History and Philosophy of Physical Education and Sport

History and Philosophy of Physical Education and Sport History and Philosophy of Physical Education and Sport FIRST EDITION Nancy Kane SUNY — Cortland SAN DIEGO Bassim Hamadeh, CEO and Publisher John Remington, Executive Editor Gem Rabanera, Project Editor Alia Bales, Production Editor Emely Villavincio, Senior Graphic Designer Trey Soto, Licensing Coordinator Natalie Piccotti, Director of Marketing Kassie Graves, Vice President of Editorial Jamie Giganti, Director of Academic Publishing Copyright © 2020 by Cognella, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information retrieval system without the written permission of Cognella, Inc. For inquiries regarding permissions, translations, foreign rights, audio rights, and any other forms of reproduction, please contact the Cognella Licensing Department at rights@cognella.com. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Cover Image: Copyright © 2016 iStockphoto LP/sorbetto. Copyright © 2018 iStockphoto LP/Oksana Latysheva. Printed in the United States of America. 3970 Sorrento Valley Blvd., Ste. 500, San Diego, CA 92121 CONTENTS Prefacexiii Acknowledgments1 Chapter 1. Why Study History and Philosophy in Physical Education and Sport? 2 Key Terms and Concepts 2 Guiding Questions 2 Introduction: How Do History and Philosophy Fit into Kinesiology, Physical Education, and Sport? 3 Knowing What Has Been Tried Before: History 4 Researching History: Sources and Methods 4 Knowing What Guides Our Choices: Philosophy 5 What We Think We Know: Physical Education and Sport History and Philosophy in the Early 21st Century 8 Becoming a Professional: What Does This Do for Me? 9 Summary10 Figure Credit 12 References12 Chapter 2. The Dawn of Sport 14 Key Terms and Concepts 14 Guiding Questions 14 Introduction: How Can We Know Where Sports Come From? 15 Physical Activity and Survival 16 Sports and Hunter-Gatherer Societies 17 v Sports and Agricultural Societies 19 Physical Activity and Self-Expression 19 Summary20 Figure Credits 21 References21 Chapter 3. Physical Education and Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome 24 Key Terms and Concepts 24 Guiding Questions 24 Introduction 25 Ancient Greece: Culture and Ideals 26 Ancient Greece: Physical Education and Physical Culture 27 Sparta 28 Athens 30 Ancient Greece: Sporting Festivals 31 Ancient Greece: The Role of Dance in Physical Education 33 Precursor to Ancient Rome: Etruscan Physical Culture and Traditions35 Ancient Rome: Physical Education and Physical Culture 36 Galen38 Ancient Rome: Contests, Athletes, and Spectators 38 Dance in Ancient Rome 40 Summary41 Figure Credits 43 References43 Chapter 4. Early Non-Western Physical Education and Sport 46 Key Terms and Concepts 46 Guiding Questions 46 Introduction: What Does Non-Western Mean? 47 Why Study Ancient Non-Western Cultural History and Philosophy in Physical Education and Sport? 48 Symbolism and Magic in Sport vi CONTENTS 49 Examples of Non-Western Sport in the Ancient World 49 The Mesoamerican Ball Game 49 Sport in Ancient Japanese Society 50 Sport in Ancient China 51 Sports in Ancient India 52 Sport and Pastimes in Ancient Egypt 53 Summary54 Figure Credits 55 References56 Chapter 5. After Rome Fell: Physical Activity and Sport in the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Reformation, and Enlightenment 58 Key Terms and Concepts 58 Guiding Questions 58 Introduction59 Court and Countryside, Knights and Peasants: Survival and Spectacle 60 The Church and Physical Activity in the Middle Ages 65 The European Renaissance and Physical Culture 66 The Protestant Reformation 68 The Enlightenment 71 Summary73 Figure Credits 74 References75 Chapter 6. Indigenous Peoples, Colonialism, Expansion, and Revolution in North American Sport and Physical Activity 78 Key Terms and Concepts 78 Guiding Questions 78 Introduction79 Sports and Recreational Pastimes Among Indigenous Peoples of North America 80 Colonial America: Sport, Recreation, and Gambling 81 CONTENTS vii Approaching Revolution: The Founding Fathers, Physical Education, and Sport 84 Female Physical Activity in Colonial America 85 Summary86 Figure Credits 87 References88 Chapter 7. Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 90 Key Terms and Concepts 90 Guiding Questions 90 Introduction91 German Gymnastics 92 Danish Gymnastics 97 Swedish Gymnastics 98 The British Sports Ideal 99 Muscular Christianity, the YMCA, and Jewish Gymnastics 102 Women’s Rational Recreation 102 Social Dance in the 19th Century 103 Summary104 Figure Credits 106 References106 Chapter 8. 19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 108 Key Terms and Concepts 108 Guiding Questions 108 Introduction109 Round Hill School 110 German Gymnastics in the United States 112 Swedish Gymnastics 114 Delsartism116 Beyond the European Systems 117 The Battle of the Systems 122 Summary123 Figure Credits 124 References125 viii CONTENTS Chapter 9. An Overview of Sporting Activities: 1800–1950 128 Key Terms and Concepts 128 Guiding Questions 128 Introduction129 From Fairs to Frontiers: Competitions and Work-Sports 130 Percussive Dance 131 Immigrants and Sport 132 Slaves and Sport 133 Organized Sports 134 Amateur Athletics, 1800–1950 135 Professional Athletics, 1800–1950 137 Intercollegiate Sports 141 Summary143 Figure Credits 144 References145 Chapter 10. Physical Education and Sport in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries 148 Key Terms and Concepts 148 Guiding Questions 148 Introduction149 Leaders in 20th-Century Physical Education: The Progressive Era 150 Leisure154 Amateur Sport 157 Professionalism159 Title IX, AIAW, and NAGWS: Women in Sport 161 Adapted Physical Education and Sports 164 Summary166 Figure Credits 168 References168 Chapter 11. International Sport and Dance in the 21st Century 172 Key Terms and Concepts 172 Guiding Questions 172 CONTENTS ix Introduction173 International Sports Organizations 174 World Dance Traditions 179 Summary182 Figure Credits 184 References184 Chapter 12. Epistemology in Physical Education and Sport 188 Key Terms and Concepts 188 Guiding Questions 188 Introduction189 Metaphysics190 Idealism and Dualism 190 Realism 191 Epistemology192 Naturalism 192 Pragmatism 194 Existentialism 195 Phenomenology 196 Ways of Using Philosophy 198 Summary199 Figure Credits 200 References200 Chapter 13. Ethics of Physical Education and Sport 202 Key Terms and Concepts 202 Guiding Questions 202 Introduction203 Axiology204 x Ancient Greece 205 Non-European Ethics 206 Moral Reasoning: Immanuel Kant and the Categorical Imperative 209 Moral Reasoning: John Stuart Mill and Utilitarianism 210 CONTENTS Professional Codes of Ethics in Kinesiology: What Will Be Expected of Me? 210 Implications of Ethics 211 Summary212 Figure Credits 214 References 214 Chapter 14. Aesthetics: What Is Beauty in Sport and Physical Activity? 216 Key Terms and Concepts 216 Guiding Questions 216 Introduction217 The Beauty of the Human Body 218 Sport as Art? 220 The Intentional Fallacy 222 The Relationships Between Play, Sport, and Art 224 Can Sport Have Meaning and Purpose? 225 Sport as Drama 227 Summary228 Figure Credits 230 References230 Chapter 15. My History, My Philosophy 232 Key Terms and Concepts 232 Guiding Questions 232 Introduction233 Why Study Local History of Physical Education and Sport? 234 How Can You Learn About Local History of Physical Education and Sport? 236 How Can You Preserve Local History? 237 Your Personal Philosophy 239 Why Write a Statement of Personal Philosophy? 240 How to Write a Statement of Personal Philosophy 241 CONTENTS xi The Future in the History and Philosophy of Physical Education and Sport 243 Summary244 Figure Credits 246 References246 Chapter 16. Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 248 Key Terms and Concepts 248 Guiding Questions 248 Introduction249 Media and Sport in the United States 250 Discuss 252 Youth Sports 253 Discuss 254 Interscholastic Sports 255 Discuss 256 Minorities in Sports and Dance 256 Discuss 258 Threats to the Integrity of Sport 259 Discuss 261 Violence in Sports 261 Discuss 264 Summary265 Figure Credits 265 References266 ABOUT THE AUTHOR 269 INDEX271 xii CONTENTS PREFACE Kinesiology, or exercise science, has relatively recent origins in the academic world. While health and forms of exercise have been studied since ancient times, specialized kinesiology departments in higher education are really a latter-20th-century phenomenon. When those departments were established, classes could be divided fairly easily into three types: lecture, lab, and activity. Those designations still exist, but teaching methods and expectations in the information age have evolved dramatically. When kinesiology began to establish itself as an entity related to, yet separate from, physical education studies, there was still an understanding among academics that for every hour spent in a class, a student was expected to spend two to three hours outside of class on reading, reviewing, and working on assignments for that class. That expectation persists among faculty: among students, not so much. Rising higher education costs force many students to work while attending school, and for student athletes, their sports commitments require many hours each day and often on weekends for training and competition. Rare is the student in any degree program who can spend six to nine hours per week on one class, when course loads of up to 18 or more credits are carried in a semester. Furthermore, today’s students have not been brought up to learn in the way that students learned in the past. Straight lecture delivery combined with rote memorization of voluminous texts still works for some students, but many students need different learning modes, and some need special accommodations to address specific needs. Smart classrooms are the norm, and students are at ease in the digital environment. Bright, capable, inquisitive students literally hold much of the world’s knowledge in the palms of their hands, though they may need guidance in selecting and evaluating sources of information. However, the amount of information students need to learn does not diminish over time, and the study of history and philosophy often involves heavy reading and writing. There are certain things that every student of sports-related curricula should know about the past, and a basic grounding in relevant philosophy is essential to good practice for future teachers, clinicians, researchers, and health care providers. How can we reconcile the demands of the subject matter with the realities of today’s educational environment and today’s students? Must we compromise standards to compete in what, in some respects, has become a consumer-driven industry? xiii The answer is no, we do not need to compromise standards. We may, however, need to change expectations and methods of delivery. The textbook is an important tool, and a foundation of class work. It is a guide, to be used in conjunction with the course syllabus, the school library, the Internet, the world of digital media, and any and all other available academic resources. As such, this textbook is intended as an introduction to the history and philosophy of physical education and sport, not as a definitive encyclopedic tome. It traces the essentials of the history and philosophical underpinnings of kinesiology to provide a baseline understanding of the discipline. However, it allows “breathing room” for faculty and students to engage in related discussions and topics according to interest and expertise. It is also intended to prepare students for further study, in special topics courses dedicated to ethics, sociology, and current issues in sports, for example. It provides a framework for understanding that encompasses a global view of history and philosophy to the extent possible while striving for inclusivity in terms of diversity and appreciation for the scope of physical activity worldwide. Much of the focus is still on the European and North American experience of sport and physical education, as the textbook is intended toward those markets. Maintaining an awareness of the fact that this is only one part of the world’s history, students are encouraged to explore beyond their own cultures. The book begins with a rationale for the study of the history and philosophy of physical education and sport. The relevance of the need for this type of course in the kinesiology and physical education curriculum is explained, and its bearing on students’ professional careers is made clear. Chapters 2 through 11 trace the history of physical education and sport from prehistoric times to the early 21st century, with the inclusion of some dance history. Dance is part of a comprehensive physical education, and dance studies have long been part of physical education curricula. To ignore ritual, recreational, and artistic dance forms is to ignore an essential part of the human physical experience, and this text examines a variety of ways in which dance has been a part of our history. Chapters 12 through 14 are dedicated to philosophical studies. In many ways, philosophical ideas are woven throughout the book, as it is impossible to discuss the history of physical activity without philosophical context. These chapters invite the reader to consider several branches of philosophical study and the ways in which physical education and sport have been and are viewed by philosophers. The interdisciplinary nature of the text opens up opportunities for team teaching, as well. In chapter 15, a more personal approach to history and philosophy is used to invite students to see the history happening around them and to reflect upon their own philosophy. Understanding their place in history is a critical conceptual leap, because many people think only of the past when they think of history and do not see that history is happening around them in their lifetimes. To begin to take stock of one’s own beliefs and philosophy is an empowering step on the road to self-discovery, which is an overarching goal of the educational process. The final chapter presents a selected variety of issues for study and discussion. For each issue, references and basic information are provided, inviting further research or commentary. The topics might also be useful for classroom discussions or debates, or might serve as topics for research papers. Each chapter includes a set of guiding questions, a list of key terms and concepts (mostly those less likely to be familiar to readers), a summary, and a set of learning activities that may be used at the discretion of the instructor. Unlike the other chapters, the activities in Chapters 13 xiv HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT (concerning ethics) and 16 (concerning current issues) are discussions; however, the discussion topics could also be adapted to be done as written assignments. References are provided to encourage further study or to serve as starting points for research papers, if assigned. The style guide used for the in-text citations and references is that of the American Psychological Association (6th edition), the standard for the disciplines of kinesiology and physical education. Many, if not most, students in the first year or so of higher education are unfamiliar with the use of APA style, but they should become more accustomed to it and use it in their writing for classes in exercise science. