direction
Yes
Left
No
Right
Interaction and Hearing Options
The alternatives for the media and studying Table 6) of iPhone accessibility
are presented below:
Table 6 Interaction & Hearing Options
Value/Access
Audio Volume Balance
Subtitles & Captioning
Audio Description
Guided Access
Accessibility Shortcut
Yes
Left
Yes
On
On
On
No
Right
No
Off
Off
Off
Media and Learning Options
In mobile content, content material views in exclusive orientation should be
restricted. Single-factor activation activities must be ensured to be canceled.
The performance needs to be operable with the usage of a single pointer.
User interface factors can be activated through movement and different
mechanisms.
In multi-media, accessibility is regarded by ensuring the audible content
material is stated in the captions. Visual content material is stated in the
audio of the multi-media content. The synchronized audio and video are
furnished with media content. Synchronized captions for the video need to be
provided. Audio should not be played on the load of the application. Playback
of the media content material needs to be controlled. Media playback
controls need to be mapped with shortcut keys in the application.
The calendar controls need to be keyboard-accessible. Color has to no
longer be the sole way to deliver the resolution of the calendar component.
The information tables for calendar controls need to have header and facts
cells. The non-modal calendars need to be rendered in line with the activating
controls. The center of attention needs to go by activation and deactivation
of the calendar controls.
Dialogs need to have a desirable structure. The keyboard focal point needs
to return from dialogs properly. The spawn dialogs from the hyperlinks have
to exhibit the information. The non-modal dialogs need to be rendered in line
with the controls which set off them. The dialogs need to be designed for
closure by way of the keyboard. The modal dialogs need to have the
keyboard focus. The dialogs which are activated need to have a focal point
that goes accordingly. A dialog needs to have the title defined.
The multi-column listing view controls need to have the rows selectable for
the usage of the keyboard. The headers have to be sortable for the usage of
the keys. The textual content options need to be supplied for the sortable
headers.
The web page tabs for the content material need to have a name and role.
The menus need to be standalone, connected, and context-specific. The
menus need to be connected to the fields. The menus need to have keys
mapped, and programmatic focal points need to be provided. When the
menus are closed, the keyboard focal point returns correctly. The menus
need to be openable from the keyboard. The sub-menu objects need to be
furnished with on-hand keys, and the sub-menu shape needs to be
knowledgeable via help. The menus need to be rendered in line with the
controls which are activating.
DESIGNING FOR ACCESSIBILITY
In one of the user journeys conferences, a well-known quote used to be
made that ‘Accessibility is solved at the layout stage’. Designing for
accessibility [5] is assembling the person's requirements. The user
requirements deal with a couple of cultures, countries, kinds of users,
specific demographic customers, and target users. Accessibility pursues
visually impaired users and customers with varieties of impairments as nicely
such as hearing, cognitive, mobility and motor-related problems.
Accessibility is solved at the sketch stage. This is a phrase that Daniel Na
and his crew heard over and over once more whilst attending a conference.
The requirements of the customers need to be protected for the design of
accessibility framework (Fig. 2). This consists of your goal users, customers'
backyard of your goal demographic, customers with disabilities, and even
customers from unique cultures and countries. Understanding these
requirements is necessary for developing handy person experiences for
them.
Fig. (2))
Accessibility Framework.
User requirements are gathered thru personal interviews. Different user
requirements which tackle the person's journey are animation and effects,
audio and video, color, controls, font, photos and icons, keyboard, layout,
material, readability, shape, and time. Design concerns Table 7 imposed with
the aid of the accessibility requirements and better person ride assist in
growing UX wealthy products. Web pages are designed so that they can be
tabbable with the keyboard for customers disabled and mouse utilization is a
hassle for them. The content material and layouts h to be structured with the
usage of HTML5. Shortcuts need to be furnished for convenient navigation of
the user.
Table 7 Design Concerns
Context
Web Accessibility Improvement [6]
Content
Unique title and identifier for content and elements
Organization
Simplicity
Visibility
Descriptive
Images
Audio and Video
Data
Color
Anti-patterns
Headings for content
Plain English is used
Easy to read text
Links need to be more descriptive
Alt text for images
Text Alternatives for audio and video
Tables are used
Color contrast is important
usage of Text images
Animations, images, consequences make the net website online interactive
and assist in branding the website. They can be perplexing and develop
distractions to some of the internet site users. Flashing outcomes can
motivate photosensitive epilepsy. These outcomes can result in headaches,
nausea, and dizziness. Parallax and action results can make customers
experience a vertigo-like effect. This can be due to the fact of vestibular
sensitivity. Animations need to be for eventualities the place brief distances
are simulated, and objects are shifting at lesser speeds relative to the
display size. Users need to have the functionality to swap off and on some of
these consequences at web page degree and world stage settings.
Web Accessibility Improvements
Typical questions which should be protected for animations, images, results
are associated with seizure, dizziness, vertigo motion, distractions due to
moving, blinking, and auto-updating. Videos and audio assist in growing
higher person experience. Autoplaying is an alternative however it diverts the
user interest and should be prevented throughout the layout phase. Videos
must be averted enjoying in the background. Users ought to have settings to
play, pause and quit the video.
The content material like animations, images, movies and audio need to have
transcripts, captions and subtitles to assist the customers accordingly. Blind
customers may pick a transcript for movies and animations. Audio and
movies should be designed to search quite a several elements associated
with autoplay, controls, description, and hiding the content. Avoid facts in the
download icons.
Designing the internet website for specific organizations of customers helps
in a higher user experience [7]. The age of the customers can fall into the
young, center, and old categories. Color is an essential component in the
format of web pages. It helps in branding and personal appreciation of the
website. For blind users, coloration honestly no longer helps. Users with
color blindness may additionally now not be in a position to make the
distinction between red, green, yellow, and orange. Deuteranopia ailment
can motivate blindness for inexperienced color. Users with this sickness
discover pink as brown or yellow. They sense experience as beige. Typically
guys have this disease. Protanopia sickness reasons blindness to pink color.
For them, purple is perceived as darkish or black. Orange and inexperienced
coloration appears like yellow. Men have this type of disease. Tritanopia
disorder happens in guys and women. This sickness can purpose blindness
to blue-yellow color. The blue color is perceived as inexperienced or teal.
The yellow color appears like violet or grey. Color mixtures such as purple,
green, yellow, and blue-pink need to be avoided.
Internationalization and localization of content, images, icons, and net pages
aspect in the shade particular to that united states and cultures. There is a
distinction in japan and Asian cultures concerning the illustration of
colorations to tremendous and bad trends. Patterns, icons, and textual
content descriptions are used to deal with colorings and cultural differences.
Icons that are crammed are higher than outlined ones.
Color is used for highlighting the content material and exhibiting errors. For
making the pages and shapes visually accessible, tooltips, thick borders,
daring text, underlining, and italics can be used to exhibit errors. The contrast
ratio of textual content to its returned floor is some other issue that needs to
be minimal, from 4.5 to 1 per WCAG. Based on the font measurement of 19
or 24 pixels bold, the minimal modifications to three: 1. Customers with low
vision, coloration blindness, worsening imagination, and prescient can study
the textual content-based totally on the contrasting factor. The different
settings, like Windows High distinction mode, affect the plan of the pages
with colors. The sketch elements to be regarded for dealing with colorings
are barring the use of color, oversaturated colors, distinction factor,
foreground, and, again, floor colors.
Interactive content material, such as UI controls, assists customers in
interacting with buttons, links, inputs, and other factors associated with the
internet web and content. The measurement of the controls is a necessary
aspect of the visibility and invocation of the controls. Customers with tremors
and missing dexterity may have a hassle in pointing the controls. The
control’s place and dimension is a layout aspect associated with clicking on
the target. Users with widespread or adaptive pointing machines should have
a solution for pointing and clicking the control. W3C’s Authoring Practices for
Design Patterns [8] recommends reachable sketch patterns, including
menus, modals, autocompletes, trees, and tab sets.
Hovering needs to be avoided by designing for accessibility. Secondary
movements in the menus or non-modal dialogs should be used alternatively
of hover states. They can conceal the trigger. Secondary icon's coloration
and distinction should be lightened. On hover, they should be darkened.
Instead of white space, the data icon is higher to invoke a content material
crammed hover.
The function of controls performs a necessary function for contact display
screen users. WCAG suggests the minimal dimension for the UI manipulation
is 44 x 44 pixels. Google recommends 48 x 48 pixels. The minimal
measurement has padding for the control. The sketch elements for deciding
on controls are associated with size, positioning, padding, nesting, textual
content visibility, and the kind of display (touch or web). Form fields should
be labeled inner the label element. Placeholder textual content has to no
longer be used for naming the label.
Material is a very necessary format component for web page design. The
appearance and experience of an aspect are associated with the material.
Styling the hyperlink as a button or putting them after every different is an
issue. Autocomplete menu is another aspect that can solve issues for
keyboard or display reader users. Material layout elements are associated
with users, behaviors, the aggregate of awesome behaviors, and the
experience of the elements.
Text readability can motivate troubles like tiring and taxing mentally. The vital
elements are associated with sentence length, paragraph size, and language
complexity. Content should be designed with headings, lists, menus, footers,
and images. Headings assist in grouping and summarizing the information.
The layout elements for readability are thinking at the back of the text,
simplicity of the language, size of paragraphs, and utilization of the UI
controls. Suggested line and paragraph spacing is atlas 1.5x for higher
experience. Voice-over equipment assists blind customers in speaking their
intent and description. The description of the content material and controls is
placed as alt text. Live textual content should be used as a substitute for
flattened. Avoid textual content in photographs all through design. Text
hierarchy needs to be maintained. Text blocks of eighty characters should be
used to assist customers with the slim discipline of vision. Bulleted lists are
additionally recommended. Avoid underlining, italics, and capital-lettered text.
Ensure spell take a look at is achieved for the textual content in the internet
web pages. Idioms and Figure of speech should be avoided.
The quantity of time spent by way of the user on a web page is a design
factor. Session administration performs an essential position in time out of
the classes and their expiry. Users can extend the session on a web page.
During the design of the web pages, make certain the customers can ask for
the favored channel for conversation or support. They should be given a
realistic time for an animation to be finished.
BEST PRACTICES
The checklist below helps you to think about what to implement accessibility.
Can app users perceive the content?
Can application users use User Interface components and navigate the
content?
Can web app users understand the content?
Can app users understand the interface?
Is it consistent enough to avoid confusion?
Can the content be consumed by a wide variety of web app user agents on
the browsers?
Does the web application work with assistive technology?
Now let us start looking at how to implement accessibility after getting the
answer to the above questions: Let us start from the keyboard. For
customers who can't or pick out now not to use a mouse, keyboard
navigation is their most important capability of achieving the whole lot on
screen. This target audience consists of customers with motor impairments,
such as Repetitive Stress Injury (RSI) or paralysis, as properly as display
reader users. For an appropriate keyboarding ride purpose is to have a
logical tab order and, without problems, a discernable center of attention
style.
Start with the aid of tabbing via your site. The order in which factors are
targeted ought to purpose to comply with the DOM order. If you’re not sure
which factors need to acquire focus, see the focus fundamentals for a
refresher. The widely widespread rule of thumb is that any interaction with
entering needs to be focusable and show a center of attention indicator
(e.g., a center of attention ring). It is a frequent exercise to disable the
center of attention patterns except by offering a choice via the usage of the
outline: none in CSS, however, this is an anti-pattern. If a keyboard user
can’t see what’s focused, they cannot interact with the page. If you should
differentiate between mouse and keyboard focal points for styling, reflect on
the consideration of adding a library like what-input.
Custom interactive controls must intention to be focusable. If you use
JavaScript to flip a <div> element into a fancy dropdown, it will no longer
robotically be inserted into the tab order. To make a customized manipulation
focusable, provide a tabindex=”0”. Avoid controls with a tabindex &gt; zero.
These controls will bounce beforehand of the whole lot else in the tab order,
regardless of their role in the DOM. This can be difficult for display reader
customers as they tend to navigate the DOM linearly. Non-interactive content
material (e.g., headings) has to keep away from being focusable.
Sometimes builders add a tabindex to headings due to the fact they assume
they are important. This is also an anti-pattern because it makes keyboard
customers who can see the display screen much less efficient. For display
reader users, the display reader will already announce these headings, so
there’s no should make them focusable.
If new content material is brought to the page, strive to make positive that
the user’s focal point is directed to that content material so they can take
motion on it. Beware of absolutely trapping center of attention at any point.
Watch out for autocomplete widgets; the place keyboard focal point may
also get stuck. Focus can be quickly trapped in unique situations, such as
showing a modal, when you do not prefer the user interacting with the
relaxation of the web page - however you need to purpose to supply a
keyboard-accessible technique of escaping the modal as well.
Just due to the fact something is focusable doesn’t suggest it is usable. If
you have constructed a customized control, the purpose for a user to be
capable to attain all of its performance is the usage of solely the keyboard.
You should not neglect offscreen content. Many websites have offscreen
content material that is currently in the DOM but no longer visible, for
example, hyperlinks inner a responsive drawer menu or a button internal, a
modal window that has but to be displayed. Leaving these factors in the
DOM can lead to a puzzling keyboarding experience, specifically for display
readers, which will announce the offscreen content material as if it’s a
section of the page.
