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Motivation: the factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other
organisms.
Instinct (‫)الغريزة‬: Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than
learned.
Instinct approaches to motivation: people and animals are born with set of behaviors
essential to their survival.
o Sexual behavior – reproduce.
o Exploratory behavior – examine.
Drive-reduction approach to motivation: lack of some basic biological need (such as
lack of water) produces a drive to push organism to safety that need.
o Drive: motivational tension that energizes behavior to fulfill a need.
 Primary drives: biological needs (hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex)
 Secondary drives: behavior that fulfills no obvious biological need
(achieve academically and professionally)
o Homeostasis: Body’s tendency to maintain a steady internal state, by prior
drives.
 involves various physiological processes that work together to regulate
factors like temperature, pH levels, blood sugar, and hydration within
certain narrow ranges.
Arousal approaches to motivation: people try to maintain a steady level of stimulation
and activity.
o If levels of stimulation & activity are too high, we will try to decrease them.
o If levels of stimulation & activity are too low, we will try to increase them.
 Daredevil sportsmen, high-stakes gamblers, and criminals
Incentive (‫ )حافز‬approaches (Motivation’s pull): motivation stems from the desire to
attain external rewards.
o Fails to provide complete explanation of motivation as humans sometimes seek
to fulfill needs without incentives.
o Works with the internal drives proposed by drive-reduction.
 Seek to satisfy hunger (PUSH from the drive-reduction)
 Seek the food that looks good (PULL from incentive theory)
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Cognitive approach: motivation is the outcome of people’s thoughts, beliefs,
expectation, and goals.
o Intrinsic motivation: Do something for our own enjoyment rather than any
reward.
o Extrinsic motivation: do something for money, grade, or any other reward.
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: basic-level needs at the bottom, and higher-level needs at
the top.
Self-actualization: State of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential
in their own way
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is important because it:
o Highlights complexity of human needs
o Emphasizes that until basic biological needs are met, people will be unconcerned
about higher-order needs
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The Need for Achievement (success)
o Stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for
and achieving challenging goals.
o People with high need for achievement:
 Might compete against objective-standard such as money, grades or
winning a game.
 Selective when it comes to pick a challenge, avoid challenges when
success is too easy.
o People with low need for achievement:
 Motivated by the desire to avoid failure.
 Pick easy tasks so they can avoid failure or choose difficult tasks where
failure does not impact them in a negative way.
o To measure the need for achievement we use Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
 Examiner shows a series of ambiguous pictures.
 Tells participants to write a story that describes what is happening.
 Researchers use a standard scoring system to determine the amount of
achievement imagery in people’s stories.
 People with high need for achievement usually write a story about
beating an opponent.
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The Need for Affiliation (friendship)
o Interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people.
o Gender is a great determinant of how much time is spent with friends (females
more).
o People with high need for affiliation:
 Write stories in TAT about the desire to maintain friendships or concerns
over being rejected by friends.
 Sensitive toward relationships.
 Don’t like to be alone.
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The Need Power (impact on others)
o Tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others and to be seen as a
powerful individual.
o People with high need for power:
 Seek office.
 Work in professions such as business management and teaching.
o Significant gender differences exist in the display of need for power
 Men with high need of power shows high level of aggression, drink
heavily, act in sexually manner, participate in competitive sports.
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Emotions: feelings that have both physiological and cognitive elements and that
influence behavior.
The functions of emotions:
o Preparing us for action.
 Links between events in our environment and our response to them.
o Shaping our future behavior.
 Promote learning to help us make appropriate response (avoid something
that you did not feel well with before)
o Helping us interact more effectively with others.
 Emotions shows in our verbal or nonverbal behavior, allowing other
people to understand us more and predict our future behavior.
Why do people across cultures express emotions similarly?
o Facial-effect program: activation of a set of nerve impulses that make the face
display the appropriate expression.
o Facial-feedback hypothesis: hypothesis that facial expressions not only reflect
emotional experience but also help determine how people experience and label
emotions.