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my colleague, Dr. Susan Rayl, for her inspiration and encouragement in the writing of this book. My department chair, Dr. Phil Buckenmeyer, my dean, Dr. John Cottone, and my colleagues in the Kinesiology Department at the State University of New York, College at Cortland have been supportive, and I am grateful to all of them. My research was made possible through the space provided by SUNY Cortland, and the excellence of their holdings, online resources, and interlibrary loan officers. I would especially like to thank Jeremy Pekarek, Archivist and Instructional Services Librarian, for access to the SUNY Cortland College Archives (Memorial Library). Additional research was conducted at Cornell University’s Olin and Uris Libraries. My gratitude extends to the staff at Cognella Publishing, especially to Gem Rabanera, John Remington, David Rajec, Alia Bales, and Susana Christie, without whom this textbook would not have been written. Thank you for all your help and guidance through the process. Finally, thanks to my husband, John Fracchia, for believing in this project and for helping and supporting me every step of the way. PREFACE 1 C H APTER 1 WHY STUDY HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT? KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. Abductive reasoning: examining different hypotheses and selecting the best logical choice to explain phenomena Affective domain: emotional and subjective experiences related to physical activity Archival sources: unique collections of documents and other media, often housed at a single location with limited access for scholarly research Cognitive domain: knowledge about physical activity kinesiology, physical education, and sport? • How do we study the history of physical education and sport? • What types of philosophy are studied in physical education and sport? • What are some current beliefs held by people in physical education and sport? Deductive reasoning: starting from a major hypothesis and examining phenomena to determine the validity of the hypothesis • Where can we find information about Descriptive historical research: presenting historical evidence using characteristics observed in case studies, surveys, or other observational techniques • How can studying history and Descriptive reasoning: observing and presenting phenomena or data; fact-gathering Ephemera: items not originally meant for long-term use, which may be of historical interest External critical review: determining whether a historical resource is genuine Health-based physical education: activities or instruction intended to improve cardiovascular function and other attributes contributing to a healthy lifestyle Inductive reasoning: observing individual instances that lead to a generalization 2 • How do history and philosophy fit into HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT current trends in physical activity? philosophy help me as a future professional? (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) INTRODUCTION: HOW DO HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY FIT INTO KINESIOLOGY, PHYSICAL EDUCATION, AND SPORT? If we accept that the study of kinesiology includes experiences in physical activities, scholarship, and cognitive understanding of physical activity, and professional practice in a kinesiology-related profession, we can see that the study of history and philosophy primarily falls into the category of scholarship and cognitive understanding. However, there are professionals who research and teach as specialists in history and/or philosophy. Often those professionals start their careers in classes just like this one. You are about to set sail on a voyage that will span the history of human thought, physical education, and sport across the globe. However, the journey cannot be completed by any single person in any one lifetime. Many gaps in knowledge and understanding exist: some have simply not been unearthed, but others are lost forever in the seas of time. If you continue on to a career in kinesiology or physical education, you will be expected to continue the voyage and deepen your understanding of history and philosophy for as long as you work as a professional. Consequently, you should view this semester’s work as a beginning rather than as a comprehensive guide to all you will ever need to know. With that in mind, we begin with an overview of ways in which history and philosophy are studied. Consider this chapter a guidebook for this trip. Bon voyage! Internal critical review: determining the validity and worth of a historical resource Oral history: interview in order to preserve information from an individual or individuals Paradigm: framework for understanding the world Primary sources: historical references serving as first-person accounts Psychohistory: the study of psychological explanations for history Psychomotor domain: physical skills Remains/relics: evidence such as bones, tools, and fossils which may be examined as historical resources Secondary sources: historical resources not based on first-person accounts, often including journal articles and reference materials Skill-based physical education: education aimed at the acquisition of motor skills Speculative reasoning: contemplation of theoretical circumstances Synthesis: combining research findings from different sources Why Study History and Philosophy in Physical Education and Sport? 3 KNOWING WHAT HAS BEEN TRIED BEFORE: HISTORY Most people think of history as the study of the distant past. For students whose lives are mostly about activity in the here and now, learning about dead people and crumbling dusty institutions holds as much interest as drinking a glass of sand after a workout. However, what you need to realize is that history is not only about the past: it is happening all around us, and we are making history every day. We are part of it, and it is part of who we are. It helps shape society’s beliefs about what people do in physical education and sport, creating what is known in history as a paradigm. Struna (2011) defines paradigm as “an intellectual device that contains a scholar’s beliefs and assumptions about the world, the past, and the evidence; her or his conceptions, or definitions, of theory and data; and the questions that he or she pursues” (pp. 217–218). In other words, it is a worldview, a mental framework that helps us make sense of things. Paradigms are not necessarily free from bias, and historians sometimes blend paradigms in their research. In the Middle Ages, for example, the world of European civilization revolved around the religious, political, and social power of the Roman Catholic Church. That paradigm gave ultimate power on earth to the pope, and the opinions and wishes of the Church were accepted as eternal truths by European society. That paradigm gave way later when Protestantism challenged the beliefs and assumptions about the world, removing the pope from a position of central authority. Subsequent paradigm shifts reframed the relationship between humans and God altogether, leading to a paradigm in which science and the scientific method became the measure of reality. In the world of physical education, attitudes toward the physical body and its status relative to the life of the intellect have traditionally echoed the prevailing paradigm. That is why we must study history and philosophy together. Learning either without having informed contextual understanding of the other gives the student an incomplete understanding of both. Overall, we try to answer three questions through the study of history in physical education: 1. Where are we now? 2. How did we get here? 3. Where are we going? These questions, posed by Kirk (1992) for teaching about physical education curriculum, clearly indicate the ongoing and forward-thinking nature of broad-based historical understanding. Comprehension of our past helps us to understand why we do the things we do in physical education and sport and helps us to think intelligently about where we might be going in the future. RESEARCHING HISTORY: SOURCES AND METHODS Historians work in different types of history. Most history is descriptive, telling the story of what was or is through writing or some other medium. Some historians, however, prefer to conduct psychohistory, as psychological motives are studied to gain insight into the reasons for historical events. Still others pursue oral history, in which living historical figures are interviewed for posterity. 4 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT The data for historical study may be primary sources (first-person and eyewitness accounts, including oral histories), secondary sources (books, journal articles, newsletters, magazines, and similar items), and remains or relics of a bygone era (bones, architectural remnants, hunting equipment, and so on). Archival sources may contain recordings, letters, and other personal papers for a particular person or institution, and are often best visited on-site in repositories where they are kept. For example, the archives of the Lloyd Shaw Foundation for traditional dance and music are located in the University of Denver’s library, where they can be properly preserved and made available to scholars. Ephemera (items that are generally used once in passing, like a newspaper ad or a program from an All-Star game) are often stored in vertical files or in acid-free containers and may be valuable sources of information. A student looking for information on her college’s basketball teams might find interesting historical items with the ephemera in her college or university library, for instance. Ideally, evidence of history is supported by multiple sources of data, but that is not always the case. Sometimes historians use oral traditions (the myths and legends of a group), reasoned logical inferences (if group a lived under similar conditions to group b, they likely performed the same or similar physical activities), or anonymous sources to help understand history. Source data are then examined with critical thinking skills, using external and internal critical review. External criticism uses methods to establish the validity of a source of data. For example, the researcher examines the language of a document to determine whether it is consistent with the language usage of other known examples of historical evidence from the time it was purportedly written. Internal criticism follows, in which the researcher looks for meaning and accuracy within the document or other data source. Internal criticism seeks to find the meaning of a piece of historical evidence. For example, if we determine that a skeleton (human remains) is indeed from the second century BC (using external criticism), we may use understanding of bone responses to muscular stresses to determine whether the remains are from a person who was of a nomadic culture and who walked great distances carrying heavy loads. Drawing that meaning from the remains is an example of internal criticism. Synthesis of source information may also be an important step in research. If we also found relics of baskets near the skeleton, we could use the combination of evidence to give greater accuracy to our understanding of the physical activity of the people whose remains are left behind, even if there is no written documentation of their lives and culture. Sometimes teams of researchers collaborate to contribute to a synthesis of understanding. For an undergraduate studying the history of physical education, source data will most likely come from online or library research. Students need to pay particular attention to the quality of online sources, because they are not all equally valid. Request the advice of a librarian to help find the most credible research materials. The librarian can help to educate you toward becoming a more knowledgeable researcher by steering you toward sources such as peer-reviewed journals, high-quality newspapers, and places on the Internet that have been investigated for quality of content. A librarian would also be likely to know whether there are archival materials or ephemera on campus that can be accessed for scholarly purposes. KNOWING WHAT GUIDES OUR CHOICES: PHILOSOPHY You may not realize it, but you have a philosophy that informs your life choices and behavior. Does that make you a philosopher? Not necessarily. A philosopher is a lover of wisdom, Why Study History and Philosophy in Physical Education and Sport? 