You can try using a display reader. Improving widespread keyboard assist
lays some groundwork for the subsequent step, which is to take a look at the
web page for suited labeling and semantics and any obstructions to display
screen reader navigation. If you are unfamiliar with how semantic markup
receives interpreted with the aid of assistive technology.
Check all photographs for ideal alt text. The exception to this exercise is
when photos are chiefly for presentation functions and are now not
quintessential portions of the content. To signify that a picture must be
shipped via a display screen reader, you need to set the cost of the alt
attribute to an empty string, e.g., alt=””. Check all controls for a label.
Customized controls may additionally require the use of aria-label or arialabeled.
Check all customized controls for a fabulous function and any required ARIA
attributes that confer their state. For example, a customized checkbox will
need a role=” checkbox” and aria-checked=” true false” to right deliver its
state. The glide of facts must make sense. Because display screen readers
navigate the web page in DOM order, if you have used CSS to visually
reposition elements, they may additionally be introduced in a nonsensical
sequence.
Aim to guide a display screen reader’s navigation to all content material on
the page. Avoid letting any sections of the website be completely hidden or
blocked from display reader access.
If content material must be hidden from a display screen reader, for
instance, if it’s offscreen or simply presentational, make certain that content
material is set to aria-hidden=” true”. Familiarity with even one display reader
goes a long way. Though it may appear daunting to research a display
reader, they’re fairly easy to pick out. In general, most builders can get via
with simply a few easy key commands.
If you’re on a Mac, test out this video on the use of VoiceOver, the display
reader that comes with Mac OS. If you’re on a PC, take a look at this video
on the usage of NVDA, a donation-supported, open-supply display reader for
Windows. It’s necessary to apprehend that ARIA can solely affect the
semantics of an element; it has no impact on the conduct of the element.
While you can make a thing hidden to display screen readers with ariahidden=” true”, that no longer exchanges the center of attention conduct for
that element. For offscreen interactive content, you will frequently mix ariahidden=” true” and tabindex=”-1” to make certain it is eliminated from the
keyboard flow. The proposed inert attribute objectives make this less difficult
by combining the conduct of each attribute.
Interactive factors like hyperlinks and buttons need to point out their motive
and state. Providing visible pointers about what a manipulation will do, helps
human beings function and navigate your site. These recommendations are
referred to as affordances. Providing affordances makes it feasible for
human beings to use your website on a large range of devices.
Interactive elements, like hyperlinks and buttons, must be distinguishable
from non-interactive elements. It is challenging for customers to navigate a
website or app when they can't inform if an issue is clickable. There are
many legitimate techniques to accomplish this goal. One frequent exercise is
underlining hyperlinks to differentiate them from their surrounding text. Similar
to the center of attention requirement, interactive factors like hyperlinks and
buttons require a hover for mouse users, so they understand if they are
hovering over something clickable. However, the interactive component
nonetheless needs to be distinguishable on its own. Relying on a hover on
my own to point out that clickable factors no longer assist contact display
screen devices.
You need to use headings and landmarks. Headings and landmark factors
imbue your web page with semantic structure, and noticeably make bigger
the navigating effectivity of assistive technological know-how users. Many
display screen reader customers document that when they first land on an
unfamiliar page, they generally attempt to navigate with the aid of headings.
Similarly, display screen readers additionally provide the capacity to leap to
necessary landmarks like <main> and <nav>. For these motives, it’s
essential to think about how the shape of your web page can be used to
inform the user’s experience. Make desirable use of the h1-h6 hierarchy.
Think of headings as equipment to create and define your page. Don’t count
on the built-in styling of headings; instead, think about all headings as if they
had been the equal dimension and use the semantically excellent degree for
primary, secondary, and tertiary content. Then use CSS to make the
headings fit your design. Use landmark factors and roles so customers can
omit repetitive content. Many assistive applied sciences grant shortcuts to
leap to unique components of the page, such as those described by way of
<main> or <nav> elements. These factors have implicit landmark roles. You
can additionally use the ARIA position attribute to explicitly outline areas on
the page, e.g., <div role=“search”>. See the information on headings and
landmarks for greater examples.
Avoid role=”application” until you have prior experience working with it. The
software landmark position will inform assistive technological know-how to
disable its shortcuts and bypass via all key presses to the page. This skill
that the keys display reader customers usually use to go around the web
page will no longer work, and you will put all keyboard dealing with yourself
into effect.
Quickly evaluate headings and landmarks with a display screen reader.
Screen readers like VoiceOver and NVDA supply a context menu for skipping
to essential areas on the page. If you’re doing an accessibility check, you
can use these menus to get a speedy overview of the web page and decide
if heading degrees are splendid and which landmarks are in use. You need to
look at automating the process. Manually checking out a website for
accessibility can be tedious and error-prone. Eventually, you’ll choose to
automate the method as an awful lot as possible. This can be achieved via
the use of browser extensions, and command-line accessibility take a look at
suites.
AXE and WAVE Browser extensions are simply two reachable choices and
can be a beneficial addition to any guide check technique as they can rapidly
choose up on refined problems like failing distinction ratios and lacking ARIA
attributes. If you select to do matters from the command line, axe-cli
presents the identical performance as the aXe browser extension, however,
can be without difficulty run from your terminal.
To keep away from regressions, mainly in a non-stop integration
environment, include a library like axe-core into your computerized take a
look at suite. axe-core is the equal engine that powers the axe chrome
extension, however in an easy-to-run command-line utility.
You need to check for accessibility tools if you are using a tool or software.
Some examples encompass protractor-accessibility-plugin for Angular, and
ally suite for Polymer and Web Components. Take benefit of handy
equipment on every occasion feasible to keep away from reinventing the
wheel.
DIGITAL ACCESSIBILITY
Disabled customers should have the functionality to navigate and view the
internet web applications, documents, and cell applications. This functionality
is referred to as Digital accessibility. The incapacity can be associated with
the eye, ear, body, and intelligence of the user. Many types of equipment
exist for disabled customers to analyze the content material on exceptional
channels. Users with impaired motor troubles use extraordinary tools for
analyzing digital content. They can't use the traditional keyboard and mouse.
They will use a display reader and a sip-and-puff swap for input [9].
Many of the websites make it difficult for disabled customers to access the
content material, making it fantastic for them. Best practices advise the
internet person interface factors to be designed well. Universal high-quality
practices are used for designing websites to meet the requirements of more
than one kind of user. Alt Text tags for photos and portraits assist internet
customers who are listening to the impaired. Similarly, video content material
having captions assist impaired users. Search engines index the websites
which are accessible. Well-designed websites for accessibility assist in
making the websites searchable. Users with disabilities can search shortly to
browse integral internet web content. The content material designed for the
internet web would possibly have a specific user’s trip on the display reader
for a disabled user. Screen readers become aware of well-known HTML
elements. Standard factors, such as header, menu, body, and footer, are
recognized by using the display reader.
Keyboard navigation should be enabled due to the fact disabled customers
would possibly no longer be capable of using the mouse or browsing the
content. Disabled customers with muscle management issues and who have
lost arms can use the keyboard for navigation. User moves should be
designed to retain in thought the visible flow, navigation path from left to
right, pinnacle to backside looking, and navigating the menu. The different
movements that should be viewed for layout are clicking on the centered link,
shopping the footer, and closing the UI home windows and tabs to separate
views. UI factors, such as buttons, links, shape fields, and records pickers,
are the correct candidates for designing for accessibility. ALT attribute for
img is shown below.
<img src=”/uploads/bridge.jpg” alt=”“Thames” river=”” bridge”=””>
The input tab needs to be taken care of for the disabled user. Focusable
factors and indications in an internet website need to be recognized in the
design. CSS factors are used to format the visible factors on a net page.
The attributes for the description of URLs should be significant and
descriptive. For content material like photos and videos, ALT attributes can
have descriptive and significant phrases. ARIA label helps the display screen
reader in analyzing the name to motion textual content on the button. They
are used to override the HTML labels for designing an internet website for
accessibility. A sample for a href tag is presented below with an ARIA label.
<a href=””…”” aria-label=””Sign” up=”” for=”” the=”” website”=””>Sign up</a>
The HTML labels should be seen, and the structure should not have
placeholder text. The varieties should be designed in a single-column format.
The borders for the textual content area, content fields, and drop-down
menus should be considered for designing the internet web types for
accessibility. HTML information tables should have a CSS for layout. HTML
tables are generally used for tabular data. Page Layouts should have CSS
for designing the pages for disabled users. Each area on the web page
needs to have descriptive headings. Semantic markup should exist for
headings, paragraphs, lists, and quotes. The web page format needs to be
designed to aspect in the left-aligned textual content for convenient scanning
of the content. The textual content headlines should be centered. Text
alignment should be chosen as a theme for the web page design. The web
page fonts should be chosen for web page design. Basic fonts should be
used. For disabled customers with a visible disability, Sans-serif fonts are
used in the net design. Picking the proper font measurement is important.
Font sizes larger than 12 are recommended. Choosing relative gadgets for
font dimensions helps make the content material readable without difficulty.
Animations such as blinking and transferring textual content are now not
recommended. Color scheme and distinction should be viewed for internet
web design. According to WCAG (Web Content Accessibility Guidelines), the
4.5:1 distinction ratio can be used for text. The different hints are a 21:1 ratio
for black textual content on a white background and 4.5:1 for grey textual
content on a white background. The web page factors such as shapes or
icons should be blended with a color. Web site layout needs planning for
making sure accessibility for disabled users.
ACCESSIBILITY PROJECT LIFECYCLE
Many customers are unable to get the right of entry to the data on the net,
which is inflicting a dichotomy. Websites should be designed for accessibility
for human beings with disabilities. Accessibility helps a person search the
internet website and the usage of the information. HTML5 is the language
used for designing and growing the website. Mobile, PDA, and Televisions
Browsers on computer systems get admission to the HTML5 content. The
web browser is properly recognized for getting access to HTML5 net-based
content. Users with impaired eyesight may have problems with content,
contrast, shade, and pictures on the internet web pages. Screen readers are
used for remodeling the internet web page content material to speech. Jaws,
Window-Eye, NVDA, Serotek System Access, Apple VoiceOver, ORCA,
BRLTTY, Emacspeak, WebAnywhere, Spoken Web, ChromeVox, and
ChromeVis are the nicely-acknowledged display reader.
Blind Web customers can use a display screen reader to rework the textual
content to a shape in which the person can process the information. Some
display screen readers convert the textual content to speech, while others
use the refreshable braille technique for display. The display readers are
primarily based on the piezo impact in which the crystals amplify on particular
voltage levels. Fingers are used by way of visually impaired customers to
study the text. An accessibility project lifecycle (Fig. 3) for making an internet
website reachable consists of a couple of phases, such as planning,
analysis, design, development, checking out and maintenance. The project
phases consist of net web page design, outlining of the structure, internet
web page template creation, integration of templates, content material
addition, and internet website launch. Design and user interface
conceptualization [10] is an essential segment of the accessibility undertaking
lifecycle. Web applications require accessibility to become popular and
attract a high number of readers. If accessibility is not considered very early,
refactoring at later periods challenges planning problems.
Fig. 3)
Accessibility Lifecycle
Website design has achieved the usage of wireframes, and accessibility
elements should be brought into the design. The selections made for
accessibility should be shared with designers, builders, and testers.
Accessibility should be built-in in the course of improvement, and the unit
trying out needs to take care of the requirements. The QA crew validates the
accessibility requirements and ensures the internet website performs
properly with assistive science and web browsers.
For the accessibility project, metrics and monitoring of the goals are
necessary. The intention is to have an internet website on hand for
customers with disabilities. Accessibility projects will have short and longterm goals for managing the product aspects and accessibility requirements.
The metrics measure the accessibility improvements. They pick out the
problems with internet web design, defects, and prioritization issues.
Accessibility is a tough design problem. Expertise is required for managing
accessibility requirements in the code. The problems commonly are sketch
issues for inaccessible web page elements. They are associated with
WCAG's two tenet violations. Accessibility architects and builders should
design and boost the internet website based totally on the guidelines.
The development and Testing [11] crew should have the trying-out equipment
for unit checking and user testing. Different browsers have extensions and
plugins for trying out accessibility requirements. The trying out equipment for
accessibility is deliberate very early for net website releases. The equipment
used for checking out should be checked for no longer supplying false
positives. QA group validates the requirements of the use of equipment and
guide testing.
Accessibility project testing [12] is like any QA project. The testers and the
builders should comply with the accessibility recommendations and
requirements. Both groups should have equal equipment for checking and
retaining the internet website for accessibility.
The internet web Forms should not be designed with the nesting of structure
factors and links. Placeholder values to the label should not be used.
Accessible utilization of time-based periods and timed responses are to be
viewed for the structure design. CAPTCHAs should be on hand for each
visually and audibly. The checkboxes and radio buttons should be placed to
the left of the labels. The internet web page factors with extra than one label
need to be designed properly for excellent rendering. The error messages
need to be highlighted before establishing the shape after submitting. The
structure issue hierarchy needs to be highlighted in a textual manner. The
structure discipline constraints and blunders should be placed in the
corresponding fields. The structure of discipline labels should be unique.
The structure fields need to be laid out in an intuitive order. The choice
factors in big lists need to be grouped. The radio button groups need to be
designed well. The rich edit entry fields should be accessible without delay.
The frequent enter fields are to be designed for auto-completion. The fields
must use well-known autocomplete values. The structure of instructive textual
content needs to be positioned at the beginning of the form. The seen textual
content label for the manipulation should be brought in the handy title of the
control. The error facts for the fields should be truly indicated. The structure
needs to have a steady implementation of error and alert mechanisms. A
valid label for the structure fields should be given. Audio cues are to be
furnished as alternatives.
Error prevention for felony commitments, monetary transactions, taking a
look at responses, and statistics adjustments should be treated properly.
Field units for corporations of structure controls need to be designed well.
The recommendations for error messages should be indicated when known.
Valid, concise, and significant choice textual content ought to be furnished for
photograph buttons. The visible labels and directions for app users to enter
must be designed well.
The internet web page hyperlinks should have the choice of textual content
for photograph links. The hyperlink textual content must be significant for
situations. Link textual content needs to be significant in the context. The
internet web links should be grouped. The identical hyperlink textual content
for hyperlinks needs to be prevented with distinct targets.
The internet web page shape must no longer use implicit headings. Heading
factors should be averted if now not necessary. Long costs should be
treated with the use of a block quote. Proper spacing needs to be furnished
for complicated textual content elements. The internet web page content
needs to be designed for assistive equipment such as display readers and
others. The internet web page content material needs to be hidden from
internet customers who cannot be rendered through assistive technology.
You should have the heading stage fit the heading's visible level. The
headings and labels should be descriptive and unique. The markup archives
must have well-formed elements. The web page studying order should
coincide with the center of attention order of the internet web page. Title
components have to be furnished for the internet web pages. Proper markup
has to be used to mark emphasized or one-of-a-kind text. The acceptable
citation markup should be used. The analyzing order of content material
ought to be logical. You should keep away from the use of ASCII layouts.
Page titles should be informative and context-sensitive. Keyboard gets entry
needs to be supplied for scrollable content.
PLANNING FOR ACCESSIBILITY
Accessibility makes the software program beneficial for many users. It is
about making sure the websites and the computing device software program
help customers who have disabilities, mobile customers, and sluggish
internet-based users. Accessibility gives equal possibilities and helps to
manage exceptional organizations of customers in a better way. Customers
with distinct disabilities are given equal rights to get the right of entry to
ordinary users. Accessible software program helps to make the internet
website extra search engine optimization friendly [13]. The company’s which
presents a handy internet web page, has a suitable branding image.
The customers with disabilities are visually impaired internet users,
customers with motor characteristic issues, and listening-to-impaired users.
Blind customers may use display readers to access the content material at
one-of-a-kind zoom factors. Visually impaired customers may have low
degree vision, blindness, and color blindness. Motor feature hassle dealing
with customers would possibly use keyboard and different points which are
non-mouse. These customers would possibly have paralysis or non-working
limbs. Their fingers and legs may be susceptible due to neurological
disorders. Deaf customers may use captions and different content material
options for voice and video. The different crew of customers may have
disabilities that are associated with cognitive impairment and situations in
thinking/memorizing. They would possibly have illnesses like intellectual
illness. These ailments would possibly be depression, schizophrenia,
dyslexia, and interest deficit hyperactivity disorder
Users who have these disabilities should get entry to digital content material
and websites. They will be successful to navigate, enter and study the
content material with the use of specific assistive technologies. Americans
with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) regulation stipulates that websites be
available to disable users. Web content material accessibility pointers
(WCAG) are published as a standard. These tips are associated with the
perceivability, operability, understandability, and robustness of the net
content. WCAG compliance stages are A, AA, and AAA. Planning for internet
website accessibility [14] should begin early in the software program launch
process. The group needs to have accessibility professionals proper from
the beginning of the project. They help to cut down remodeling and reduce
the problems for the duration of the checking-out stages. Training the group
of builders and testers on accessibility is very necessary. The mission layout
needs to factor in time for designing [15], development, testing, fixing, and
retesting.
It would help if you had a requirements board to figure out which websites
[16], internet web pages, content material administration systems, and
visible designs should be developed. This board decides the precedence for
the requirements. Any accessibility issue should be cautiously reviewed using
the board for accessibility requirements. Implementation of these
requirements should take place in phases or sprints. The team can have a
roadmap for future requirements, which enhances the capability of the
application. Accessibility is no longer a one-time fix. It is a non-stop
procedure, and as new internet web pages are developed, the accessibility
requirements come in. Testing and fixing problems is another phase of the
project.
The match handles must now not have navigation and structure submission
triggers. Meta redirects should be avoided. The pages should not refresh
automatically. The internet web pages should have a consistent navigation
shape. The voice can be the mode for accessing the content. A webpage
needs to be locatable in a couple of approaches from a team of pages. The
previous repetitive content material needs to be skippable. A way should be
furnished to omit the previous repetitive hyperlinks with the aid of the use of
seen links.
To make certain Keyboard Accessibility, inactive factors should be averted in
the focal point order. The gadget-structured tournament handlers need to
now not be used alone. The title attribute should not be used alone.
Accelerator and shortcut keys must be special and must be regular
throughout the net pages. The energetic factors should have a keyboard
focal point and can be activated by using the keyboard. The factors which
are read-only and editable should have the keyboard focus. The JavaScript
primarily based net elements should be keyboard accessible. The personal
key shortcuts have to be ensured for reconfiguration and deactivation. The
content material which is hovering or focused can be closed with the aid of
the person if necessary. The center of attention order of the interactive
factors should be logical. Documentation needs to be supplied for nonwidespread keys which are used for access.
ACCESSIBILITY PLATFORM
The reader will comprehend the platform modules and aspects of the typical
internet website accessibility platform. We will be focusing on key elements
which affect accessibility, such as frames, information tables, charts, graphs,
bushes and outlines, web page tabs, dialogs, calendar controls, animations,
dynamic content, authoring tools, sketch tables, mobile, multi-media, multimedia manage playback, and typography [17].
Computers have started from DOS-running gadgets that used to be textual
content-based. The display had characters, and the cursor once displayed
the role on the screen. For accessibility, the content material can be studied
from the display screen, and moves can be intercepted earlier than
dispatched to the screen. The content material can be modified to unique
zoom patterns or choice structures.
Table 8 Platform Features
Disability
Assistive Technologies
Visual
Screen readers, Screen Magnifiers, Color blindness, Audio
Disabilities
signals, Color contrast, Audio Descriptions
Mobility
Keyboard users, voice recognition
Disability
Psychological
text to speech, screen overlays
Issues
Cognitive
Text to Speech, Voice recognition, color overlays
Problems
Hearing
Captions, Visual Cues
Disability
ESL
Text to Speech
Retirees
Screen Readers, Text to Speech, Screen Magnifiers
Disability - Assistive Technology
From DOS to different working structures like Mac, Windows, and Linux,
interfaces are extra graphical. Images, movies and different content
materials are treated in these running machines for usability [17]. The
graphical engine handles the API calls for managing text, images, formats,
actions, and activities from the interface. An off-display screen model can be
developed from the API objects, calls, occasions, and moves which can be
used by using the display readers and display screen magnifiers [18]. The
offscreen model is generally a set of screen-readers, voice dictation
software, and speaking phrase processors with phrase prediction.
The offscreen model should have the interface context, objects, moves, and
the running machine's precise native methods. The position and country of
the interface objects are an additional section of the model. The model is
based on the working gadget's precise facets, and the accessibility
strategies to cope with these facets evolve with the running system. The
model needs to have content material alignment, white spacing, and
formatting rules. The internet web browsers guide the accessibility APIs,
such as Microsoft Active Accessibility (MSAA), Microsoft UI Automation
(UIA), and UI Automation Express (UIA).
Now let us look at the Accessibility platform, which can assist customers in
lights and administrative center places who have issues in reading, writing,
and scanning content material from distinctive content material kinds and
applications. The platform will have the enterprise requirements and the
standards for accessibility. The best practices will be running devices
precisely and based on the content material types. The concepts, auditing
checklists, legal guidelines, and strategies are the phase of the accessibility
science platform [19]. They can be used for distinct system kinds, such as
mobile, desktop, laptop computers, and different machine types.
The platform offers reviews for the below: popular particular compliance,
violations for exceptional practices, Accessibility repute throughout the
content, compliance rates, severity ratings, noticeability ratings, tractability
ratings and recommendations for issues
The problems and reviews are introduced primarily based on the following
guidelines:
WCAG 2.0 [14]
WCAG 2.1
AA
AAA
Section 508
CVAA
The platform handles exclusive content material types, controls, enter
indicators, alerts, and alerts. The platform will guide cognitive accessibility.
Cognitive accessibility is associated with reminiscence issues, the pace of
processing data problems, enterprise, and coordination issues.
We have discussed key elements such as menus, navigation, content, web
page structure, color, contrast, forms, images, keyboard accessibility, links,
and language [12]. Now let us look at the authoring tools. Authoring
equipment should have aspects to produce content material that follows
WCAG's two guidelines. The equipment should have skills for exporting to
PDF and different UA-conformant documents. During the conversion of the
formats, the equipment should hold the key statistics from the content.
Accessibility particular templates for this equipment should observe the
precise hints and standards.
The internet website will have frames and iframes in the web page design.
These frames need to have the textual content set right. The titles should be
significant for the frames. The sizing of the frames has to be absolute. The
frames should have unique source markups. The different internet website
controls like format tables should be reachable conformant. The diagram
tables should have absolute sizing The structural markup must now not be
there in the design tables. The user wishes to be detailed, and these tables
ought to be linearized. The future is in having accessibility platforms
developed as software to help in the implementation of accessibility in
software projects.
Research GAPS
The open research issues, research trends and future research directions
can be categorized into different areas like standards/guidelines, website
design phase, website development phase, and accessibility planning
phases. The typical challenges or gaps are related to awareness, lack of
skilled resources, availability of resources, and lack of accessibility
implementation knowledge/courses. During the planning phase, different
obstacles to implementing accessibility are faced. This might be because of
a lack of initiative, training, and coaching. Government [20-23] and disabled
support organizations are taking the initiative to design web applications for
accessibility. Testing is another area that requires resources to test the web
application for accessibility [24-27]. Accessibility research needs support and
funding from the government to coach and train the resources to implement
government websites for accessibility [28, 29]. Universities and educational
institutions need to be encouraged to focus on accessibility research to train
students in accessibility design and development.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we looked at different elements and factors of accessibility
from a design perspective. Features of the accessibility platform were
presented in detail, and the potential is in the platform to become a fullfledged commercial software for enterprises. Accessibility-related tools need
to use for evaluation [23]. New frameworks need to be developed in the
future to add accessibility checks in the browsers like WCAG Inspector for
Firefox. Browser extensions need to be developed in the future to visualize
accessibility-related concerns. New evolving technologies are planning to
incorporate accessibility. The goal is to ensure the disabled or users with
special needs are getting access to the new technological devices. The new
networks like NGN and its associated services are planning to add
accessibility to the services.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Declared none.
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Elderly and Visually Impaired
People
Mobility
in
Home
Environment Using Adhesive
Tactile
Walking
Surface
Indicators
Vijaya Prakash R.1, *, Srinath Taduri1
1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SR Engineering
College, Warangal, India
Abstract
Numerous health problems, particularly those involving the
eyes, are associated with advancing age. It is difficult to
live a normal life when you're blind. Visually impaired
people face navigational difficulties both inside and outside
of an environment, particularly those who are blind
because of ageing. Numerous tools are available in the
outdoor environment, such as pavement paths and kerbs.
These, on the other hand, are ceramic, concrete, or
metallic in nature, and once installed, their alignment
cannot be altered. As a result, there is a need for
adhesive-based tactile that is easily replaceable to meet
the needs of the occupants of the house. The purpose of
this paper is to design and develop various types of tactile
using Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU) material and a 3D
printer. These tiles include a Warning tile, a Straight tile, a
Turning tile, and a Junction tile with surface indicators;
elderly people can easily navigate their homes with the
help of these tiles.
Keywords: 3D printer, Haptic Design, Junction Tile, Straight Tile,
Surface Indicators, Tactile, Tactile surface indicators, Thermoplastic
Polyurethane (TPU), Turning Tile, Visual impaired people, Warning
Tile.
*
Corresponding author Vijaya Prakash R.: Department of
Computer Science and Engineering, SR Engineering College,
Warangal, India; E-mail: vijprak.r@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
According to the WHO [1, 2], there are 1.3 billion visually impaired
people in the world, with 36 million of them being completely blind.
Many blind people in the world reside in countries that are still
developing [3]. This problem also affects the elderly, with the number
of blind people over 65 growing at a rate of up to 2 million per decade,
significantly faster than the overall population of blind people [3].
Individuals frequently rely on vision to determine their position and
orientation in their environment, as well as to identify a variety of
environmental components, as well as their distribution and relative
placement.
“Orientation” and “wayfinding” are common terms for these activities,
while “mobility” refers to the ability to detect and avoid potential
hazards in the immediate environment. Absent vision makes these
activities more difficult, necessitating a determined effort to
incorporate the experiences of other sense modalities, such as smells
or sounds, into the activity.
When individuals reach a certain age, their health begins to
deteriorate, resulting in a variety of tied to the user's age age-related
conditions, such as limb numbness, diabetes, hypertension, and
hypotension. Proliferative diabetic retinopathy (neovascularization),
Retinitis pigmentosa (pigmentary retinopathy), and cataracts all affect
vision [4]. Certain of these ocular disorders can be treated surgically.