5 according to the ancient Greek roots of the word, but the term carries broader implications of intellectual curiosity, desire to learn, and willingness to examine questions from multiple angles. Philosophers like to ponder things in depth, sometimes seeking “truth,” other times enjoying the mental exercise of considering alternative explanations of things without arriving at a definitive answer. In a world in which memorization, teaching toward standardized testing situations, and avoidance of ambiguity are prized, the study of philosophy does not come easily to students intent on learning the “right” answer to a question in order to ace exams, earn high marks in a class, and achieve the validation of a college degree that can lead to profitable employment. And yet, if college is not the place to question and probe concepts of truth and reality while engaging in critical thinking and respectful debate, where can we go to learn those skills and practice them? Many people turn to social media for a weaker form of philosophical debate, but you are (hopefully) aware of the limitations of those platforms when it comes to serious scholarly exchanges. College is about expanding your mind and your thinking abilities, giving you endless opportunities for social interactions that range from late-night dorm talks about everything from the relative merits of various forms of corn chips to the question of whether football is really just simulated warfare. The topics are ultimately not important; the value of these conversations lies in the practice of social interaction (face-to-face actual conversations without the use of cell phones), learning to disagree without being disagreeable, developing the courage of your convictions, and learning to communicate with other human beings. In other words, you grow to understand what you value, why it matters to you, and whether your opinions might change with experience and education. Philosophy becomes part of you, one way or another. In the course of these discussions, you realize that everyone has opinions. Opinions are personal in nature. They do not need to be grounded in facts, and in a free society, individuals may express their opinions (or not) as they wish. They are different from phenomena and facts, which are grounded in observable reality. Facts may be grouped into theories: for example, facts about the effects of weight training, observed through legitimate scholarly research, may coalesce around theories concerning weight training effectiveness in general. Different research results may lead to different theories, whether over time or simultaneously. Therefore, the realm of meta-theories exists, in which different theories may be compared to each other. In discussions of an academic and scholarly nature, as in research papers, opinions are valued below facts and evidence. It doesn’t mean that opinions are bad or worthless—it merely means that they cannot be proven. meta-theoretical consideration of relevant theories theory or theories about fact or observable phenomenon evaluation of fact or observable phenomenon fact and/or observable phenomenon opinions Figure 1.1 Inspired by Ecker & Kaelin (1972), this hierarchy moves opinion out of the realm of historical and philosophical evaluation. How do we discern facts from opinions, and how do we group facts to form theories? We can describe experiences, using descriptive reasoning. Or we may start from a theory or hypothesis and look for facts or research to support it, using deductive reasoning. Finally, we may collect 6 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT facts and research first, then use inductive reasoning to gain understanding and form theories (Kretchmar, 2011). We may even use abductive reasoning, in which several possible hypotheses are examined to explain phenomena, and we use logic to select the most likely hypothesis (Thagard & Shelley, 1997). Assuming that we are not brains being kept in tanks merely imagining we are participating in physical activities, we can generally accept the reality of the world in which we live, gaining information via our senses and input from other people when our own experience falls short. We can accept Isaac Newton’s laws of physics in baseball because we can see evidence of them, and we can consider other possibilities in the realm of physics using mathematics and abstract thinking. Yet there is always the possibility that we are a collection of brains in tanks. Can we ever know for sure? That branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of reality is called metaphysics. It lies beyond our physical understanding and calls for speculative reasoning about things that are important and meaningful to us as humans, but ultimately impossible to prove. In addition to metaphysics, philosophers in physical education and sport also study axiology, or the value of things. During the late 19th century, there was no common nationwide understanding of how physical education should be taught in schools in the United States. Different methods and ideas about physical education competed for dominance in what came to be known as the Battle of the Systems as educators compared the relative advantages and disadvantages of each system and assessed the value of each for the development of healthy children. In order to determine whether the use of conditioning machines of Harvard’s Dudley Sargent was more valuable than was the system of training using pommel horses, horizontal bars, hanging rings, and parallel bars that came out of the German gymnastics system, axiological discussions took place at conferences and through scholarly writings. Meanwhile, debates about the nature of learning, or epistemology, continued as physical educators considered questions of human development and educational theories as they applied to the health and physical development of students in grade schools and beyond. Motor learning and learned behaviors form an important part of kinesiology. Searching for the best ways to raise a physically educated person involved significant exploration of this branch of philosophy. Ethics is the study of what is good or best to do, what we owe to our fellow humans, and what principles should guide our personal and professional lives. Nearly all professional associations have a code of ethics to help professionals understand their professional obligations under the philosophy of the organization. Another branch of philosophy deals with the study of beauty, known as aesthetics. The study of aesthetics can inform how we perceive the human body in motion. Some sports are scored, at least in part, by the artistry of the athlete. Ice skating and ice dancing, bodybuilding, women’s gymnastics, women’s rhythmic gymnastics, and synchronized swimming are examples. However, gaining an appreciation of the body in motion can lead to aesthetic appreciation of any athlete or sport. As you were reading about these different branches of philosophy, you may have found yourself thinking about your own experiences and feelings about each. If so, you are beginning to make connections between philosophical studies and the personal, subjective, lived experiences you have as a potential philosopher. Later chapters in this text will help you deepen your understanding of your personal philosophy, which may mirror that of established philosophers, or combine different philosophies, or possibly find something unique about your place in—and your way of understanding—the world of kinesiology. Why Study History and Philosophy in Physical Education and Sport? 7 WHAT WE THINK WE KNOW: PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY IN THE EARLY 21ST CENTURY Most of your courses in your college major, whether it involves exercise science or physical education, will focus on current knowledge, past and ongoing research, and experiential activities. In addition to learning about exercise prescription, conditioning, exercise physiology, and many more relevant topics, you will learn about broad concepts that are currently agreed upon by members of the professional community. For example, current physical education theory acknowledges three overall domains of skills acquired through physical education. Educational theory currently holds that the psychomotor, cognitive, and affective goals of education (sometimes known as Bloom’s Taxonomy) encompass the desired outcomes students can hope or expect to achieve through physical education (Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956; Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). • Psychomotor skills are motor skills that can be learned and practiced, such as dribbling a soccer ball or serving a tennis ball. • Cognitive skills are knowledge about physical activity, such as rules of games, theories in coaching, or understanding the biomechanics of diving. • Affective skills are comprised of subjective experiences such as the ability to rebound from a slump using positive self-talk, feelings associated with sport participation and spectatorship, and moral values such as a sense of fair play, good or bad sportsmanship, the ability to cooperate with others, and team loyalty. BO DY D N MI As you will learn in subsequent chapters, the combination of psychomotor, cognitive, and affective domains combine in a holistic way and are reflected throughout history. People sometimes refer to these areas as knowledge, skills, and attitude. The goal of development of all three areas is reflected in the ancient Greek notion of aretē, through the Renaissance ideal man, and later, the early YMCA triangular emblem linking mind, body, and spirit. You may learn about the use of fitness testing for K–12 education, for example. Maybe you wonder why we use the tests we use and who sets SPIRIT the standards. Later in this book, you will learn about fitness testing conducted on students in the United States, when it began, and why it was done. Currently, many schools use an instrument known as FitnessGram® for assessment and communication with students and parents about each individual’s strengths and weaknesses in: Figure 1.2 An early logo of the YMCA, showing the ideal balance between body, mind, and spirit. 8 • • • • • aerobic capacity, body composition, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and flexibility. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT It can be used in conjunction with ActivityGram®, in which students record their own activity levels (the Cooper Institute, 2014). This testing instrument did not come about easily. It took more than 30 years and the involvement of many groups, including the Cooper Institute for Aerobics Research (founded by Dr. Kenneth Cooper, a leading proponent of aerobic exercise), the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD, now the Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America)), the President’s Council on Fitness, Sports and Nutrition, the Campbell’s Soup Company Institute for Health and Fitness, the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), Prudential Insurance Company, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and various other groups, subgroups, and councils. Many meetings, discussions, and revisions were needed to come to agreements about the philosophy, form, structure, usage, type of standards, and control of the process. Finally, the President’s Youth Fitness Program began to use FitnessGram® in the United States in September 2012 with the Cooper International Youth Fitness Test (the international version of FitnessGram®, renamed to avoid confusion over the use of the word gram, an international unit of measurement) beginning in China in 2010. To serve students with disabilities, in 1999 the State University of New York at Brockport released the Brockport Physical Fitness Exam, a health-based (rather than skill-based) assessment that is now used in conjunction with FitnessGram®/ActivityGram® in schools (Plowman & Meredith, 2013). The US government has an interest in partnering with nongovernmental organizations to collect health and fitness data on the entire population, including and going beyond the K–12 educational realm. Resources are allocated to many federal, state, and local initiatives, but one of the online resources you should know about is HealthyPeople.gov. Every 10 years, the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Controls compiles the latest data on the nation’s health and fitness and issues reports, which are available online for public information and education. Data, resources, lessons, program planning tools, legal information, webinars, and recommendations concerning current best practices are all available based on the most recent research. It is a valuable collection of information for use in preparing research, presentations, grants, and advocacy materials throughout your academic and professional career. BECOMING A PROFESSIONAL: WHAT DOES THIS DO FOR ME? Understanding the relationship between physical education history and philosophy and public policy will help you and your colleagues advocate for physical education and sports when speaking with clients, parents, and public officials. The American Kinesiology Association (2018) includes physical education and sport history and philosophy as essential components of its core subject areas for undergraduate kinesiology studies. Even with all the information available, many people do not understand the importance of lifelong physical activity for health and fitness. Your expertise and ability to formulate and answer questions (or know where to turn for answers) as well as your ability to perceive relationships among different disciplines and subdisciplines in kinesiology will make you a valuable resource in your community. You will also have a responsibility to your profession to see that standards are upheld. You will need to read, possibly write, and have the skills to assess the worth of research and journal articles. Knowing what has been tried before and understanding the philosophical underpinnings Why Study History and Philosophy in Physical Education and Sport? 9 of current and historical developments will help you to work with others as your profession advances in the future. You can work more efficiently and productively, knowing why you work, teach, guide, and coach the way you do. Your ideas for innovations can be more informed, drawn from evidence-based research and theory and framed by philosophy. You will be expected to participate in professional service at some level throughout your career. Your work may be at the local level, helping to get a new swimming pool for the community, starting or running a local amateur sports league, or writing letters to the editor of the local paper. You may become involved at the state or regional level, advocating for funding for physical education, coordinating an old-time baseball league, or working with statewide sports organizations. You might even become a national leader, setting standards for physical education, writing for publication, or serving as an officer in a national physical education organization. A deep respect for your profession, grounded in an appreciation for the past and an eye toward the future, will help you inspire respect and appreciation in others in these and all your other professional activities. Your life’s work can be more than a job: it can be a calling or a mission of excellence. Like it or not, you are and you will become part of history. The extent of your impact and your contributions to your profession are up to you and will be an outgrowth of your philosophy and understanding of history. SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • Studying the history and philosophy of physical education and sport are essential to your comprehensive scholarly preparation for a professional career in kinesiology, physical education, or related professions. • Historical study involves research into primary and secondary sources and assessment of sources using a variety of methodologies. • The main branches of philosophy studied in kinesiology are metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, ethics, and aesthetics. • Currently, physical education encompasses skills gained in the psychomotor, cognitive, and affective domains. • Fitness testing is widely practiced in the United States to help individuals understand the importance of physical activity, and groups of professionals can work together to develop measures based on experience and theoretical understanding. • The US government works with nongovernmental agencies to collect historical and current data and resources for research in physical activity, which is made available to the public at HealthyPeople.gov. • A professional needs a deep understanding of the historical and philosophical developments that have led to today’s standards and practices of physical education and sport, and must continue to learn about and share information in order to advance learning and public awareness of the profession. 