Certain ocular disorders, on the other hand, are incurable and cannot
be treated surgically. Normal life can be extremely difficult for elderly
people with incurable ophthalmic disorders [5]. A tool for safe travel
within the home environment is required in this situation [6]. Pavement
pathways and kerbs are examples of tools that can be found in the
real world [6-8]. Nearly every railway station in major cities now has
tactile surface indicators (TSIs) for visually impaired passengers.
Numerous blind individuals claim to use these TSIs when walking alone
across railway platforms [9].
Ceramics can be replaced with concrete or metal, but once it's in
place, it can't be moved. However, the furniture and other equipment in
the house can be rearranged to better suit the occupants'
requirements. More than 60% of Indians, according to official Figures,
rent their homes. Changing residences will cause changes to their
internal organization. As a result, there's a market for tactile adhesive
tiles that can be swapped out and reused for visually impaired users.
To satisfy the requirements of those who are blind, there is a demand
for adhesive tactile tiles that can be changed and reused. Many
navigation systems are available, but each has its own set of
limitations in terms of mobility [9, 10].
In this context, the current effort focuses on establishing a more
effective and efficient navigation system for visually impaired senior
persons. This technology employs an adhesive tactile with bumps,
which individuals of all ages can easily comprehend and identify,
allowing them to explore their environment.
The section that follows in the article is laid out as follows. The second
section examines the most relevant works in the field. Within this
section, we will talk about the system's architecture. Section 4 details
the research conducted, while Section 5 offers some conclusions and
suggestions for future endeavors.
RELATED WORK
For navigation in the outdoors, tactile walking surface indicators are
frequently used. Many devices have been created to help and guide
people with visual impairments through their daily activities, both
indoors and outdoors. However, they did not meet all technical and
user requirements. People with visual impairments face many
challenges when it comes to spatial cognition and perception, and
numerous research areas have emerged to address these issues [9].
First, this section will discuss related work on tactile standards. The
second type of mobility for the visually impaired is sensory-based
mobility, followed by tactile-based mobility.
A large part of early studies focused on how to design, install, and use
detectable warning surfaces around the world. There are different
types of standards evaluated for tactile. The specification and
standards for tactile warnings on the entire curb ramp walking surface
have been discussed in the study [11]. There are warning textures,
later referred to as detectable warnings, that are specified in the
standard [12]. In 1988, the Australian/New Zealand Standard [13]
required the specification of truncated dome warning surfaces, but the
Australian Building Code did not require them until 1999. The ADAG
(Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines) mandated,
starting in 1991 [14], that blind travelers use truncated dome
detectable warnings. The Accessibility Standard includes requirements
for ADAAG truncated dome detectable warnings [15]. As a bonus, the
texture and visual contrast requirements were identical to those of
ADAAG. Tactile surfaces have been standardized by the European
Union since 2002 [16]. Tactile walking surface indicators, a new ISO
standard for assistive products for people who are blind or have low
vision, were first used in 2004 and were finalized in 2012 [17]. For this
paper, the goal is for the users to identify and prioritize the features of
TWSIs that comply with the standards for guiding building environment
designers.
Various nations around the world are currently working on tactile
surface solutions. By 2001, the Japanese Industrial Standard [10] had
standardized the form and height of tactile walking surface indicators.
As a result of these findings, it is possible to efficiently achieve “ease
of recognition,” “ease of walking on tiles,” and “ease of recognizing
transitions from bar tiles to dome tiles”. For people who are visually
impaired, TWSIs can be extremely helpful. However, TWSIs should
not only be used by the blind or visually impaired; they should be used
by everyone, including the elderly and those with mobility issues.
Tactile paving surfaces, on the other hand, are difficult to maintain and
implement properly, and practitioners have had to deal with numerous
issues. Specific recommendations on how to design pavements to fit
the surrounding environment, for example, are frequently missing from
standards [18].
People with visual impairments are classified into three groups based
on how well adaptive visual systems improve their standard of living
[6]. There are three types of vision enhancements: (1) vision
improvement, (2) vision alternation, and (3) vision replacement. People
with visual impairments have an opportunity to test out mobile and
handheld assistive technologies by wearing them. Measurements of
ultrasonic distance and haptic feedback have been used to develop
additional white cane-related devices [19, 20]. Amedi et al. [21] used
multiple infrared sensors to create electronic travel assistance with
haptic and auditory output. Bharambe et al. [22] developed a sensory
substitution system that looks like a hand device equipped with two
ultrasonic sensors and three vibration motors. Yi et al. [23] developed
a cane device that utilizes ultrasonic technology and incorporates
haptic feedback and auditory guidance. Aymaz and Cavdar [24] have
created an assistive headgear that uses ultrasonic distance
measurements to look for potential hurdles in one's path to the
wearer. Ultrasonic smart glass was developed by Agarwal et al. [25].
A low-cost smart walking stick with water and ultrasonic sensors was
proposed by De Alwis et al. [26]. For visually impaired people,
Elgendy et al. [27] created an indoor navigation system based on
markers. The location begins when a QR code is printed on paper and
placed in an interior area, and the destination can be identified using a
mobile device. Petsiuk et al. [28] developed a navigation system for
visually impaired individuals that makes use of an open-source, lowcost bracelet with a navigational support system based on ultrasound,
assisting them in orienting themselves in their surroundings and
avoiding obstacles while travelling.
Table 1 includes a breakdown of the limitations of each system, as
well as a more in-depth look at the technology.
Table 1 Evaluation Of Reviewed Systems and their Limitations
System Name Accuracy Coverage
Limitation
If the water is only 0.5 inches
deep, the water sensor will
not work. The buzzer will
continue to blare until the room
Smart-Cane [20]
N/A
Outdoor
is completely dry. To keep
tabs on the situation, a power
supply metre reading must be
installed.
Uncomfortable to use because
of the wood foundation and
the holes in the Figures, as
Eye-Substitution
N/A
Outdoor well as being carried around
[22]
by
the
user.
Utilization
restricted solely to Androidpowered devices
System Name Accuracy Coverage
CASBlip [29]
80%
Indoor/
outdoor
System of
Cognitive
Guidance [30]
N/A
Indoor
To aid in
navigation, an
ultrasonic cane is
being tested [31].
N/A
Indoor
Automatically
Adaptive
Thresholding for
Obstacle
Avoidance [32]
N/A
Indoor
Haptic and Laser
Rangefinder
Obstacle
Avoidance [33]
N/A
Indoor
The
FingerReader
[34]
93.9%
Indoor/
outdoor
Limitation
The detection window is quite
small. For image acquisition,
you'll need a larger image
sensor than a 1X64 CMOS
one.
Enhancing the system's ability
to perceive landmarks will be
necessary. The reconstruction
walking plane's stabilisation
and registration should be
improved.
It's only a simple object
detector. A faint detection ring
was heard. Objects that
appear out of nowhere are not
detected.
The accuracy of the Kinect
depth image decreases with
increasing distance from the
sensor. After 2500 mm, the
auto-adaptive threshold was
unable to tell the difference
between the floor and an
object.
It was difficult to pinpoint the
exact location of obstacles
and the angles at which they
were to be overcome.
The
audio
feedback
is
responsive in real-time, but
there is a noticeable pause
between instructions.
System Name Accuracy Coverage
Blind People's
Mobile CrowdAssisted
Navigation [35]
20.5%.
Indoor
Visually impaired
individuals can
benefit from
wearing an
ultrasonic
assistive headset
[24].
N/A
Indoor/
outdoor
Use of ultrasonic
technology for
obstacle
detection and
recognition [36]
N/A
Indoor/
outdoor
SUGAR system
High
[37]
Precision
Indoor
Limitation
The information gathered is
based on the volunteer's
availability to provide it.
There's a chance that no input
will be received during the
interval, so the service will fall
short of its objective.
The
modules
are
very
expensive. The impact of
object evasion and navigation
methods
must
be
demonstrated through more
extensive testing. However,
the test's initial focus was on
central scene object detection
techniques.
Obstacles higher than the level
of the waist cannot be
detected by the system. You
won't be able to find any
directions on this map. The
area that can be reliably
detected is quite small. It
doesn't stand on its own.
Every room would have to
have sensors installed. Before
anything else, the space
needs to be measured and
mapped out. The user is
required
to
choose
a
destination in advance. It can't
be used outside.
Tactile indicators that are easily detectable and identifiable are
required. Mizukami [10] conducted one of the most extensive studies
ever conducted on the perceptibility of various types of tactile floor
indicators. 68 blind people have assessed 21 different tactile floor
indicators and 20 different types of attention fields in a training area.
To find out how important haptic indicators are in non-visual navigation
and what types of guiding surfaces people prefer, Saiganesh
Swaminathan et al. [2] surveyed blind people and interviewed ten
navigation and public accessibility experts. They also propose navtiles,
which are low-cost, multimodal tactile surfaces, as a method for
designing and exploring them. The blind and partially sighted in
Yogyakarta, Indonesia, can benefit from based on the results of an
investigation by Ardilson et al. [38] that looked at the current state of
TSI (Tactile Surface Indicators) installations on secondary arterial
roads. People with visual impairments are unable to use existing TGSI
installations [38] because of poor connectivity, hazardous pathways,
inaccurate installation, and inaccessible pedestrian walkways
amenities. This has led to the discovery that TGSI equipment is both
unusable and dangerous for those with visual impairments [38].
Most currently available technologies for visually impaired individuals
are sensor-based, mobile, or wearable devices that are used indoors
or outdoors. However, elderly individuals, particularly those living in
developing countries, are unable to make more efficient and effective
use of these devices. Therefore, an effective adhesive-based tactile
walking surface indicator that can be used indoors or outdoors is
required.
TACTILE DESIGN METHODOLOGY
Target Users
Identification of stakeholders is a critical step in developing an
effective tactile tile. It has been recommended that vision loss and
visual functioning be classified by severity [39]. Table 2 and the
Snellen test, which is typically performed by an ophthalmologist,
classify visually impaired people into three levels of impairment: mild,
moderate, and severe.
Table 2 Classification of Visual Impairment by WHO
Displaying visual acuity at a
distance
Category
Worse Equal to or better
than:
than:
6/12
0 - The eyes are fine.
-5/10 (0.5)
20/40
6/12
6/18
1 - minuscule problem with vision 5/10 (0.5)
3/10 (0.3)
20/40
20/70
6/18
6/60
2 - There is a moderate degree of
3/10 (0.3)
1/10 (0.1)
vision loss.
20/70
20/200
6/60
3/60
3 - Severe impairment of vision 1/10 (0.1)
1/20 (0.05)
20/200
20/400
Tactile Design
To develop the adhesive tactile requirements, some criteria and inputs
from visually impaired individuals are gathered, such as the most
appealing color, foot sensitivity, and indentation profile. On the other
hand, color blindness can occur in those who are visually impaired.
The tactile color selected should contrast with the floor color [40]. As
a result, individuals who are targeted are identified by their color
contrast with the floor.
After determining the color contrast, the foot sensitivity index is
required. The ageing process will result in some foot problems. These
individuals are blind to the tile's peaks and valleys. The foot is divided
into three sections: metatarsal, Sesamoidal, and calcaneus. These
areas are subjected to a sensitivity test by pressing them with the tip
of the finger and recording the results. The following sections describe
the stakeholder tests that were conducted to elicit critical feedback for
the design of a tactile tile.
Color Experimentation
To ascertain which color is most appealing to all individuals, we
conducted an experiment in which we projected the colors Red,
Green, Blue, Yellow, and White onto the floor and asked elderly
people to choose the most appealing colors, with the results being
recorded. This is because these colors are among the most visually
appealing in the visible spectrum. As detailed in the Experimental
results section, data are gathered by asking elderly people questions
and recording their responses on a Likert scale.
Foot Sensitivity Test
Individuals who walk on tactile indicators are compelled to do so, and
individuals of varying ages will exhibit varying degrees of
responsiveness to the various types of items they walk on. Certain
individuals have a high sensitivity to their environment and
surroundings, while others have a very low sensitivity. A sensitivity test
was conducted on the feet of individuals of various ages by gently
pressing on various areas of their feet with a finger at the Metatarsal,
Sesamoidal, and Calcaneus segments of the legs and recording the
results on a Likert scale. A 5mm bump height, they suggested, would
be more acceptable to the target audience.
Surface Texture Test
It is necessary to determine the roughness value that is humanadaptive. To choose the tile's surface roughness so that it is both
cognitively adaptive and anti-slip [40], a sensitivity test was conducted
on older adults to determine the surface roughness in relation to the
individual's foot sensitivity. Emery sheets with varying degrees of grit
are used to evaluate people's responses. Such a texture can be
applied to the tile if it is designed in such a way that it is instantly
recognizable to anyone who walks on it. To determine their foot
sensitivity, all study participants were given Emery sheets with three
different GRIT levels (60, 80, and 120 grit), and their responses were
recorded. Most respondents indicated that an 80-grit emery wheel
was a viable option.
Tactile Test
Tiles are designed and developed in response to the feedback
received from stakeholders. The created tiles are put to the test. The
tiles are improved with the elderly's input and experience. Four/three
tiles were developed in response to feedback and testing and were
found to be the most popular with the target demographic. Even
though there was a hazard design, people are very familiar with the
existing warning tile [41]. The warning tile, straight tile, turn tile, and
three-way junction tile are all illustrated in this diagram.