10 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the history and philosophy of the time period covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or other research. 1. Bloom’s Taxonomy Visualized (Visual): Using Bloom’s Taxonomy, categorize the psychomotor, cognitive, and affective objectives you would want to achieve if teaching or learning about a particular sport or dance form. For example, if you choose roller derby, a psychomotor skill objective would be the ability to skate, a cognitive objective would be knowing the rules of the sport, and an affective objective would be gaining confidence. Name at least three different objectives for each of the categories in the taxonomy for whichever sport or dance form you choose and create a diagram or visual representation showing how they relate to each other. 2. Current Public Policy Initiatives in Physical Education and Health (Research): Visit the website HealthyPeople.gov and click on the Healthy People in Action tab near the top of the screen. On the next page, click on the State Plans on the left of the screen. Then choose a state and research the public policy initiatives that are in the state’s plan. Do they include plans to combat metabolic diseases such as diabetes? Are there plans to combat obesity, suicide, and/or cardiovascular diseases? Find a link on the state plan page to obtain information on progress toward achieving the initiatives, based on the most recent research available. Create a PowerPoint presentation to explain the current state plan AND the progress made so far in reaching the goals outlined in the state plan. 3. The Kraus-Weber (K-W) Minimum Test (Kinesthetic): During the 1940s and 1950s, well before FitnessGram® was created, Dr. Hans Kraus and Dr. Sonja Weber developed a physical fitness test that could be quickly and easily administered in schools to determine fitness levels in children. The results of studies by Kraus and Prudden (Knuttgen, 1961) indicated a failure rate of over 50% in American children. Carefully read a description of each of the six parts of the test, including any precautionary advisories, at https://www. topendsports.com/testing/kraus-weber.htm and work in groups to try it on volunteers from the class. Can anyone pass? You will need a timekeeper and someone to record the results. 4. Meet the Librarian (Outreach): One of the greatest assets on campus is the library. Sometimes certain librarians are designated as research specialists for different areas of study, while other institutions may have more generalists on hand to help students. Working with the library, arrange for a class meeting on-site at the library to learn about finding the best online resources for academic research, discover what the library has to offer in terms of periodicals and book collections and how to research using them. Find out if there are historical archives at the library that might have information about your school’s sports, physical education, and dance history. What kind of help can the library offer to make student research papers go far, far beyond Wiki sources and online encyclopedia research (also, how might those resources help students get started with research topics)? Why Study History and Philosophy in Physical Education and Sport? 11 FIGURE CREDIT Fig. 1.2: Source: https://www.logaster.com/blog/ymca-logo/. REFERENCES American Kinesiology Association. (2018). Section one: The AKA undergraduate core elements. Retrieved from http://americankinesiology.org/SubPages/Pages/Undergraduate%20Core%20 Elements Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, NY: Longman. Bloom, B., Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York, NY/Toronto, Canada: Longmans, Green. Cooper Institute, The. (2014). Health-related Fitness Components. Retrieved from http://www. cooperinstitute.org/fitnessgram/components Ecker, D. W., & Kaelin, E. F. (1972). The limits of aesthetic inquiry: A guide to educational research. In Philosophical redirection of educational research (L. G. Thomas, Ed.), pp. 258–286. Seventy-First Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Chicago, IL: National Society for the Study of Education. Kirk, D. (1992). Curriculum history in physical education. In Research in physical education and sport: Exploring alternative visions (A. C. Sparkes, Ed.). London, England: Falmer Press, pp. 210–230. Knuttgen, H. G. (1961). Comparison of fitness of Danish and American school children. Research Quarterly, 32(2), 190–196. Kretchmar, R. S. (2011). Philosophic research in physical activity. In Research methods in physical activity (6th ed.) (J. R. Thomas, J. K. Nelson, & S. J. Silverman, Eds.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, pp. 235–251. Office of Disease Prevention and Health Controls (2014, updated 2018). Healthy People 2020. Retrieved from https://www.healthypeople.gov Plowman, S. A., & Meredith, M. D. (2013). Fitnessgram/Activitygram Reference Guide (4th ed.). Dallas, TX: The Cooper Institute: https://www.cooperinstitute.org/vault/2440/web/files/662. pdf Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America), Fitness Assessment Task Force. (2017). Appropriate and inappropriate practices related to fitness testing. Retrieved from https://www.shapeamerica.org/advocacy/positionstatements/pe/upload/Appropriate-andInappropriate-Uses-of-Fitness-Testing-FINAL-3-6-17.pdf Struna, N. L. (2011). Historical research in physical activity. In Research Methods in Physical Activity (6th ed.) (J. R. Thomas, J. K. Nelson, & S. J. Silverman, Eds.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, pp. 217–233. Thagard, P., & Shelley, C. (1997). Abductive reasoning: Logic, visual thinking, and coherence. Retrieved from http://cogsci.uwaterloo.ca/Articles/Pages/Abductive.html Winnick, J., & Short, F. (2014). The Brockport Physical Fitness Test Manual (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://www.pyfp.org/doc/brockport/brockport-ch1.pdf 12 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT C H APTER 2 THE DAWN OF SPORT KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. Primary source: historical reference serving as a first-person account Secondary source: historical resource not based on first-person accounts, may include journal articles and reference materials Deductive reasoning: starting from a major hypothesis and examining phenomena to determine the validity of the hypothesis Inductive reasoning: observing individual instances that lead to a generalization Logical (abductive) reasoning: examining different hypotheses and selecting the best logical choice to explain phenomena Imitative magic: performing any ritual or dance in which activities (hunts, for example) are acted out with the desired outcome Visualization: imagining a desired outcome (from a battle, for example) Bioarchaeology: the study of human remains in archaeology; the study of ancient lifestyles Osteoarchaeology: the study of human skeletal remains Musculoskeletal stress marker (MSM): evidence of a bone’s response to the stresses placed upon it by muscles exerting repeated forces Paleopathology: the study of ancient diseases 14 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT • How can we know where sports come from? • What sources can we use to learn about prehistoric sport? • Using reasoning and different forms of research, what could we surmise about prehistoric sport and physical education? • What do we know about the tools of ancient hunters? • How did physical activity change with the transition to agrarian societies? • Did prehistoric physical activity have expressive, spiritual, and ritualistic aspects? (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) INTRODUCTION: HOW CAN WE KNOW WHERE SPORTS COME FROM? Where do sports come from, and who originally taught them? In this chapter, you will learn about the earliest origins of sport, physical education, and physical activity related to sport. In order to develop a comprehensive understanding of the history of this domain, we cannot rely on primary source literature for information. Instead, we must use inductive reasoning based on artifacts from prehistory as well as deductive reasoning based on the history we know from the earliest documentation of the subject. Secondary sources also inform our understanding. As we learned in the previous chapter, using this kind of logical (or abductive) reasoning is both an exercise in historical research and a gateway to comprehending why certain sports were taught, played, and valued in ancient societies. This is important because the study of prehistory demands that we use the creative and imaginative parts of our brains to develop logical frameworks of understanding in cases where the information is not given to us directly. Archaeobotany: also known as paleoethnobotany, the study of plant remains at archeological sites, also the study of ancient plants and their cultivation Symbolic Hunt Theory: Carroll’s (2000) theory that all sports derive from hunting activities Dance ethnology (also known as Dance anthropology or Ethnochoreology): the study of dance and its place in society and culture The Dawn of Sport 15 PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SURVIVAL Human beings have some basic physical needs: food, shelter, defense, and regulation of their body temperature, especially in cold climates. While humans have been evolving for about 7 million years, for most of that time, they were hunters and gatherers, living nomadic lives following animal migrations for food sources, taking shelter in caves or natural formations, and using animal skins to stay warm. Their lives were active out of necessity: without domesticated animals or crops for food, their existence depended on travel by foot to hunt and to gather vegetation on a seasonal basis. Humans are not naturally equipped to defend themselves against predators, and hand-toclaw combat odds did not favor humans. Additionally, many prey were too swift for hunters and needed to be tricked, trapped, and taken down with tools and devices such as hunting projectiles, which could even the odds between hunter and prey. How do we know what activities were performed by our early ancestors? Our inductive reasoning on this topic starts with examining the artifacts they left behind. We can study their tools. We can study the cave paintings of hunts and warfare. We can use deductive reasoning based on their living conditions and locations. For example, we can deduce that people who lived by water and used waterways to travel must have been able to fashion and propel their watercraft. Furthermore, using a form of bioarchaeology called osteoarchaeology, we can study the bones of people from the area to determine what muscles were used most frequently. Research might show musculoskeletal stress markers (MSMs): skeletal evidence of more upper body usage for rowing versus lower body for those who primarily traveled by land, for example (Lieverse, Stock, Katzenberg, & Haverkort, 2011; Molnar, 2005). We know from studying MSMs that women, not men, traditionally carried children and knelt to prepare grains for meals (Weiss, 2017). While not all bioarchaeologists are in agreement as to the accuracy and validity of all skeletal activity markers, the activities of squatting, sitting cross-legged, carrying goods in various ways, prolonged walking, running, and picking have all shown MSMs. Other early physical activities are indicated by a mixture of MSMs and reasoning, including tool manufacture and repair, processing animals for various uses, and making and breaking temporary camps (Weiss, 2017). Beyond rocks, which have some usefulness in hunting and preparing food, Stone Age hunters used three main projectiles: the spear, the atlatl, and the bow and arrow (Rhodes, 2013). The spear could function as a defensive weapon, as a hand-held attack weapon, and as a projectile. It could hold off predators and also attack prey and rival hunting parties. Easily formed from relatively lightweight wood, it was portable and replaceable. Evidence of spears dating from as long as 780,000 years ago has been found (Rhodes, 2013). The atlatl is a hollowed-out dart thrower, which can be used with feathered darts of different sizes to increase the range and thrust power of the projectile by as much as 60%. This type of innovation allowed the hunter to attack prey from a greater distance. Longer darts were more powerful, but shorter ones were more accurate. Atlatls have been found all over the world, and continue to be used by indigenous peoples of South America (Rhodes, 2013). Bows and arrows have been used for at least 64,000 years and appear to have been first used in Europe around 12,000 years ago (Rhodes, 2013). Bows were traditionally made of wood, bone, and animal horns. The process of curing and crafting a bow could take months. On the North American continent, the Shoshoni sometimes used white cedar (juniper) wood with sinew glued to the back to strengthen the bows and improve their performance, but sometimes also made 16 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT bows out of mountain sheep horn and sinew (Frison, 2004). Other groups used elk antlers, yew, ash, osage orange, and other woods, depending on what was available. Beyond their use as a weapon for warfare and hunting, bows could even be used to dig and kill rodents (Frison, 2004). Most bows would not stand up to the strain of that type of use for long, however. The examples seen in museums indicate that age and inferior materials used in