While the design is suitable, there is one additional consideration: how
far can people walk on the surface without it draining? It is critical to
consider the materials that will be used to create the tiles in this
corner to ensure that they are safe for people and are not easily
destroyed. It was important to take all these factors into account
when creating the tiles, which were printed using 3D printing materials
like ABS, PLA, and TPU. The tiles are created using these resources,
and feedback from stack holders is gathered. TPU-based tile is being
considered for the design and development of tactile based on
feedback. Based on feedback from stakeholders, the TPU-based tile
is being evaluated for haptic design and development. We used Fusion
Deposition Manufacturing (FDM), more commonly referred to as 3D
printing, to create these TPU tiles. Due to the constant modification of
the designs to achieve a satisfactory result, producing these tiles in a
variety of designs using traditional manufacturing processes would be
difficult. As a result, we chose 3D printing to create these tiles.
Fig. (1))
Different types of Tac Tiles used for Mobility (a) Warning Tile (b)
Straight Tile (c) Turn Tile (d) 3-way Junction tile
Tile Experiments
The following stages describe the experiment. There were written and
oral instructions in the elderly subjects' native language given to all
participants, ensuring that everyone understood what was going on
during the experiment.
1. Following an introduction of the experiment, volunteers were
advised to familiarise themselves with the shape of each tile at the
research site using their hands, feet, and white cane. Following that,
the experiments were thoroughly described. Then there were practise
walks and self-reporting exercises.
When it appeared as though the job's intricacies were not fully
mastered, the exercise was repeated; however, most individuals
conducted each condition only once.
2. The usual trial was conducted according to the following protocols
at random under each condition:
1. The participant travelled to the trial's starting point under the
watchful eye of an experimenter and awaited a verbal start cue.
2. The experimenter, who stood around 1-2 metres behind the
subject, shouted, “Start,” and the individual instantly began going
straight toward the platform's edge.
3. The participant came to a halt when they perceived themselves to
be close to the platform edge because of their interaction with the
tactile or the level floor following their interaction with the tactile.
When no tiles were implanted, the individual proceeded until he
was apprehended by the researcher.
4. After coming to a halt, the individual maintained their position with
their feet in the same position. During this period, the stopping
distance was determined.
5. Upon completion of the measurement, the subject walked to the
location of the next experiment's start point under the supervision
of the investigator.
3. Retrials were conducted when participants came to a halt in an
area unrelated to the tiles, were unable to walk straight, or the
experimenters were unable to accurately measure walking speed or
step length.
This complete technique is depicted in Fig. (2), which details the
preceding operation.
Fig. (2))
Tile Design and Test process
Fig. (3))
Mobility using Tactile by old age visual impaired person
Fig. (4))
Mobility using Tactile by visual impaired person
As you can see in the Figs. (3 and 4), experiments were performed on
a wide range of blind and elderly individuals. The experiments'
pseudocode/ algorithmic representation is as follows.
Algorithm Mobility_Elderly_People
Begin
1. Identify the target users.
2. Repeat the following steps 3 to 12 for all tiles.
3. Identify the most appealing color for elderly people.
4. Foot sensitivity test is conducted to identify foot-related problems.
5. Tile Surface texture test is conducted to know the roughness of the
tile.
6. Tactile bumps information is explained to the target users in their
native language.
7. Target users are asked to move on a tile to identify the texture.
8. Record the time taken to identify the tile.
9. If Tactile are identified, then.
10. Navigate from one end to another end.
11. Else.
12. Repeat steps 7 and 8 again in more detail way.
13. These experiments are represented on a Likert scale.
End.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A continuous monitoring instrument such as the Likert Scale was used
from the start of each project to analyse its results and determine the
next stages.
The data from the stakeholders' Likert scales are utilised to determine
the tile colour, the tile surface roughness, and the stakeholder's foot
sensitivity. The test is carried out on elderly and blind people.
According to their visual abilities, the elderly is divided into three
groups. Users can be classified as mild, moderate, severe, or
profound.
Each participant was instructed to identify the indicator with their foot,
and their responses were tallied using a Likert scale. They are then
instructed to walk on these tiles to ensure their safety while navigating
the indoor environment.
With the assistance of (Fig. 5), we can modify questions 1 and 5.
These questions concern the vibrant hues of red and yellow. We
chose yellow for the tiles based on this information and current
research on the colour that humans find most appealing (which is
yellow) [39, 40].
Fig. (5))
Result of Color Test
Fig. (6))
Result of Surface Texture
For the sake of the elderly, avoid using a slippery tile. In accordance
with (Fig. 6), the created and developed tile isn't slippery, so users
can just walk on it.
Foot problems are also brought on by ageing and the inability to feel
bumps on the soles of the feet. As a result, a foot sensitivity test is
carried out to find out whether the bare bottoms of the feet have
difficulty penetrating at very low heel levels. According to the data in
Fig. (7), many people do not have foot problems.
Fig. (7))
Result of Foot Sensitivity Test
Fig. (8) shows the results of our stakeholder feedback after we
designed and built three tile prototypes. As a result, the third
prototype makes it simpler for users to spot patterns and move
around the interface. Considering these findings, we believe visually
impaired, and elderly people will have an easier time navigating their
homes with the third prototype tactile than the other two have.
After analyzing all the data, with the help of (Fig. 9), it was found that
users took a wide range of times to identify warning tiles, with the
average time taken being 17 seconds, and that for directional tiles
taking 20, 35, 35 seconds. Stakeholders were asked to walk along a
path that had been laid out following the identification of the issues.
The duration of their journey was tracked, and the following results
can be found in Fig. (10): Overall, the trip takes about 70 seconds on
average.
Fig. (8))
Different types of tile prototypes and responses from stakeholders
Fig. (9))
Tile Identification Time
Fig. (10))
Travel Time
CONCLUSION
This article's goal is to provide elderly and visually impaired readers
with a reliable navigation system for use in their own homes. They can
use their foot to detect haptic signals on the device, which are selfexplanatory. This sensor knowledge allows the user to move around
inside a building. Home environments change frequently or only
occasionally for people who live in leased residences (such as
renters). The adhesive tactile can be easily adjusted for navigation by
the aged and partially sighted. The proposed device is created and
manufactured using ABS and TPU materials, as well as 3D printing.
With the help of readily available materials and 3D printing technology,
we developed surface indicators with a textured appearance. As 3D
printing technology improves and materials become more readily
available, low-cost multi-modal tactile surface indicators for the
mobility of the elderly can be developed.
Consent to Publish
The authors affirm that human research participants provided informed
consent for the publication of the images in Figs. (3 and 4).
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India, funds this
study (SEED/TIDE/035/2015).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank the reviewers for their constructive criticism and
suggestions, as well as the Management, Principal and Staff of SR
Engineering College in Warangal Urban for their ongoing support,
which has helped to improve the quality of this paper.
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Assistive Technology
Challenges
and
Directions
Trends,
Future
Nancy Jasmine Goldena1, *, Thangapriya1
1 Department of Computer Applications and Research Centre, Sarah
Tucker College (Autonomous), Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu, India
Abstract
People with impairments frequently struggle to carry out
daily activities alone or even with assistance. They
encounter obstacles in the environment, movement,
interaction, access to writings, personal health
maintenance, handling medical issues and behavioral
equality. One of the subjects that have received a lot of
attention from researchers is computer-based Assistive
Technology (AT). Disabled people utilize AT to tackle
things previously practically impossible for them. Various
forms of disabilities necessitate the use of AT, which can
help people with disability to do their regular work.
Therefore, these technological innovations have the power
to play a substantial role in supporting huge segments of
society to operate and lead a normal life. The fundamental
goal of AT is to continually increase a person's ability to
perform independently, hence improving their overall
health. Individuals who use technological aids can lead
healthy, dignified, independent and respectable lifestyles.
On the whole, AT aims to enable disabled individuals to
join nearly every facet of life, including at home, education
and community, as well as to increase their opportunities
for social interactions and meaningful employment. AT
devices simply gives disabled individuals more freedom
and control. The significance of AT and AT devices,
current trends, approaches, limitations and some of the
major challenges identified in previous assessments as
well as recent research findings in the field of AT, are all
effectively discussed in this chapter.
Keywords: Artificial intelligence, Assisted living, Assistive technology,
Braille, Cognitive impairment, Daily living, Disability, Elderly care,
Healthcare, Hearing impairment, Human activity recognition, Internet
of things, Learning, Mobility challenges, Physically-challenged,
Prosthesis, Research gaps for AT, Robotics, Sip and puff, Vision
impairment.
* Corresponding author Nancy Jasmine Goldena: Department of
Computer Applications and Research Centre, Sarah Tucker College
(Autonomous), Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu, India; Tel: +91-9487081610;
E-mail: nancy_lordwin@rediffmail.com
WHERE ARE WE NOW WITH ASSISTIVE
TECHNOLOGY?
AT refers to assistive, adaptive and rehabilitative equipment for
disabled and elderly individuals [1]. AT encourages greater autonomy
by improving the AT device to complete activities that disabled people
previously could not complete.
The Evolution of AT
The usage of AT devices and innovations has evolved over the years,
as shown in Fig. (1). There have been key incidents in different
historical periods that expanded the use of AT [2].
Fig. (1))
Evolution of AT
Foundation Period (1800 – 1900)
The period preceding 1900 is considered the foundation period.
During this time, people were capable of surviving with physical
impairments. Education systems for blindness, dumb and some other
impairments existed throughout the early 1900s [3]. AT inventions
made during the foundation period are listed in Table 1.
Table 1 Inventions during the foundation period
Year
Foundation Period Inventions
Braille is a haptic communication system that consists of six
raised dots and 64 combinations that can be read by visually
1829
impaired persons. It was officially published in 1929 and is still in
use today.
Taylor invented the first practical math instrument that could
1836
be utilized by people who were blind.
The besica model for a manual wheelchair was originally
1869
patented and used in the United States during the War.
1877
The phonograph was invented by Thomas Edison.
Year
Foundation Period Inventions
Alexander Graham Bell's invention is used to create the first
1876
wearable cochlear implant.
1892
The Braille keypad was developed by Frank Hall.
Akouphone is the very first electric implant and compact
1898
enough to put in a pocket, are developed.
Establishment Period (1900-1972)
Impairment disciplines were developed during this establishment
period [3]. People’s perceptions of disabled people had shifted in a
good direction. As many people were suffering traumas, the number
of disabled people grew. Some of the AT inventions made during the
establishment period are listed in Table 2.
Table 2 Inventions during the establishment period
Year
Establishment Period Inventions
Harry Jennings created the first steel frame foldable
1932
wheelchair.
The phonograph is deployed for both entertaining and learning
1935
in the form of talking books.
The Voder is the first electronic voice synthesizer. It has a
1936
keypad and foot controls for controlling the machine and
delivering sound.
The hoover cane was created for soldiers who had been blind
1947
during the war.
The Perkins Brailler typewriter was created to enable Braille
1951
typing. Writing Braille used to be a challenging task.
Tellatouch, a deaf and blind communicating gadget, was
1952
introduced.
Year
Establishment Period Inventions
To reduce their inferior complication, the first Paralympic
Games were hosted in Rome. Sip and Puff technology,
research by the University of Chicago, uses air pressure to
1960
regulate the device, similar to puffing through a straw.
Paraplegics are the primary users of Sip and Puff systems
nowadays.
The Lasercane was invented, which produced light beams to
1966
detect and recognize, preventing clear movement.
Optacon was promoted as a tool that would help blind
1971
individuals to read text.
Empowerment Period (1972-2010)
Individuals with disabilities were granted the right to achieve their life
goals during the empowerment period [3]. Many legislations have
been passed to improve the rights of people with disabilities. During
this time, many AT devices were developed to help people with
disabilities gain independence and achieve their goals. During this
period of empowerment, disabled people understood their “WILL TO
SUCCEED”. AT inventions made during the empowerment period are
listed in Table 3.
Table 3 Inventions during the empowerment period
Year
Empowerment Period Inventions
The first computer software to detect printed letters was the
1976
Kurzweil Reading Machine. The first wearable voice
generator was also developed in the same year.
The augmented communication company is established and
1983 researchers chose to invent a technology, DynaVox, which
allowed individuals to speak using only their eyes.
Text-to-speech computer techniques are featured to assist
1992
people with disabilities in accessing printed texts.
Year
Empowerment Period Inventions
In education, students with hearing problems as well as other
1996 students in the class, benefit from FM amplification
technology.
SMART board makers have created a SMART table for
2009
students with motor impairments.
Mobile applications such as voice recording are available on
2010
apple products such as the iPhone, iPod and iPad.
Technologically Sophisticated Period(2011-present)
During this time, advanced AT devices were being produced. The
research and manufacturing sectors developed new types of AT
equipment that people with disabilities successfully used. AT devices
and their technological advancements are listed in Table 4. In terms of
technological advancement, AT devices are modified. Two specific
areas of AT are Assistive Technology Services (ATS) and
Assistive Technology Devices (ATD).
Table 4 Technological advancement of AT devices
ATD
Technological Advancement
Newer advancements in wheelchair design allow
Wheelchairs wheelchairs to climb stairs, travel off-road or use other
add-ons such as hand bikes or power assistance.
Bipedal nanowalkers can walk in both forward and
Walkers
backward directions on a given track.
Artificial heart valves are widely used inside the body,
Prosthesis while artificial hearts and lungs are less popular but still
under development.
The robotic exoskeleton provides support for the arm,
Exoskeleton hip and thighs as well as assists movement for grasping
and gripping heavy objects while reducing back strain.