construction would tend to limit the lifespan of a bow, just as weathering and water could damage the sinew that formed the string. Arrows could be various lengths, up to 6 feet in some South American cases (Rhodes, 2013). Willow was one of the better woods for arrows, due to its lightness and flexibility. Arrows were fletched with feathers to improve accuracy, and arrowheads were crafted from stone, using fine motor skills for precise flaking. It is unlikely that a formal system of hunting instruction was used. Rather, a child (most often Figure 2.1 Australian hunter using an atlatl. a boy) learning to hunt would probably imitate his elders in dances mimicking hunting and would play games with other children in which hunting skills were developed through practice. A child’s first experience hunting with adults would likely form a significant rite of passage. It would also help to prepare warriors to defend their hunting territories and their clans. Along with imitation of experienced hunters, a child would have learned to study the animals closely, learning the behaviors of each type of animal in such a way that stalking them became just as important to the success of their hunt as their weaponry (Frison, 2004). The observations would also have become part of ritualistic hunting dances in which imitative magic depicting both hunter and prey would have been thought to increase the chances of successful hunts through positive visualization. SPORTS AND HUNTER-GATHERER SOCIETIES One popular theory of sport history is Carroll’s (2000) Symbolic Hunt Theory. This theory contends that all sports derive from hunting activities. Since all humans are logically descended from hunters who were successful, humans have an innate urge to compete. Sports may even be seen as symbolic warfare, in which warring groups resolve disputes over territory using more or less regulated parameters. In other words, sports are a distilled version of violent life. However, at a more basic level, we can see that developing the skills of hunting and warfare through games is a natural way to keep warriors skilled and ready, to train young warriors, and to satisfy disputes among individuals and groups while preventing bloodshed in societies where The Dawn of Sport 17 Figure 2.2 Indigenous people performing a buffalo-hunting dance. interpersonal cooperation was essential to survival. Here are some of the activities that we can attribute to the dawn of sports: • • • • • • • • • • • • Running Jumping Climbing Swimming Throwing (spear, rock) Archery Diving Boating Wrestling/unarmed fighting Stick fighting Fishing Hunting Agricultural societies developed as the Paleolithic Ice Age transitioned into the Holocene Epoch, some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago (Bagley, 2013). The domestication of animals and the cultivation of crops led to different physical challenges, including less movement, more carb-heavy diets, and infections (Pinhasi & Stock, 2011; Cohen & Armelagos, 2004) possibly due, in part, to unsanitary living conditions in close proximity to other humans and animals for long periods of time. The study of health and disease in prehistoric cultures (paleopathology) and the study 18 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT of ancient lifestyles (bioarchaeology) indicates that humans gradually became physically smaller during the transition to farming societies (Cohen & Armelagos, 2004; Larsen, 1982, 1984, 2011). As the Stone Age transitioned into the Iron Age, different physical activities supplemented hunting. Archaeobotany, the study of ancient plants and their cultivation, reveals that the tasks of cutting, picking, flinging, cleaning, pouring, trampling, and beating were all essential to processing grains (Viklund, 1998). While these activities were present in earlier hunter-gatherer societies, their importance to agricultural societies called for a different emphasis on physical activity. The cardiovascular endurance required of long hunts gave way to a modified endurance of performing agricultural labors from sunup to sundown. The activities were still rigorous, requiring strength and speed, but the specialization of training for such activities depended on the part one played in the life of a farming village. SPORTS AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES With the pressure of constant hunting for survival somewhat alleviated by the development of agriculture, does the Symbolic Hunt Theory of sport still hold? Yes and no. First, the deep-seated human desire for movement, challenge, and conquest could still find an outlet in all of the activities that the first humans needed for subsistence. On the other hand, new activities, the presence of domesticated livestock, and the skillful use of new tools gave agrarian societies new possibilities for variations on the sports derived from the hunting and gathering societies. Here are some examples: • • • • • • • • • • Riding horseback Archery from horseback Throwing from horseback Fighting bulls Throwing hammers Throwing trees Lifting, carrying, or dragging heavy objects Throwing sharp tools Kicking and throwing round objects such as fruits and vegetables Hitting round objects with sticks PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SELF-EXPRESSION As we will see, the history of sport and physical education very often involves imagination and creativity. Without the element of the unexpected or the ability to infuse activity with one’s personality or expressive energy, sports would quickly become rote activity, tedious and unattractive for participants and spectators. Two examples of expressive physical activity include dance and ritual, which sometimes overlap. As mentioned above, in preparation for a hunt or in celebration of a successful hunt, dancers would perform dances in which the hunt was pantomimed. Similar dances to influence deities to favor one side in an upcoming battle, and rejoicing after winning a battle, were also part of the early sport experience. A heroic warrior or hunter could display strength and prowess through the dance, expressing pride or gratitude, for example. The Dawn of Sport 19 Women could be part of the dances of celebration, mourning, fertility, and harvest, contributing a balance of female energy, strength, and skill. Of course, different cultures developed different roles for women and different divisions of labor and power. Nevertheless, the female principle was essential for reproduction, and dance could be an exciting component of courtship and means of sexual expression for all. From the earliest times, communal dances solidified group identity and guided expectations of behavior within the group. Dance ethnologists (also known as ethnochoreologists and dance anthropologists) have discovered patterns of movement related to geography. Broadly generalized, they have observed swaying, gliding movements associated with the traditional dances of groups living near warm seashores, and more energetic, jumping and hopping dances associated with those living in cooler, mountainous regions. Beyond hunting, warfare, and courtship, dance could be seen as expressive through the dancers’ imitation of natural phenomena such as waves, wind in the trees, birds, lightning, fire, and insects. Over time, they incorporated the use of sticks, noisemakers such as rattles, and rhythms of drums and other instruments. Ritual dances such as those performed to bring rain or to appease deities were important tools to help maintain peace and inspire hope in societies struggling with drought or misfortune. Rulers and shamans could use dance to reinforce order within groups by affirming their power and their connection to the deities. Intragroup status could be demonstrated by different roles within the ritual: who were the leaders and who were the followers? Who had secret knowledge of special roles within the ritual? Who would be chosen to become the embodiment of a deity? All of these questions could provide the security of knowing one’s place in a culture and knowing what societal expectations one needed to fulfill. If dance could serve ritualistic purposes, could sports do so as well? We will learn the answer to that question throughout this textbook. SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • We can use a combination of inductive, deductive, and abductive reasoning to learn about prehistoric sports and physical education. • Other sources we can use to learn about prehistorical physical activity include bioarchaeology, osteoarchaeology, paleopathology, archaeobotany, and prehistoric cave art. • Using reasoning and different forms of research, we could surmise that prehistoric sport derived from survival skills such as hunting and warfare, and the physical education of youth was likely informally imitative of activities of elder members of a group rather than formal in special facilities. • Based on archaeological evidence, the tools of ancient hunters included rocks, spears, atlatls, bows and arrows, and fighting sticks. Boats were used for transportation, in addition to walking and running. • Physical activity changed with the transition to agrarian societies because of the domestication of horses and other animals and the need for different types of work to plant, harvest, and process plants. • Prehistoric physical activity—especially dance—had expressive, spiritual, and ritualistic aspects. 20 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the history and philosophy of the time period covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or other research. 1. The Lascaux Cave Paintings (Visual): In southwestern France, a cave was discovered in 1940 with artwork depicting animals and hunting. Visit http://archeologie.culture.fr/lascaux/ en and follow the guided tour to take a virtual trip through the cave. Notice the way the artist(s) used the contours of the rock wall to enhance the paintings. What kinds of animals are depicted? What kinds of hunting weapons were used? How might you classify this form of archaeological evidence? Visit the rest of the website for interpretations of the paintings and much more. 2. Ceremonial and Ritual Dance (Research): Some ancient societies have passed down ritual dances to the present. Research online, or in the library with the help of a librarian, to find a ritual dance that has been preserved and is still performed. What is the meaning of the dance? What does it tell us about the culture from which it comes? Who is allowed to perform it, and who is allowed to observe it? Why do you think it has survived to the present day? 3. Prehistoric Video Survival Games (Experiential): If you like video games, try out Madruga Works’ Dawn of Man, set in 12,000 BCE, Mountainwheel Games’ Stone Rage, set in the Pleistocene Era, or other video games with prehistoric settings. Does playing these types of games give you insight into the physical activities of prehistoric peoples? Do they help you understand Carroll’s Symbolic Hunt Theory in any way? 4. Museum Visit (Outreach): If there is a museum of natural history or ancient cultures nearby, arrange to visit to see actual hunting weapons and displays. Sometimes even local historical societies or antique shops have collections of arrowheads and similar objects. FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 2.1: Source: https://www.loc.gov/item/2005681022/. Fig. 2.2: Source: https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47da-dbee-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99. REFERENCES Bagley, M. (2013, March 27). Holocene epoch: The age of man. Retrieved from https://www. livescience.com/28219-holocene-epoch.html The Dawn of Sport 21 Carroll, D. M. (2000). An interdisciplinary study of sport as a symbolic hunt: A theory of the origin and nature of sport based on paleolithic hunting. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. Cohen, M. N., & Armelagos, G. J. (Eds.) (1984). Paleopathology at the origins of agriculture. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Frison, G. (2004). Survival by hunting: Prehistoric human predators and animal prey. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Larsen, C. S. (1982). The anthropology of St. Catherines Island: 3. Prehistoric human biological adaptation. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, 57(pt. 3), 157–270. Larsen, C. S. (1984). Health and disease in prehistoric Georgia: The transition to agriculture. In M. N. Cohen & G. J. Armelagos (Eds.), Paleopathology at the origins of agriculture (pp. 367–392). Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Larsen, C. S. (2011). Interpreting the bioarchaeological record of the foraging-to-farming transition. In R. Pinhasi & J. T. Stock (Eds.), Human bioarchaeology of the transition to agriculture (pp. ix–xi). Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons. Lieverse, A. R., Stock, J. T., Katzenberg, M. A., & Haverkort, C. M. (2011). The bioarchaeology of habitual activity and dietary change in the Siberian middle Holocene. In R. Pinhasi & J. T. Stock (Eds.), Human bioarchaeology of the transition to agriculture (pp. 265–292). Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons. Molnar, P. (2005). Tracing prehistoric activities: Musculoskeletal stress marker analysis of a Stone-Age population on the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 129(1), 12–23. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.20234 Pinhasi, R., & Stock, J. T. (Eds.). (2011). Human bioarchaeology of the transition to agriculture. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons. Rhodes, H. (2013). Taking ownership of distance in the Stone Age with spear, atlatl, and archery: Prehistoric weapon systems and the domination of distance. Comparative Civilizations Review, 69(69), 45–53. Viklund, K. (1998). Cereals, weeds and crop processing in Iron Age Sweden: Methodological and interpretive aspects of archaeobotanical evidence. Umeå, Sweden: University of Umeå. Weiss, E. (2017). Reading the bones: Activity, biology, and culture. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. 