ATD
Technological Advancement
Visually impaired people utilize screen magnifiers,
Screen
screen readers, desktop video magnifiers, braille
reader
embossers and other advanced software [6].
Personal Emergency Response Systems (PERS) are a
Personal
kind of AT that includes electronic sensors linked to an
Emergency
alerting system to help caretakers in managing danger
Response
and allow sensitive persons to stay home uninterrupted
System
[6].
By removing unnecessary background noises and
Assistive
distractions, people with hearing impairments can focus
Listening
on a speaker or subject, making auditoriums,
devices
classrooms and meetings much more accessible.
Educational software is designed to help people who
Educational
struggle with reading, learning, understanding and
software
planning.
A car for the blind is currently being created by engineer
Car for Dennis Hong who will be able to monitor and observe its
blind
environment while giving sound warnings, pulsating
gloves and seating vibrations [2].
Google's self-driving cars, which rely on Artificial
Intelligence and Google Street View, are currently in
Driverless
development for people with cognitive disabilities,
Car
providing them with a safe and independent mode of
transportation [2].
ND Assistive opened the Home First Demonstration
ND
Center in Fargo, North Dakota, a simulated home
Assistive
equipped with AT.
Alexa is Amazon's voice-based AI-powered digital
assistant that enhances the entire ecosystem of smart
Alexa
devices. The Echo device uses speech recognition to
carry out the tasks or commands given by the user.
ATD
Technological Advancement
The Google Home app aids in the setup and control of
Google Nest or Home speakers and displays, as well
Seeing AI as Chromecast. A single app can control thousands of
compatible lights, cameras, speakers and other devices
as well as check reminders and recent notifications.
Seeing AI, the first free software on Apple's platform
Voice
released by Microsoft, uses the device camera to
Control
identify people and things and speaks out those things
for the visually impaired.
Live
Google has released Voice Control for Android
Transcribe
smartphones.
Any service that supports a person with a disability in selecting,
acquiring or using AT equipment is referred to as an Assistive
Technology Service and any item or piece of equipment used to
strengthen, maintain or develop the abilities of a person with a
disability, whether purchased commercially or customized, is termed
as Assistive Technology Device [3-5].
Legal Mandates
Many legal regulations have been enacted to assist people with
disabilities who are in need. Later, double-blind evaluations and strict
legislative rules governing people's lifestyles, employment and other
necessities were put in place. Many of them are unaware of the
government's policies regarding people with disabilities. As a result,
everyone should understand the fundamental law of disability
management. Some of the legislations for the disabled are in Table 5
[7].
Table 5 Essential legislations of AT
Legislations
Description of legislations
Legislations
Description of legislations
The Education for All Handicapped Children
Act (between 1975 and 1990) was
Individuals with
reauthorized, and its name was changed to
Impairments
IDEA. IDEA defines AT services as “any
Education Act
service that significantly assists a disabled
(IDEA)
person in the purchase, planning, fitting,
personalizing, adaptation, deploying,
preserving and correcting” of AT.
The AT Act (P.L. 105-394) was passed by
Congress in 1998 to provide excellent
The AT Act
opportunity to, affordability of and financing for
AT for all people with disabilities, including
several toddlers, and it was revised in 2004.
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) is an
US law that covers K–12 public education
Every Student
policy in December 2015. ESSA supports the
Succeeds Act
appropriate use of assistive and educational
(ESSA)
technology to teaching-learning process from
The Center on Technology and Impairment.
Impairment Rights Ohio (IRO) is a non-profit
group whose aim is to advocate for individuals
with disabilities in Ohio's economic, social and
rights under the law. This mainly includes
Impairment Rights
supporting the juvenile and criminal judicial
Ohio
systems with issues such as abuse, neglect,
discrimination, access to AT, special education,
housing, employment, community integration,
voting and rights protection.
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
of 1990 is a civil rights legislation that prevents
The Americans with discrimination against people with disabilities in
Disabilities Act
employment, government and local, places of
public accommodation, business centers,
transportation and telecommunication services.
Legislations
Description of legislations
On September 13, 1988, the Fair Housing
Amendments Act (FHAA) was passed into
law, and it went into effect on March 12, 1989.
It is illegal to refuse housing to a renter or
buyer because of a physical or mental
Fair Housing Act
disability. In order to accommodate people
with disabilities, owners must offer reasonable
adjustments to their policies. If necessary,
tenants are also permitted to make reasonable
access-related alterations to the property.
The Communications Act of 1934 was
revised by the Federal Communications
The Television
Commission (FCC) in 1990. The law took
Decoder Circuitry
effect on July 1, 1993, and says that all
Act
television receivers with visual screens of 13
inches or larger must comply.
The Telecommunications Act of 1996 is the
first substantial revision of telecommunications
legislation in about 62 years. This act has the
Telecommunications
potential to alter our working, living and
Act
learning habits. Persons with disabilities must
be able to access and use telecommunications
equipment and services under this law.
Workforce investment act suggests to
implement technology and its application in job
Workforce
planning as well as the acquisition and
Investment Act
retention of individuals with disabilities in the
vocational rehabilitation process.
Legislations
Section 508 of the
Rehabilitation Act
Description of legislations
All technological and method of determining
established and used by any Federal
government agency must be accessible to
people with disabilities, according to Section
508 of the Rehabilitation Act. Websites,
video and audio recordings, electronic books,
television shows and other forms of media fall
under this category.
IMPORTANCE OF ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
People with a range of disabilities are the primary users of AT, thus,
the disability must first be identified. The categories of disability are
cognitive, motor, visual and auditory, where motor, visual and auditory
fall under physical disability. The categories of disability are shown in
Fig. (2), and their symptoms are shown in Fig. (3).
Fig. (2))
Types of Disability
Fig. (3))
Categories and Symptoms of Disabilities
Mental dysfunctions, dysfunctions that lead people to learn differently
than people without disabilities or illnesses that interfere with a
person's thinking process are all examples of cognitive disability [8].
The whole or partial loss of body parts, the presence of organisms
that cause illness in the body, and abnormalities and disorders of
body parts are all examples of physical disability [9].
Cognitive Disability
When a person struggles to remember things, learn new things, focus
or make important decisions in daily life, it is called cognitive disability.
People with moderate cognitive disabilities may perceive changes in
their cognitive skills but continue to be able to carry out their daily
activities. Severe impairment can result in the loss of the ability to
understand the sense as well as the ability to speak or write, making
it impossible to live independently. Computers and AT are becoming
more prevalent in the teaching of students with special needs.
Cognitive Assistive Technology (CAT) can help students overcome
some of the functional limitations posed by disability, allowing them to
read, write and communicate more effectively. In terms of education
productivity, the availability of AT can help to “FAIRNESS AND
EQUALITY”. These technologies, together with the growing use of
computers in business, have opened up new independent living and
career prospects for pupils as well as improved their perceptions of
their own future development and role in life [1]. Using specialized
software, individuals with speech difficulties may communicate, and
students with learning disabilities can read and write. AT can help with
many aspects of life for an elderly adult, such as daily household
duties, individual safety and well-being, memorizing appointments,
keeping in contact with family and friends and reducing stress on
caretakers, improving their quality of life and staying at home longer
[6]. Various types of cognitive disabilities are given in Table 6.
Table 6 Symptoms of Cognitive Disability
Symptom
Description
People's attention does not permit them to
Attention
concentrate on information in order to develop
memories.
Disability to capture, process and actively make
Perception
meaning of the information received by senses.
Unable to acquire, store, retain and retrieve the
Memory
information later.
Mental dysfunction involves an unawareness of time,
Orientation
location and person in three dimensions.
Symptom
Description
Amnesia or memory problems, loss of orientation,
Dementia
confusion and difficulties with home hygiene.
Learning disorders are caused by genetic and
neurobiological factors that impact one or more
Learning
cognitive processes associated with learning via
altering brain functioning.
Knowledge
Unable to make context clues from knowledge
Representation
easier.
Signs of vascular cognitive impairment normally arise
Cerebral
gradually and worsen as blood vessel damage
Vascular
increases. Symptoms might range from minor
Incidents
memory, focus and thinking issues to more serious
and broad issues.
The state of a person whose intellectual capacity
Developmental and adaptive behavior are significantly below the
expected average for their age.
A major recognition difficulty that almost certainly
Recognition makes it impossible to carry out a significant portion
of everyday duties.
Difficulty performing daily tasks such as cooking,
Daily
eating, studying, working, and maintaining personal
organization
health.
Children with learning disabilities have poor social
development, including inferior and negative cognitive
Education
development, low learning levels, low self-esteem,
despair, fear, aggressive and avoidance behavior in
moods.
Motor Disability
A physical disability is defined as a loss or limited function in muscular
control, movement or mobility, as well as an injury or infirmity that
prevents normal physical functioning. AT promotes the independence
and autonomy of both individuals and those around them by reducing
dependency and supporting an independent life. Specially designed
AT devices provide the tools necessary for a disabled person to
succeed when their ability to execute is limited. Manual wheelchairs
improve educational and job opportunities while lowering healthcare
expenditures by reducing the risk of pressure sores and contractures
[6]. Various symptoms of motor disability are given in Table 7.
Table 7 Symptoms of Motor Disability
Symptom
Description
Serious spinal injuries can reduce or eliminate control
and motion in various portions of the body. People with
Spinal cord
severe spinal injuries are unable to walk because they
injury
can no longer control their legs as well as they once
could.
Lost /
Any damage to a limb, either a leg or arm or to the toes
Damaged
and fingers. Limb injuries include broken bones,
dislocations, sprains and strains.
limbs
Cerebral palsy produces spastic or flaccid muscles,
Cerebral
weak reflexes, poor coordination, involuntary motions,
palsy
poor posture and poor balance.
Loss of muscle strength can lead to spasms and
Muscular
cramping. When the chest becomes weak, the spine
Dystrophy
curves and mobility begins to deteriorate.
Physically Major motor disorders, such as walking and impaired
disabled fine motor skills, such as manipulating objects by hand.
Movement illness that affects the brain such as tremor,
Parkinson’s
slowdowns of movement, tight muscles, shaky walking
disease
and difficulty with balance and coordination.
Essential
Uncontrollable and rhythmic shaking condition of the
tremor
nerve system.
Visual Disability
Visual disability is defined as vision loss that results in problems that
cannot be corrected with common methods such as eyeglasses and
medications. Illness, trauma or a congenital or degenerative disorder
can all cause visual disability. AT helps people read using Braille, textmagnifying devices, voice output and also the computer uses voice
recognition software to respond to voice instructions [6]. Various
symptoms of visual disability are given in Table 8.
Table 8 Symptoms of Visual Disability
Symptom
Description
Age-related macular degeneration, diabetes and
glaucoma are all prevalent causes of vision disability.
Low or No
Low vision can also be caused by eye cancer, albinism,
vision
brain injury or genetic eye problems, including retinitis
pigmentosa.
Loss of vision that cannot be rectified with glasses or
Blindness
contact lenses.
Generalized The illusion of a film or glare that may spread across the
haze
entire seeing field.
Extreme
Standard amounts of lighting exceed the visual system,
light
resulting in a washed-out vision and glare impairment.
sensitivity
Night
Unable to see clearly at night or in dim light.
blindness
Auditory Disability
Auditory disability is a brain disorder that affects the ability to hear
sounds and understand spoken language. AT used by the auditory
disabled can help improve language skills. Without auditory AT
devices, people with hearing loss have significantly limited, especially
in education and employment opportunities [6]. Various symptoms of
auditory disability are given in Table 9.
Table 9 Symptoms of Auditory Disability
Symptom
Description
The gradual loss of hearing in both ears is a result of
Aging
aging.
Damage to the eardrum or ossicular chain, disruptions in
Injury
intralabyrinthine fluid and cochlea as a result of a head
injury.
Excessive Hearing loss due to the eardrum vibration to the point of
noise
fracture or damage as a result of the high sound
pressure.
exposure
Viral
Hearing loss due to viral infections, particularly
infectious
cytomegalovirus.
Ramsay hunt syndrome occurs when a shingles outbreak
hits the facial nerve near one of the ears, causing facial
Shingles
paralysis and hearing loss in the affected ear in addition
to the painful shingles rash.
Acoustic
Causing a dangerous build-up of fluid in the brain.
tumors
Due to genetic reasons, genes predispose to hearing
Heredity
loss as aging or as a result of noise, medicines or
infections.
Hearing loss due to a ruptured eardrum. Infection due to
Perforation
perforation of the middle ear.
Cholesteatoma, a cyst-like growth that forms in the
Abnormal
center of the eardrum. It can be congenital, and caused
growth
by a chronic ear infection.
Pus buildAn ear infection in the ear canal or middle ear.
up
APPROACHES AND CRITICISMS IN THE
CURRENT
STUDY
OF
ASSISTIVE
TECHNOLOGY
Approaches of AT
AT approaches fall into three categories based on their technical
sophistication such as low-tech, mid-tech and high-tech, as shown in
Fig. (4). Low-tech AT devices refer to electronics that do not require
much training, are often less expensive and lack complicated. These
devices have limitations in terms of the amount of data that can be
saved and how that data is displayed to the user Mid-tech AT
devices need training and need to be affordable. High-tech AT
devices are completely electronic and require extensive training
before use [3].
Fig. (4))
AT Approaches
AT for Cognitive Disability
AT for cognitive disability improves a person's educational prospects,
social interactions and possibility for meaningful work. It also
encourages students to participate in learning activities in the least
restrictive setting possible. AT is a tool to help students benefit from
the general education curriculum and access extracurricular activities
in schools, homes and workplaces. Teachers can support students to
express themselves and speak by using assistive technology tools for
developing effective communication skills by encouraging positive
thinking and student participation.
Speech recognition software and a speech-producing device are two
of the most common AT devices used for communication today.
Instructors can use Speech Recognition Software to talk to the
computer through a microphone, and the uttered words will appear as
text [3]. Disabled people can benefit from this type of AT device
because it allows them to select words from a monitor that were not
detected when speaking. It is beneficial to disabled people who have
difficulty with motor skills, mobility or oral language skills.
Reading aloud with dual color highlighting, spoken dictionary, picture
dictionary, translator and fact finder, study skills highlighters and
collect highlights, vocabulary list builder, annotations and navigational
tools are all included in Google Read and Write. Therefore, it
encourages disabled people to read, write and express themselves
more confidently. There are numerous AT devices available today that
can assist students in learning unique skills. Students with writing,
listening, reading, organizational and memory problems can use spell
checkers, tape recorders, proofreaders, optional character
recognition, electronic math worksheets, variable speech control, FM
hearing systems, conversation calculators, personal data managers
and so on [3]. They can also benefit from tools such as freeform
databases and prewriting organizers. These AT devices boost the
confidence of struggling readers and those with learning disabilities. A
list of AT devices that can be used to treat a variety of cognitive
disability is given in Table 10.
Table 10 AT devices for Cognitive Disability
Devices
Description
Approach
Devices
Description
Approach
High
lighter
Helps disabled people to pay attention more actively.
Low-tech
Clock
Specially built for disabled people to keep track of time.
Low-tech
Calendar
To alert disabled people to complete a task.
Low-tech
Personal A compact, mobile, handheld device that has computer
digital
and information storing and retrieval capabilities for
assistant personal and is frequently used to manage schedules,
calendars and address book information on hand.
Low-tech
Tape
Used to record television shows for live streaming for
recorders
disabled people.
Low-tech
A wireless telecommunications device that receives and
Pagers
displays alphanumeric or voice messages. It also is
Low-tech
known as a beeper, bleeper or pocket bell.
Talking
Helps people with dyscalculia. Checking assignments,
calculator
reading numbers and performing math are all made
easier with the device.
Mid-tech
Tactile
A set of thermoformed raised-line drawings representing
geometric
geometric shapes, forms and interconnections for the
kit
visually disabled.
Mid-tech
Speech
recognition
Computer software to convert human speech into text.
software
Mid-tech
Devices
Description
Approach
Google
read &
Used as a speech recognition system.
write
High-tech
Electric
Disabled people can use tablets for calendars, voice-totablets
text and a variety of other tasks.
High-tech
AT for Motor Disability
Mobility aids allow people to move around their surroundings by
modifying vehicles for travel. For operating a computer, people with
limited hand functions can use a keyboard with large keys or a special
mouse. People with mobility issues use high-tech equipment to do
work independently, which allows them to manage and input data
using a handle that they can easily move with their mouths. By
allowing people to do tasks independently using AT tools, mobility
tools and devices can easily be integrated into the educational
curriculum [3]. A list of AT devices that can be used to assist various
motor disabilities is listed in Table 11.
Table 11 AT devices for Motor Disability
Devices
Description
Approach
Canes
Used to alleviate pain and enhance balance
Low-tech
Adapted Helps to alter the diameter, shape and texture of writing
pencil
tools for people with fine motor control in writing more
comfortably and comprehensibly.
Low-tech
Pencil grip Helps to attain better hand posture and flexibility when
Low-tech
writing and leads to improved handwriting.
Devices
Description
Approach
Adapted
Built specifically for the purpose of erasing disabled
eraser
individuals.
Low-tech
Adapted Any book that has been adjusted in some way to make it
books
more accessible to a person who has trouble with
classical literature.
Mid-tech
Raised line
Used to assist struggling hand writers in staying within
graph
the writing lines.
Mid-tech
Walkers Designed to assist in walking with balance and strength
Low-tech
while standing.
Crutches
Used to keep a person upright and can be worn by
Low-tech
people who have short-term or long-term disabilities.
Electrical
wheelchair
Used by a person who cannot walk.
Low-tech
Prosthetics Used for neural damage, amputation and other mobilityLow-tech
related issues.
Orthotics
Designed to provide a stable foundation for training,
Low-tech increase gait efficiency and correct or prevent deformity.
Slant
Beneficial for relief from pain from tightness caused by
board
poor running mechanics and muscle imbalance.
Low-tech
Scooter
Designed for more convenience to use and operate.
Mid-tech
Adapted
Mechanism that enables persons with mobility limitations
switches
to use technology and operate electrical appliances.
Mid-tech
Adapted
Improves sitting posture and postural control in mobilityseating
impaired people.
Mid-tech
AT for Visual Disability
Orientation and mobility are critical skills for every day and
independent functioning in people who have lost their vision. People
with visual disabilities and blindness encounter numerous obstacles.
There are a number of ATDs that can help with writing tasks. For
persons who are blind or visually challenged, many modern electrical
and computational technologies can be quite useful.
Specifically, those who are visually impaired, partially sighted or blind
have a difficulty to track and pay visual attention to objects. AT
strengthens visual tracking skills to make learning and day-to-day life
easier for these learners. Most visual tracking tools include a sliding
feature, and some utilize lights and an auditory component to keep the
disabled engaged.
Blind people can use software that reads text on the screen in a
computer-generated voice, and people with low vision can use
software that enlarges the screen content [1].
Mathematical assistive technology is especially useful for visually
impaired students to easily learn math concepts. Text and audio aids
such as Braille textbooks and calculators can help improve student
access to math textbooks. Nevertheless, tactile aids and tactile
techniques can help promote concrete mathematical understanding.
In low-contrast situations, a lengthy symbol can be used to detect
kerbs, entrances or obstructions. The symbol cane is generally used
to alert the general public that the person has low vision or has a
visual impairment [1]. A list of AT devices that can be used to assist
various visual disability is listed in Table 12.
Table 12 AT devices for Visual Disability
Devices
Description
Approach
Adaptive
Can increase legibility, writing size and keep writing on the
paper
baseline.
Low-tech
Braille
Designed to assist visually impaired people in finding
compass
directions.
Mid-tech
Braille
ruler
A low-cost measuring ruler for the visually disabled.
Mid-tech
Braille
protractor A low-cost measuring protractor for the visually disabled.
Mid-tech
Braile
A classic toy to the needs of blind people, with the haptic
cube
experience allowing them to feel the colors.
Mid-tech
Routing
The majority of wheelchairs are electric and include an
tools
innovative routing tool that makes life easier for impaired
persons.
High-tech
Mouth An assisted device for those having cerebral palsy as well
stick
as those who are unable to move their hands due to
quadriplegia.
High-tech
Tracking
A mobility device that utilizes space technology to assist in
device
leading the direction.
High-tech
AT for Auditory Disability
AT communication aids can help people who have difficulty speaking
or hearing. Many new electrical and computational technologies are
effective tools for those who are deaf or hard of hearing. People with
auditory disability can use a TTY (text telephone), a special device
that allows hearing-impaired or speech-impaired people to
communicate using the telephone by typing messages back and forth
instead of speaking and listening. A hearing aid is another small
electronic device that is worn behind the ear or in the ear canal. It
amplifies sounds so the disabled person can interact and participate in
everyday activities more easily. There are three pieces to a hearing
aid. The noises are picked up by a microphone, which turns them into
electric impulses, then transmitted to an amplifier. The amplifier
boosts the signal's power and sends it through a speaker into the ear.
A list of AT devices that can be used to assist various auditory
disability is listed in Table 13.
Table 13 AT Devices for Auditory Disability
Devices
Description
Approach
Text
Helps hearing or speech-impaired to communicate
Telephones over the phone by allowing them to write messages
back and forth instead of talking and listening.
Low/Mid-tech
FM systems
A unique wireless device that improves hearing in
Low/Mid-tech
noisy environments.
Infrared
An audio technology that aids in hearing and
systems
communication for those with hearing disability.
Mid-tech
Alerting
Connected to a doorbell, phone, alarm, blinking light
devices
to signal somebody with hearing disability that
something is happening.
High-tech
Assistive
Used in combination with a hearing aid or even an
listening
auditory implant to improve a user's ability to listen
devices
selected sounds when there is a lot of background
noise.
High-tech
Devices
Approach
Alternative
communication
devices
High-tech
Description
A device that aids communication for people who
have a speech or language disability.
Criticisms in Implementing AT
AT is not a magic cure; if too much attention is placed on technology
rather than on how people with disabilities will react, it is a failure.
Failure is vital to avoid because it is a setback for people using AT
devices and can lead to unfulfilled expectations and disappointment. It
is indeed crucial to prevent this as it frequently leads to a waste of
money and time. This problem occurs when too much importance is
put on technology as a solution, with little consideration being given to
how the technology will function in a busy atmosphere or how the
disabled will react to it [6]. The usage of AT may be restricted due to
the following factors:
• Limited number of solutions available to assist the disabled in
realizing their full potential.
• Some high-tech AT elements require a lot of learning that may
exceed the cognitive ability or physical endurance of a person
with a disability.
• People with disabilities may not “just buy” AT if it shows their
disability.
• Electronic communication technology may not allow people with
disabilities to participate in the normal process of communication.
• Professionals don't always know better.
• The instinctive knowledge of caregivers of people with
disabilities is sometimes valuable, but it carries less weight than
the opinions of “experts.”
• There is no such thing as a “final solution.”
• The circumstances and requirements of disabled persons are
always changing.
• New items enter the market, and technological advancements
may need regular re-evaluation.
• Some AT is quite costly.
• A considerable number of people with disabilities are left
without access to assistive technology.
• AT deployment in rural areas is greatly hampered compared to
urban areas. Some countries have recognized the need for AT
support for people with disabilities through policies, but they have
yet to develop a clear provision strategy to aid in the acquisition
of assistive products.
• Difficult to find a technician who can fix ATD, particularly
wheelchairs, in rural regions.
LIMITATIONS
AND
CHALLENGES
ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
IN
Many advances have been made, but we still have a long way to go in
terms of adopting AT. There are numerous restrictions in areas such
as awareness, governance, services, products, environments, human
resources and finance, as shown in Fig. (5). Even in wealthy
countries, implementing AT is difficult due to the wide range of
disabilities [7].
Fig. (5))
Limitations of AT
Lack of Awareness
Many people with disabilities and their families are unaware of the
many products and services available to them. This makes it difficult
for disabled people and their families to understand which assistive
technologies are available and acceptable, as well as how they may
assist.
Lack of Governance
According to a survey “Global survey on government action on the
implementation of the Standard Rules on the Equalization of
Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities,” Many countries had not
passed relevant legislation, and many had no policies in place relating
to the provision of assistive technology. This suggests that the supply
of AT is a relatively low priority for several regions [6].
Lack of Services
AT services are frequently in limited supply and located far from
where disabled people live. As per the survey [6], many countries say
that they had not started programmes to provide AT. Nongovernmental organization rarely have the financial or human
resources to create country-wide, long-term service delivery systems.
Due to their limited geographic reach, their services are generally
designed for specific types of AT or impairments. The current system
of service delivery is unfair. Inequities have been seen among people
with different disabilities, genders, ages, languages and cultures, as
well as between people living in different countries or sections of a
country or under different economic conditions. When compared to
adults, children are less likely to use AT. In addition to a lack of
financial resources, it is culturally hard for women in some areas to
receive AT because services are operated solely by men.
Lack of Products
In many nations, assistive products are either not produced at all or
are produced on a minimal basis. It is limited not only in terms of
quantity but also in terms of product variety, including types, models
and sizes. Production of assistive products can be limited by the lack
of access to the materials and equipment required. Production might
also be limited by market-related reasons. Limited demand results
from a lack of awareness of AT or purchasing capability. As a result,
there are limited incentives to participate in the production. Local
manufacture may not be cost-effective where local markets are tiny
and AT-related duties and import taxes may deter local enterprises
from importing materials and equipment.
Although there are many different sorts of ATD accessible around the
world, they aren't available everywhere and not every design is
appropriate for every situation. As a result, product research and
development will continue to be required. There will continue to be a
low demand for ATD until the design matches a disabled person's and
family's requirements and preferences as well as being appropriate in
their physical, social and cultural surroundings.
Lack of Inaccessible Environments
AT is hampered by behaviors that are either physically or cognitively
unavailable. Inaccessible transportation networks or service centers,
for example, prohibit disabled people from easily accessing the
services and products they require. Physical barriers include
passageways and dim lighting, while cognitive barriers include unclear
writing and difficult-to-understand symbols. In addition, regardless of
the cost or availability of a wheelchair, disabled person will be unable
to use it in an inaccessible home and road, and school barriers are
frequently worsened after natural disasters and wars.
Lack of Human Resources
Another obstacle to AT is a shortage of individuals who are
appropriately trained in the production, adoption and delivery of
products and services. Many countries claim to have insufficient
rehabilitation personnel.
Lack of Finance
Governments must integrate AT and related services into health and
community services as well as finance the provision of ATD and
services so that they are available at no cost. As household out-ofpocket spending for ATD can be a substantial barrier to access,
federal subsidies are required. Existing cadres of health staff can be
quickly trained in-service to support the start-up or strengthening of
service provision. This should be done in combination with a long-term
strategy for developing and training undergraduate curricula. The
focus should be on enhancing economies of scale in local
manufacturing and assembly as well as reducing or eliminating tariffs
on imports, especially where importing countries lack local
manufacturing capacity. Sufficient items should be made available and
prescribed and fitted appropriately. Disabled people should receive
proper training and follow-up, and societal and environmental
obstacles should be addressed.