22 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT C H APTER 3 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. Greek ideal: a combination of fine qualities of mind, body, and spirit toward which ancient Greeks strove, in imitation of their gods Kalokagathia: ancient Greek ideal of physical beauty and psychological goodness Areteˉ: ancient Greek ideal of virtue, especially in actions Agoˉn: gathering for a contest; also, the struggle Athlios: an athletic contest Herodikos: Greek physician, father of sports medicine, and teacher of the physician Hippocrates Hoplites: Greek warriors • What kinds of sources are used for research into ancient Greek and Roman culture, ideals, physical education, festivals, and dances? • What qualities of body, mind, and spirit were expected of the ideal Greek citizen and/or athlete? • Which cultures influenced the competitive, ritual, and recreational games of ancient Greece and Rome? • Which doctors of ancient Greece and Agoge: school of physical education in Sparta Rome had the most influences on Pankration/pancratium: highly prestigious mixed–martial art combination of wrestling and boxing Western civilization’s views of health Paidonomos: in Sparta, the overseer and disciplinarian of an agoge Palaestra: in Athens and later in Rome, a school of physical education including wrestling and other sports Paidotribe: owner of a palaestra; one of the first types of physical educators Gymnasia: plural of gymnasium, a gathering place for men to exercise, read, and hold discussions Olympics: one of the Panhellenic sporting events held every four years, at which men and boys from all over Greece could compete for honors 24 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT fitness? • How was physical education different between ancient Sparta and Athens, and between ancient Greece and ancient Rome? • Why were the Olympics and other ancient Greek and Roman games important to sports history? • What types of dance were performed in ancient Greece and Rome? • Why were the Colosseum and the Circus Maximus essential to ancient Roman culture? (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) Stade: footrace covering the length of a stadium, approximately 200 yards Pentathlon: in ancient Greece, consisted of running, throwing the discus, long jumping using hand weights called halteres, throwing the javelin, and pankration INTRODUCTION Orchesis: Greek term for dance, especially tragic or comic dance Near the beginning point in the study of the history of physical education and sport, students are often introduced to the earliest concepts of those topics via the study of practices followed in ancient Greece and Rome. There are several reasons for this line of inquiry. First, academics in Western societies tend to turn to classical studies of Greece and Rome by tradition and habit, which reinforce a certain bias toward Western civilization. Second, we have a wealth of information from literature, fine arts, and decorative arts on which to base our understanding. Third, many of the ideas about physical education and athletics that have developed (particularly in Europe, Australia, and North America) throughout the centuries trace their development back to the classical era. As you may imagine, limiting our study of physical education and sport to Mediterranean cultures can perpetuate a relatively narrow idea of the world of physical education. To an extent, the limitation is necessitated by the time allotted to the typical postsecondary course in history and philosophy: choices must be made, and the status quo (doing what others have done before us) will generally prevail. However, there is room for a wider scope of study, and the next chapter delves into nonWestern sports history. It is true that we have millennia of research into Greek and Roman history from which to draw, and many lifetimes have been devoted to research into their Pyrrhicheˉ: Greek term for type of armored dance used in military training Etruscan: ancient culture of what is now central and northern Italy Game of Phersu: in this Etruscan dance, a male (guided by the disguised Phersu character) mimics the conquest of the death demon, Calu, and participates in gladiatorial combat with another man or with a dog Game of Troy: Etruscan game in which horseback riders followed a labyrinth and performed complicated maneuvers on horseback. The popularity of this game continued in ancient Rome, under the Latin names Lusus Troiae, Ludus Troiae, and Ludicrum Troiae Campidoctores: teachers of combat skills in ancient Rome Thermae: Roman baths, where rich and poor could exercise, bathe, drink, read, and converse Galen: Greek doctor whose influence was felt mainly in Rome and later beyond, due to his writings and teachings on hygiene and physical education Colosseum: originally known as the Flavian Amphitheater, a stadium built during the Roman Empire to showcase athletic events such as gladiator fights Physical Education and Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome 25 (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) Circus Maximus: Roman track for horse and mule racing, chariot racing, and acrobatic/trick riding Gladiator: highly trained athlete (often a slave), skilled in the use of weapons, who would fight to the death in arenas such as the Colosseum Salii: type of Roman military dance treasures of visual arts, literature, and performing arts. Our primary source materials for that era are abundant, and secondary sources continue to contribute to our understanding and appreciation of ancient culture. However, it is worth a word of caution when approaching the literature and arts as historical evidence. ANCIENT GREECE: CULTURE AND IDEALS For example, consider the Greek ideal in the concept of kalokagathia. The word implies physical beauty and psychological goodness (Petrochilos, 2002). Reading Greek philosophers, we are tempted to believe that kalokagathia and its closely related term, aretē (virtue), were the basis of the physical education systems of ancient Greece. While to some extent these concepts were taught and encouraged, we risk mistaking the advice of philosophers such as Plato for actual educational practice (Jüthner, 1930; Lämmer, 1992). According to Lämmer (1992), many of the ideals imputed to ancient Greek athletes and the ancient Olympic Games came from “nineteenthcentury graecophile, neo-Humanist scholars” (p. 111). The reality of ancient history is likely far more complex and shaded than those scholars made it out to be. The concept of the Greek agōn (contest or struggle) includes the participation of athletes and spectators and carries a connotation of gathering, as opposed to the word athlios, which refers to the actual athletic struggle (Hawhee, 2004). However, while athletes were expected to display aretē in their actions, the crowds were sometimes less well-behaved, and armed guards were used as security forces in stadiums and along road races. Sometimes losing competitors were attacked and even killed by irate fans, and there are indications that alcohol was banned from the stadiums to reduce the risk of drunken hooliganism among the spectators (Lämmer, 1988). It is true that many of the ideas and ideals put forth by classical writers and artists have indeed influenced the study of athletics and physical education in the Western world, so that is a good reason to pursue this examination of their educational systems and 26 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT physical culture. Always bearing in mind that different interpretations of the historical evidence may lead to different conclusions by different scholars, we can at least attempt to grasp a basic understanding of this important era in human history. ANCIENT GREECE: PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PHYSICAL CULTURE It is a mistake to think of ancient Greece as being only one culture with one way of thinking and moving. One of the earliest Mediterranean cultural groups we will consider came from the island of Crete, part of ancient Greece. The Minoan culture was most prevalent from roughly 3000–1200 BCE (Howell & Palmer, 1969, p. 8-1). Pottery and similar artifacts from that time show women participating in gymnastics, games, and even bull-fighting (Forbes, 1929; Schröder, 1927). We can see a pattern of physical activity maintained from prehistoric times in the sports activities of ancient Greece, with some refinements in theatrical dance performance and martial arts refined by technological shifts in metallurgy and understanding of physics and mathematics. Minoan men took part in a wide range of physical activities, including • • • • • • • • fishing, hunting (lions, wild goats, deer, and wild boar) using a variety of weapons and snares, swimming, boxing, wrestling, archery, tumbling, and running. They were also apparently fond of acrobatic displays, including bull-vaulting or bull-leaping, in which they used the back, nose, and horns of bulls or oxen to perform daring stunts. Dances and ritual dances were part of their lives, and they enjoyed juggling, pastimes such as dice or knucklebone games, and board games (Howell & Palmer, 1969). Figure 3.1 Bull-leaping fresco from the Great Palace at Knossos, Crete (Heraklion Archaeological Museum), circa 17th–15th century BCE. Physical Education and Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome 27 A related culture to the Minoans, from 1700 BCE the Aechaeans (Mycenaean culture) achieved dominance up to around 1184 BCE with the invasion of Troy. From approximately the 1100s BCE to 776 BCE (the date of the first Olympic Games), the Dorians were in charge in southern Greece and Crete. That era is sometimes known as the Homeric era, named after the epic poet Homer. His compositions, The Iliad and The Odyssey, contain some of the earliest known records of competitive athletics in Greece (Lumpkin, 2014). In The Iliad (XIII), written in the 8th century BCE, funeral games in honor of Patroclus are held, in which competitors display good sportsmanship (Spears, 1977). For example, after winning the boxing match, Epeius helped the loser to his feet. Achilles stopped the wrestling match and declared both wrestlers winners and settled a dispute that occurred among spectators at a chariot race (Homer, 800 BCE/1975). Other events at the funeral games of Patroclus were boxing, running, an armored athletic contest, discus, archery, and javelin (Zeigler, 1988). In Book VIII of The Odyssey, the Phaeacians welcome back Odysseus with games including discus throwing, foot racing, boxing, and a bow and arrow game (Edgar, 2013). Several centuries later, the notion of health-related fitness began to appear in ancient Greece. Herodikos (5th century BCE), sometimes called the father of sports medicine, was said to have been one of the first to use physical exercise for health-related fitness and therapy. He was the teacher of Hippocrates (c. 450–380 BCE), the father of modern medicine, whose writings— including the Hippocratic Oath—were probably compilations of a number of physicians of the time. The writing, known as the Corpus Hippocraticum, subdivided exercise into natural, violent, or progressive categories and indicated that each season had its proper diet and exercise (Boylan, n.d. b). Once city-states such as Corinth, Athens, and Sparta gained prominence, disputes over territory and trade led to the Peloponnesian Wars in Greece and the Persian War throughout the Aegean area during the 5th century BCE. The need for strong warriors with physical endurance and athletic prowess as well as military strength and strategic understanding drove the next phase of Greek physical education. However, the different cultures and values in different parts of ancient Greece led to different educational methods. SPARTA Figure 3.2 Greek discus thrower, based on a statue by Myron, circa 460–450 BCE. 28 In Sparta, the protection of the city-state drove all aspects of the lives of its citizens, from birth to death. Outside threats from other city-states combined with internal threats from the large and potentially dangerous serf class, known as helots, to necessitate constant military readiness. Little personal freedom was allowed. Weak infants were left on Mount Taygetus to die of exposure or HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT attack by wild beasts. Boys and girls alike received separate training in gymnastics (physical exercises), but Spartans were not encouraged to pursue visual arts or literature. Music was used to accompany exercise, and dancing to improve rhythmic awareness in combat and exercise was part of the state-run regimen (Forbes, 1929). Xenophon of Athens (c. 431 BCE–354 BCE), a wealthy warrior from a family famed for its equestrian skills, praised the Spartan physical education system for its success in creating warriors, or hoplites (Bucher, 1956). All male citizens except the heir to the throne (though the historian Plutarch, c. 46 BCE–125 CE, tells us that he could choose to participate) were required to attend an agoge, or military training school. There were different agoge for different economic levels, and illegitimate sons of Spartan citizens could attend, as could foreigners who came to Sparta when they were children (Forbes, 1929). The boys were taken from their homes at age seven and placed in groups of the same age to live, eat, and train together. Their lives were harsh. No beds were provided, so they gathered rushes from the river Eurotas on which to sleep. Little food was provided. Instead of professional instructors, the boys learned from eirens, the older boys in the agoge. Discipline was strict, and beatings were common. Beginning at age 12, discipline became even stronger, with exercises adjusted to their ages. Typical activities included wrestling, pankration (Greek) (aka pancratium in Latin; this was a combination of wrestling and boxing), jumping, dance, running, javelin, discus, stone throwing, marching, bareback riding, and hunting. Older boys, aged 17 and over, were called “ball-players.” The paidonomos was in charge of the agoge, and he demanded obedience, with the added incentive of flogging as necessary (Forbes, 1929). The agogic system eventually fell out of favor around the time of Aristotle (circa 350 BCE), though attempts were made to revive it (Forbes, 1929). In fact, at around age 18, some noble eirens known as melleiren took part in a flogging rite of passage known as diamastigosis at the altar of Artemis Orthia. With their parents in attendance to cheer for them, the youth were whipped until they cried out or died. The one who showed the most ability to withstand the pain earned a lifetime of respect and the honorific title of altar-conqueror (Forbes, 1929; McIntosh, Dixon, Munrow, & Willetts, 1981). From the ages of 18–20, youth could be initiated into the krypteia, or secret police, and sent on missions in and around Sparta (Willetts, 1981). Females trained in gymnastics, running, climbing up nearby Mount Taygetus, javelin and discus throwing, wrestling, horseback riding, and Figure 3.3 Fresco (painting on wet plaster) of young dance in public in cohort