Assistive Technology’s Challenges
Even having a solid basement, technology remains hard due to a
variety of challenges [6]. The key obstacles of AT are shown in Fig.
(6).
Fig. (6))
Challenges in AT
Challenges in Availability
Services and products must be made available to the disabled
community in sufficient quantities. Low manufacturing and restricted
quality, cost restrictions and a lack of government financing, provisions
and human resources are all obstacles to enhancing access to AT in
low and middle-income nations. Personnel educated to provide these
technologies are in short supply, particularly at the provincial and local
levels. The expenses of access are exorbitant in many situations
where it is conceivable [7].
Challenges in Accessibility
People with disabilities need products and services. Access to highly
skilled technicians and suppliers is often limited and varies widely
between states, counties, and urban and rural areas. Access to AT is
also limited by factors such as expectations, legal limits, stereotyping,
autonomy, culture, language and dignity. These accessibility
challenges also exist in low- and middle-income countries, according
to the World Disability Report and are exacerbated by a lack of
policies and standards, negative attitudes of society toward people
with disabilities, and lack of medical rehabilitation, vocational training
and welfare services [7].
Challenges in Affordability
Everyone who needs services and products should be able to afford
them. Many legal acts suggest that providing AT devices for disabled
people in the workplace, residential adjustments, disabled person
toilets and so on is mandatory. To eliminate disparities between
genders, disability groups, socioeconomic groups and geographic
regions, they should be delivered in an equitable manner [7].
Challenges in Adaptability
People with disabilities should have their wants and needs satisfied by
adapting and modifying services and goods. They must take into
account individual variables (such as health, body structure, body
function, capacity, gender, age, ethnicity and preference) as well as
environmental factors (for example, physical environment,
psychosocial environment, climate and culture). Self-awareness and
comfort with technology are also important considerations in this
decision. It must be simple to learn and use. Individualization must
take into account the needs of the person [7].
Challenges in Acceptability
To guarantee that technologies and related services are acceptable,
factors such as efficiency, reliability, simplicity, safety, comfort and
aesthetics should be considered. Customization is critical. Devices for
seniors with cognitive impairments were more readily accepted and
employed than those for seniors with physical impairments [7].
Challenges in Quality
The quality of the services and products must be satisfactory. In
terms of strength, durability, capacity, safety and comfort, product
quality can be measured using suitable technical standards or
guidelines. Although computer and information technologies have the
potential to enhance the capabilities of existing AT, product designers
have yet to consult with and meet the diverse preferences and
demands of persons with disabilities. Screen design, input device
design, complex commands and operational procedures are all
quality-related issues [7].
Challenges in Research
Furthermore, despite the fact that there is a significant and growing
need for AT in low and middle-income countries, there is a shortage of
research in these areas, preventing the establishment of evidencebased policy and practice. The majority of research evaluating the
usefulness of various forms of ATD comes from high-income
environments, which is unsurprising. A lack of high-quality, welldesigned research in this area has been addressed in several reviews
of findings to date. The lack of trustworthy information on
effectiveness is a critical gap that must be filled immediately. This is
important not only for guiding more efficient resource allocation in
high-income countries where such technologies are available, but also
for allowing evidence-based decisions in low-income countries. The
outcome measures for assessing the impact of assistive technologies
should be meaningful not only to the target populations, but also and
most crucially, to their family and caretakers. Furthermore, there are
few systematic cost studies of ATD for dementia patients and their
caretakers. Users and caregivers have yet to be consulted during the
research, development and design stages in order to produce
products that best suit their physical and social contexts and
preferences [7].
Challenges in Policy Implementation
Irrespective of gender, age or type of impairment, assistive equipment
for disabled individuals must be equally available, accessible and
inexpensive. Individual country-level policies that direct execution,
political will and suitable government structures to support
implementation are all necessary for successful international policy
implementation. On the other hand, many states do not effectively
execute policies and procedures to ensure that assistive equipment is
available. The absence of representatives for blind people among
governments' policy-making members is partly to blame for the
unavailability of information and communication technology resource
centers for people with vision impairment. Policy implementation
issues are particularly severe in rural areas in many countries for a
variety of reasons, including a small number of providers, insufficient
infrastructure and a lack of competent workers for AT device training
and maintenance [7].
Challenges in Multisectoral Action
Multidisciplinary collaboration should effectively contribute to a holistic
approach that strengthens the functional skills and autonomy of all
potential ATD beneficiaries. This necessitates a multi-agency strategy.
Multisectoral efforts across government and commercial sectors are
required for universal designs for ATD, buildings, transportation and
information and communication technologies. The national AT policy
framework can incorporate multi-sectorial participation, particularly
from governments, producers, users and consumers.
Housing modifications allow people with disabilities to live
independently, with community involvement and support from local
authorities. Government agencies, businesses and research
organizations have demonstrated successful AT innovation through
coordinated knowledge transfer, partnerships and targeted funding
that support training, local research and development and the
manufacture of high-quality solutions, all with the involvement and
active participation of people with disabilities. Effective multisectoral
action governance necessitates leadership capacity across sectors
and levels of government as well as the nurturing of champions in
many sectors who can agree on common goals [4].
FUTURE
DIRECTIONS
TECHNOLOGY
IN
ASSISTIVE
As technology advances, more barriers for persons with disabilities
will be removed. Individuals with disabilities and their loved ones can
benefit greatly from AT, and the future promises exciting possibilities
for further improvements. The following sections explore future AT
directions in various areas:
Cognitive Disability
Students in special education will benefit from support from healthcare
providers, the government and AT corporations in the future as they
develop ground-breaking and new technologies [5]. Continuous
assistive technology creation, fair cost and gadget accessibility are
some of the aspects that require continuous research and
advancements as demand and technology used in the twenty-first
century grows. Cause-and-effect interactions might be difficult for
students with unique needs. Understanding how actions lead to
events, such as how performing a math function leads to the right
result or predicting what would happen if a button on an AT device,
such as a capability switch, is pressed, is an important element of
learning. As a result, development is required to establish a causeand-effect relationship.
Motor Disability
Future research using activity monitors to follow prosthetic use is
suggested. Few studies on psychological aspects of prosthetics, such
as prosthesis embodiment, sensory preference and community
attitudes about prosthetic use and utilization, have been conducted.
Long-term data on community-based activities, particularly in
reference to community participation and isolation, which is a
prevalent issue among prosthesis users and has been connected to
quality-of-life scores, would be beneficial. More research is required
for this. Physical activity monitoring in the community may also help
researchers better understand the links between physical activity and
other parameters, such as prosthetic socket fit for comfort, function
and energy savings. Socket fit is critical for successful rehabilitation
and restoration of function and mobility, but there are no methods
available to objectively assess socket fit. Most researchers did not
include information about the weather, the day of the week, the
season or whether or not a walking aid was used. When these other
factors are taken into account, it is possible to have a clearer
knowledge of how an individual's activity fluctuates as well as stronger
support for clinical ratings and prosthetists' recommendations.
HAR (Human Activity Recognition) is a new domain that allows
sensors to provide detailed movement analytics, such as gait
symmetry, stability for safe ambulation, stride length, compensatory
movements and upper-limb movement analytics, which could provide
additional information to clinicians as they plan rehabilitation and
exercises for prosthesis users to improve prosthesis functionality. The
authors urge that when choosing sensors to track physical activity,
sensors that give access to raw data be utilized, since this allows for
custom data processing and research replication without the limits of
certain manufacturers.
Visual Disability
People with visual problems require more efficient aesthetics for clear
vision. Due to the high cost, AT devices should be reasonable. To
minimize the perceived stigma, designers should consider aesthetics
in addition to functionality, minimizing the likelihood of gadget
abandonment. Increased functionality should be the focus of future
studies.
Auditory Disability
The study of how neural signals in a person's brain can be interpreted
by a computer to aid communication is called brain-computer interface
research. Some academics are researching how a person who is
locked in can manage communication software and write out words
only by envisioning the movement of his or her hand by implanting
electrodes in the brain's motor cortex. Other researchers are working
on creating a prosthetic device that can convert a person's ideas into
synthesized words and sentences. Another group is working on a
wireless gadget that will track brain activity in response to visual
stimuli. As a result, researchers can make use of this new technology
to create new algorithms for a variety of disabilities, including hearing
loss.
The Following are Some of the Most Recent AT
Research Openings
• Future AT practices should concentrate on maximizing the
potential of commonplace gadgets as AT for all students,
enabling inclusion and lowering stigma [8].
• Additional research should be done on a global scale to
establish the state of knowledge and perspectives on future
mobility-assistive technology research and development needs
and goals [9].
• There is still much to learn and more study is needed,
particularly to gain a better understanding of AT's long-term utility
for kids with reading and writing disabilities [10].
• COOK (Cognitive Orthosis for coOKing) looks to have promise
in terms of rehabilitating clients with cognitive disabilities,
increasing home safety and reducing the need for human
supervision. Future research will need to look into how COOK
can be adapted to a larger TBI (Traumatic Brain Injury)
population, different surroundings and different consumers [11].
• Establish that rules and evidence-based procedures are needed
in this sector of study to promote and qualify user involvement.
The findings also highlight the importance of conducting research
on all aspects that are necessary to provide people with
dementia with relevant, effective and long-lasting AT solutions.
Future research must go beyond the design and testing stages to
provide more knowledge and evidence-based dissemination and
adoption techniques. Furthermore, implementing standards for
doing and reporting research could be extremely advantageous in
terms of improving study design, degree of evidence and effect
of research findings. It would also be extremely useful to the
research quality [12].
• Parents noticed favourable changes in their children's behaviour,
including their children initiating new behaviours for the first time.
Parents rapidly learned how to set up and operate the device and
were pleased with its present configuration. The comfort of the
wearing harness was to be improved in the future [13].
• SmartAbility's plans for the future include the development of a
second application that will recommend assistive technologies for
the education sector based on the physical and cognitive abilities
of users [14].
• Future recommendations are based on the results of two Israeli
pilots that tested the platform in a variety of settings and with a
variety of stakeholders. These suggestions include ensuring
continuity of care and providing a complete user journey,
incorporating shared decision-making and self-assessment
features, providing data customization and a holistic approach,
developing a market network infrastructure and designing the tool
as part of a larger service delivery model design [15].
• Essential to apply a conceptual model, standardised tests and
collaborate with the players and their trainers. It is hoped that the
baseline reported in this study may be useful in future AT or
parasports studies [16].
• Making available national data to researchers with fewer
conditions associated with its use as well as stakeholders
publishing more of their work to build the literature base for AT
information in Malawi, which can eventually contribute to
evidence-based programming and policies, are areas for
improvement [17].
• In India and Nepal, the local government has increased financial
resources, yet this is still insufficient. As a result, government
budgets for PWD (Person with Disability) related activities and
AT services should be greatly increased. In all three nations, AT
services are still viewed as charities rather than as a fulfilment of
PWDs' rights. This needs to change at both the system and
practice levels [18].
• Future functionalities should be customizable to meet the health
needs of each user and could include smoke detection and
reading aloud capabilities. Daily care robots show promise in
aged care, particularly in terms of medicine, health and well-being
reminders. fundamental value of co-designing and testing robotics
in the contexts for which they were created. With a few
modifications, widespread adoption of the Bomy robot could be
possible in the future [19].
• The future generation of HCAs (Healthcare Cognitive
Assistants) will face a major challenge in improving their cognitive
abilities. Cognitive assistants' ultimate goal is to imitate human
cognition, which is yet poorly understood [20].
• More research is needed to determine the potential benefits of
MWC+AOs (Manual Wheel Chair + Add Ons) and the extent to
which they can help WMAD (Wheeled Mobility Assistive Devices)
users increase their personal autonomy [21].
• The value of mobility devices for activities and participation can
help healthcare workers provide mobility devices in situations
where environmental aspects from different contexts must be
considered. Stakeholders should be aware of the importance of
device and service satisfaction [22].
• Future studies should be undertaken with larger samples and
for longer periods of time, improving the capabilities of controlled
equipment and devices, to see if the benefits persist over time
[23].
• Disabled people's activity recognition could be a promising
research topic for the elderly. Physiological signals such as ECG
(Electrocardiogram), TEB (Thoracic Electrical Bio-Impedance),
EDA (Electro Dermal Activity) and smartphone data can be
converted to numeric values and analyzed further [24, 25].
Conclusion
The various disabilities and the problems they face in the absence of
assistance are clearly outlined in this paper. If disabled people are
provided the suitable AT, they will be able to complete their everyday
tasks independently. The number of persons with disabilities is
increasing every day, according to statistics. Everyone has the right to
equal respect. They cannot be dismissed simply because they have a
disability. Now is the moment to put an end to all negative perceptions
about disabled persons.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author declares no conflict of interest, financial or otherwise.
Acknowledgement
We, the authors, would like to express our thanks to the editors for
giving us the opportunity to explore this area of our research interests,
which helped us in doing a lot of Research throughout which we
attempted to reconnoitre many interesting paradigms related to the
assistive technology domain. Finally, we thank God Almighty for His
abundant grace and mercy, who made this possible.
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