groupings according boxers from Akrotiri, Greece, circa 1600–1500 BCE. Physical Education and Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome 29 to age. In Plato’s Laws (Book VIII), he indicates that the girls would exercise in the nude and suggests this training continued throughout the teen years until they reached the age of 18 or later (up to 20 years of age) (Forbes, 1929; Plato, 360 BCE). After marriage or after they reached adulthood, they continued to train, but in private. ATHENS In the 6th century and the first part of the 5th century BCE, physical culture and fitness played an important part of life for noble Athenian males. The slaves and poor had limited access to formal physical education, but manual labor and farming provided exercise for them. The wealthier families enjoyed leisure time and a fondness for arts and beauty in this cradle of democracy. Females did not receive public gymnastic training or formal schooling in Athens, but some women were trained in dance ritual and performance, which will be discussed further in this chapter. Pottery and ancient Greek literature indicate that males participated in various sports and games. Sports included acrobatics, running (sprints and distance, the hoplite race, and torch races), swimming, the pentathlon, jumping, discus, javelin, pankration, swinging, seesaw, hunting, riding, fishing, dancing, and episkyros, a ball game with some similarities to American football. Games such as rolling hoops, board games, mora (a hand guessing game), ephidrismos (in which the object was for a blindfolded person to guess who hit him), and ostrakinda (a dice game in which losers had to carry partners piggyback) were all popular pastimes (Zeigler, 1988). From approximately ages 6 to 18, upper-class males attended a music school to learn language arts, mathematics, and music (Forbes, 1929). For their physical education, during those years they first went to a wrestling school, at which gymnastics and other athletics like swimming and various field sports and games were taught and practiced. This type of open-air school was known as a palaestra, where boys were taught by a paidotribe (meaning “boy-rubber,” so called because of the practice of covering the body with olive oil and dust or sand before exercise). The word palaestra might refer to the name of a mythical daughter of the god Hermes, and both of them presided over this type of school as deities of special importance to wrestlers. Paidotribes usually owned their schools and thus were among the first entrepreneurial physical fitness instructors known to Western civilization. If a boy were wealthy enough, he would also study riding at a separate school under polodamnes (riding instructors) (Forbes, 1929). Other specialist instructor categories included the javelin teacher (akontistikos), the hoplomachos, who taught military dances and drills in armor, and finally (more rarely seen in Athens), the toxotes, who taught archery (Forbes, 1929). Activities at the palaestra were performed in the nude to motivate development of physical beauty, with exercises attuned to different ages. They were often accompanied by flute music (Bucher, 1956). To continue their physical education, after about age 14 to 16, boys went to gymnasia, where more varieties of recreational physical training were offered. Hunting and chariot racing were available. From ages 18–20, young men could attend ephebia, originally military training and gymnastic academies. As time went on, literature and philosophy were added to the curriculum, which tended to weaken the military emphasis considerably. Similarly, in early Athens, only children who were born to parents who were both citizens were allowed to attend ephebia. Later, foreigners were allowed to enroll (Forbes, 1929). 30 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Figure 3.4 Greek amphora (type of vase) featuring a chariot racer, circa 550–540 BCE. Alternatively, in Athens and throughout the Greek world, young men could join one of the neoi, an association for 19 to 20 year olds. This type of group was not part of the educational system. In it, youth became part of political associations, with some exercise and recreational activities. One of their favorite sports was the diadrome, a sort of team-race (Willetts, 1981). Gymnasia were open to men to continue their fitness training throughout their lifetimes. The owner of a gymnasium (gymnasiarch) presided over an institution dedicated to a particular deity. Major cities had more than one gymnasium. In Athens, for example, the Academy was dedicated to Athena, the Lyceum honored Apollo, and the Kynosarges paid homage to Heracles (Bucher, 1956). During the late Athenian period, from the victory over the Persians in 480 BCE to the defeat at the hands of the Macedonians in 338 BCE, mercenaries replaced citizen-soldiers and the appeal of gymnasiums was for the intellectual gatherings, rather than for the physical training. The life of the mind and the pleasures of the flesh led to a shift in priorities of education, though Lämmer (1992) argues that most military leaders, outstanding soldiers, and political leaders still came from strong physical education backgrounds. ANCIENT GREECE: SPORTING FESTIVALS Throughout Greece, festivals in honor of deities celebrated physical culture and fitness in competitions, in which Greeks vied for glory and prestige. Of these, the most famous were the Olympic Games in honor of Zeus, held on Olympia (Mount Olympus, the traditional home of the gods). Beginning in 776 BCE and lasting until they were opposed for religious reasons in 393 CE by the Christian Roman emperor Theodosius I (though some scholars (Drees, 1964; Howell & Howell, 1980) say they continued into the reign of Theodosius II), the Olympics were held every four years in August and September. At first, women were not allowed to attend, men competed in the Physical Education and Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome 31 nude, and the winners of the events won an olive wreath, respect, and honors in their home cities. Only the victors were so crowned (Spears, 1977). Later, unmarried girls and the married Priestess of Demeter could attend the Olympics as spectators (Scanlon, 2004). Zeigler (1988) and Bucher (1956) have found that the Olympics mainly attracted competitors from the western Peloponnesus during the first 50 years or so, after which the popularity of the event spread. According to Bucher (1956, p. 189), there were a number of requirements concerning participation: 1. Free men, and later boys, were allowed to compete 2. A perfect physique was essential, as the competition honored and strove to emulate godliness. The ideal of kalokagathia required this, in addition to 3. Good moral character, in keeping with the Greek virtuous ideal of aretē 4. Training for 10 months before competition was required, and one month spent at Olympia right before the games 5. Participants could have no criminal record 6. Athletes had to compete according to the rules (had to take an oath not to cheat, and a competitor’s fathers, brothers, and trainers also had to swear) 7. If accepted, an athlete HAD to compete; physical unfitness was no excuse To accommodate fans, dignitaries, and other athletes, an oblong stadium capable of holding over 40,000 spectators was built, with posts at each end to mark running distances. For example, a stade was a footrace of about 200 yards, from one end of the stadium to the other, and the diaulos and hoplite (dressed in 50 pounds of armor) races were approximately 400 yards (Zeigler, 1988). The dolichos race could be three-quarters of a mile to two and a quarter miles (Forbes, 1929). Over the years, different types of events were added to the games, including competitions in music and other arts. While most events featured individual athletes, evidence suggests that there were also events such as horse races, chariot races, and a version of field hockey (Bucher, 1956; Spears, 1977; Zeigler, 1988). Boxing, introduced in 688 BCE, was an event on its own as well as a component of the pankration. Another combination event was the pentathlon, which in ancient Greece consisted of running a stade, long jumping using weights held in each hand (halteres), javelin, discus, and pankration. Opinions on the importance of the pentathlon with respect to other events vary, with one author (Lämmer, 1992) arguing that literary evidence show that the pentathlon was no more important than any other event, and that versatility in athleticism Figure 3.5 Ancient Greek halteres, held in hands and used to increase long held no particular appeal for the jump distance (National Archaeological Museum, Athens). Greeks. 32 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT The idea that the Olympics were a time for all Greeks to come together in admiration of physical beauty and athletic skill led to the establishment of the Pax Olympica, or Ekecheiria, a truce of several months’ time allowing freedom of passage for those traveling to attend the games (Jokl, 1969). The Spartans dominated the Olympic Games between 720 and 576 BCE, but eventually they and the Athenians lost interest, and other Greek colonies began to dominate the event. Meanwhile, other games and festivals took up about 70 days of each year (Willetts, 1981). The Pythian games honored Apollo and were held at Delphi. The Nemean games were dedicated to Zeus and took place at Argolis. The Isthmian games celebrated the sea god Poseidon, and those competitions were held at the Isthmus of Corinth. The Panathenaia honored the goddess Athena with musical contests, athletic contests, boat races, torch races, and military exercises. In the national festival called the Gymnopaidiai, for several days, teams of men and boys performed complicated drills and staged combat, accompanying themselves with songs (Willetts, 1981). Girls competed in tunics called chitons in footraces at the Heraean games, with victors earning a share of a slaughtered ox as a prize. Some scholars contend that eventually, girls were allowed to compete in the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games, though probably only against other girls (Scanlon, 2004; Spears, 1977). Over time, Greek athletes became more highly specialized and professional. With the loss of the sense of idealism of the classical era, competition for more valuable prizes led to an overall deterioration of the games in an era in which spectatorship became more popular than participation (Lämmer, 1992; Zeigler, 1988). This was in keeping with a trend away from the earlier emphasis on balance between physical and intellectual pursuits. During the Golden Age of Athens, the teachings of the philosophical Sophists encouraged a life of the mind, which tended to decrease the importance of gymnastic education and fitness. ANCIENT GREECE: THE ROLE OF DANCE IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION What historians know about dance education in ancient Greece comes from contemporary literature, relics such as paintings and vase decorations, and various other early and more recent secondary sources. Some of the writing about dance in that era, such as Emmanuel’s (1916) volume on antique Greek dance, is strongly influenced by the world-renowned dancer and dance educator, Isadora Duncan (1877–1927 CE). However, we know that formal dance was taught and performed for three main purposes: artistic performance, ritual, and military training. Theatrical performances used a group of singer/dancers known as the chorus to comment on and amplify the action in both comic and tragic presentations. These dancers learned mimetic dance (orchesis) under the direction of an Orkhestoidaskalos. While professional dancers were taken from the slave classes, private citizens could also attend schools of dance, at which they would also study gymnastics (Emmanuel, 1916). Ritual dances could be comic or serious in nature. Wealthy patrons could have male comic dancers (komos) perform Dionysian cultic celebrations in private homes, and komostai could also perform in street dances. Their female counterparts were known as Bacchantes, Menades, and Thyades. Dionysian dances such as the tyrbasia (Sachs, 1937) honored the god of wine, fertility, and ecstasy. They were highly improvisational, violent, and individualistic. Accompanied with castanets, cymbals, tambourines, double flutes, transverse flutes, panpipes, and bells attached Physical Education and Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome 33 to the dancers’ clothing, the dancers also added excitement to their performances using hand clapping and vocalizations. Sometimes, the dancers mimicked fertility rites, with males dancing as satyrs chasing the menades, or nymphs (Emmanuel, 1916). Serious ritual dances included funeral dances, in which dancers pulled at their hair and scratched at their faces in grief. Other religious dances included: • • • • Paians to Apollo, god of healing, which were rituals against sickness and death, Hyporchémata, also for Apollo, which were dramatic dances of mythological topics, Emméleia: round solemn dances done by women in celebration of the gods, and Gymnopaidiai festival dances such as the korybante, performed by nude singing boys in teams, with combative or wrestling overtones (Sachs, 1937). Finally, the military (armored) dances were mainly performed by boys, though the pyrrhichē (Pyrrhic) was sometimes performed by girls (especially in Sparta). The pyrrhichē dance was taught by state teachers, primarily for military training purposes. Typical movements of this type of dance could include running, leaping, stepping backwards, whirling, crouching, and all sorts of arm movements with lances, shields, and swords. A chalmys (cloak) was sometimes draped on the left arm and used as a sort of shield. Figure 3.6 Greek pyrrhicheˉ dancers (Pyrrhic), circa 350–300 BCE. Another armored dance was known as the dance of the Clashers. In it, dancers clashed helmets, swords, and shields to relate the efforts of Rhea, Zeus’s mother, to save her infant son from her husband, Kronos. The noise of the dance was meant to cover the sound of Zeus’s cries (Emmanuel, 1916; Sachs, 1937). Dance was a means of bringing together communities in folk dances, a way of honoring the gods, a form of entertainment with possible moral, mythological, tragic, or comic overtones, and a supplement to military exercises. It may also have served therapeutic and fitness goals implicitly to the extent that dance and other forms of physical education are related. 34 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT PRECURSOR TO ANCIENT ROME: ETRUSCAN PHYSICAL CULTURE AND TRADITIONS Prior to the heyday of ancient Rome, the Etruscan culture flourished in central and northern Italy from about 900 to 100 BCE. Little is known or understood about this culture from primary literary sources; however, archaeological remains indicate that they had a fondness for arts, games, and sports, some of which were influenced by Greek culture. Such pastimes included music, dancing (including armored dances), discus, javelin, boxing, gladiatorial contests, wrestling, jumping, hunting, horse racing, chariot racing, hunting, fishing, acrobatics, gymnastics, swimming and diving, board games, ascolia (standing on a greasy goat skin vase), kottobas (wine flinging), borsa (a purse game), tops, ball Figure 3.7 Etruscan horseback riders and a fallen man, circa games, and dice. Men and women attended 540–520 BCE. festivals such as those modeled on Greek games, in honor of Voltumna, where the athletes may have been slaves or possibly a special (higher) class of slaves (Sawula, 1969; Zeigler, 1988). The Etruscans used flute music to accompany their contests in boxing and jumping. In addition to athletic displays, the Etruscans were fond of ritualistic performances like the bloody funeral mimetic ritual game of Phersu. In this dance, a male (guided by the disguised Phersu character) mimics the conquest of the death demon, Calu, and participates in gladiatorial combat with another man or with a dog (Avramidou, 2009; Yanko, 2015). Funerary processionals and athletic games could include the game of Troy, wherein horseback riders followed a labyrinth and performed complicated maneuvers on horseback. The popularity of this game continued in ancient Rome, under the Latin names Lusus Troiae, Ludus Troiae, and Ludicrum Troiae. The Roman poet Virgil (70–19 BCE) describes the game in The Aeneid: As files in the three squadrons all in line Turned away, cantering left and right; recalled They wheeled and dipped their lances for a charge. They entered then on parades and counter-parades, The two detachments, matched in the arena, Winding in and out of one another, Physical Education and Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome 35 And whipped into sham cavalry skirmishes By baring backs in flight, then whirling round With leveled points, then patching up a truce And riding side by side. So intricate In ancient times on mountainous Crete they say The Labyrinth, between walls in the dark, Ran criss-cross a bewildering thousand ways Devised by guile, a maze insoluble, Breaking down every clue to the way out. So intricate the drill of Trojan boys Who wove the patterns of their prancing horses, Figured, in sport, retreats and skirmishes. (5.5.580–593, trans. Fitzgerald) ANCIENT ROME: PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND PHYSICAL CULTURE The time of the Roman kings (753–510 BCE) overlapped the height of the Etruscan culture, but Rome became more powerful and influential during the Republic, 509–27 BCE. Ancient Romans participated in hunting, fishing, swimming, boating, acrobatics, juggling, tightrope walking, bull leaping, bull wrestling, cockfighting, hoop games, net games, cottabos (a sort of wine-flinging game, also popular in ancient Etruria and Greece), knucklebones, and latrunculi (a form of board game). At a time when military service was expected between the ages of 17 and 60, athletics was prized less for play than for the maintenance of health and development of military prowess (Bucher, 1956). Running, jumping, throwing the discus and javelin, marching, and swimming were valuable skills to build strength, martial skills, and endurance. Instead of the gymnasia of the Greeks, the Romans during the Republic had modest bathhouses called balneae for public gathering, exercise, and bathing. In the military, weapons training was done by campidoctores. Generally speaking, one-third of the recruits learned bow and arrow, but all trained in the use of stones and lead balls as well as sword and shield and spear. Training was done with equipment twice as heavy as that used on campaigns. Military quick marching speed was a little less than 4 miles per hour, and soldiers had to carry 55 pounds as far as 25 Roman miles a day (a Roman mile is 95 yards less than an English mile) in summer training marches, though it is unknown whether that included armor and weapons. Horseback training was accomplished using a wooden horse; recruits learned to mount and dismount unarmed, armed, and from both the right and left sides (McIntosh, 1981). 36 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT After the Greeks were defeated at the Battle of Corinth (146 BCE), the Romans began to hire more mercenaries to fight on their behalf, and the population became less interested in athletic participation and more interested in spectatorship. The influence of Greek culture displeased some Romans, who did not appreciate the nudity, physical development, and ethos of Greek fitness training and amateur athleticism. The Roman preference for professional athletes and gory sports caused writers such as Cicero, Horace, Lucan, Martial, and Tacitus to criticize Greek gymnastics and physical training methods (Bucher, 1956). Under the Roman Empire, 27 BCE to 476 CE, Rome was overcrowded and unclean. Despite the 222,237,060 gallons of water that flowed into the city daily from the aqueducts (Carcopino, 1941), most homes did not have plumbing and sewage facilities, and those that had such luxuries had them only on the first floor. Consequently, rich and poor Romans were drawn to the thermae for exercise, bathing, reading, and gathering. Mixed bathing was sometimes allowed, but the exercise facilities were separated by gender, and exercise was either done in the nude or wearing tunics, tights, and cloaks (Ziegler, 1988). Ball games at thermae were very popular. Among these, trigon (a three-player ball game), hop-ball, handball, harpastum (name of a ball and the game, in which a ball stuffed with sand had to be seized), a form of tennis/pelote, played with hands as racquets, paganica (played with a ball stuffed with feathers), and a sort of basketball game using follis (an air-filled ball) were often played (Carcopino, 1941; Lindsay, 1967). Huge balls stuffed with dirt or flour were used as punching bags. Other fitness activities of the time included running, rolling a metal hoop (popular with women), swinging dumbbells, and fencing. Fencing practice might be done ad palum (against a stake), according to Vegetial (De Re Militari, I, 11) and Martial (Epigrams VII, 32). Juvenal (Satires 6, 274) mocked women for fencing ad palum. Male and female wrestlers alike grappled in the nude, smeared with ceroma (a mix of oil and wax, to soften skin) then covered with dust (Carcopino, 1941). Seneca (Epistles, XV, “On Brains and Brawn,” c. 65 CE) referred to some ballplayers taking orders from instructors who were slaves, and noted the following exercises: running, weight exercises, high jump, long jump, and jumps known as “the Priest’s Dance” or the clothes-cleaner’s jump, which may have been a multi-jump exercise (McIntosh, 1981). After games, Romans enjoyed bathing in five parts of the thermae. 1. Undress in a dressing room (apodyteria) 2. Sweat in a sudatoria, next to the caldarium (sort of a dry sauna experience) 3. Move to the caldarium, a slightly cooler room, where they would be sprinkled by hot water from a tub called a labrum and have the skin scraped with a strigil (curved rod) by a servant 4. Dry off, continue to tepidarium to cool gradually 5. Immerse themselves in the frigidarium, a pool for the cold-water plunge (Carcopino, 1941, pp. 260–261) Thermae also had shops and services such as that of the hair plucker, who plucked the armpits of patrons, and various food and beverage vendors. Given the importance of oratory to Roman public life, it is not surprising that Quintilian designed and taught exercises specifically to improve the public speaking gestures of the aristocracy as one of those services. Drinking and socializing were also part of the experience, sometimes replacing exercise altogether (McIntosh, 1981). Thermae were not the only fitness facilities in Rome. The Campus Martius, for example, was located on the outskirts of Rome and served as a recreational sports facility (Bucher, 1956). Physical Education and Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome 37 GALEN Galen, a prominent and influential physician, was born in 130 CE in Pergamos, Greece, but achieved fame for his work in the Roman Empire. He worked as a medical officer in a school of gladiators, and later in 170 CE was court physician to Marcus Aurelius’s son, Commodus. He died in 200 or 201 CE. He wrote about the difference between normal fitness for health (beneficial) and athletic fitness (potentially dangerous) and wrote Hygiene (aka De Sanitate Tuenda) as well as other works dealing with health and wellness. Galen generally classified types of exercises into three categories. 1. Vigorous: for strengthening without violent movement. Resistance training, rope climbing, digging, isometric exercises (such as holding halteres in each hand steady in front or above the body), and other muscular tension–inducing exercises 2. Training for quickness or speed: running, sparring, punching bag, rolling, etc. 3. Violent: doing the exercises from groups 1 and 2 (above) in a different way; for example, wearing armor or carrying weights (McIntosh, 1981, pp. 56–57) He believed that different age groups (7 and younger, 7 to 14, and 14 to 21) should perform different exercises or modifications of exercises for health. Recommending massage before and after exercise and advising warmups before exercise for injury prevention, he also addressed the affective domain of physical education with his conviction that the best exercise “is that which produces health of body, harmony of its parts, and mental excellence” (McIntosh, 1981, p. 60). He was also known for his development of the Hippocratic idea of balancing bodily humors (phlegm, blood, black bile, and yellow bile) to achieve natural health (Boylan, M. n.d. a). In his Exercises With the Small Ball, Galen presented an inexpensive, accessible, and enjoyable means of training body, eye, and mental faculties, while exercising all parts of the body and improving morality. He saw the small ball exercises as adaptable to all ages and physical conditions and able to give delight to the spirit (McIntosh, 1981, p. 60). In this work, he presents a system of exercise that meets the needs of healthful exercise without undue expense and without excluding anyone (male, female, young, old, or infirm) who wished to pursue fitness without excess. ANCIENT ROME: CONTESTS, ATHLETES, AND SPECTATORS Figure 3.8 Galen and Hippocrates, shown in a 1677 German print by Justus Cortnumm. Galen’s side of the rosebush has only thorns, while Hippocrates’ side is blooming. By the 17th century, the more experimental Hippocrates was favored over the more theoretical Galen. 38 During the Roman Empire, some attempts were made to bring Greek-style games to Rome and Roman territories, with limited success. Augustus revived the ancient Etruscan Lusus Troiae (game of Troy), but it only lasted a few years. Nero tried to establish a cult of Greek athletics, HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT even building a gymnasium for them, but it did not catch on. Perhaps the most popular of these was the Agon Capitolinus, founded by Emperor Domitian in 86 CE, which was celebrated every four years (Zeigler (1988) says every five years) up to the 4th century CE. It featured running, boxing, discus, javelin, and arts contests. The Actian Games were also quadrennial events, held in Nicopolis, with competitive footraces, wrestling, boxing, pancratium, pentathlon, and contests for heralds, musicians, and poets. In the Greek tradition, wreaths were given as prizes. After the 1st century CE, the Sebistia (aka Augustalia) Games were held in Naples. On a four-year cycle, competitions in music, gymnastics, stade, diaulos, boxing, wrestling, pancratium, pentathlon, armored race, and four-horse chariot races were held. Music and dramatic events accompanied the games (Zeigler, 1988). Annual athletic events could be found in the April 25 Robigalia footraces and the August 21 and December 15 footraces and muleback races of the Consualia (Carcopino, 1941). Even the Agon Capitolinus, however, could not match the popularity of the games and contests at the Colosseum and the Circus Maximus (Lindsay, 1967; McIntosh, 1981; Zeigler, 1988). Beginning as extensions of religious festivals, games eventually assumed an important part in Roman culture, as politicians strove to keep citizens contented. During the first two centuries of the Common Era (AD), we know that professional, highly trained athletes put on union performances of athletic displays, and received pensions when their competition days were over. The union, called the Synod of Rome, was entrusted by the emperors with organizing athletic events (McIntosh, 1981). The ludi (Roman contests) were free of charge (paid by public, and later, private, funds), and these official festivals grew to take up 175 days of the year, with additional other games and festivals in abundance, sometimes taking 100 days or more at a time (Zeigler, 1988). Two main centers of Roman athletic spectacle were the Circus Maximus and the Flavian Amphitheater, better known as the Colosseum. Figure 3.9 The Colosseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheater, built between 72 and 80 CE. Physical Education and Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome 39 The Circus Maximus held up to 250,000 spectators, and is best known for its chariot and horse races. A thriving venue, it featured 24 events in a typical day, with betting on the contests. Charioteers such as Diocles of Spain, Thallus, Crescens, and Scorpus earned fame and made fortunes racing (Bucher, 1956). The ancient Greek notion of fair play did not hold sway here. Historians record that Gaius Caesar (aka Caligula) had his rivals’ horses and charioteers poisoned. Trick riders and acrobatic riders diverted the audiences (McIntosh, 1981). Wild beast fights were also held at the Circus Maximus, as well as massacres of Christians. Later, those events moved to the Colosseum (Zeigler, 1988). Still standing today, the Colosseum (built between 72 and 80 CE) could hold 50,000 spectators. While festivals at the Colosseum could have religious overtones, they often also served political purposes, especially if games were sponsored or attended by political leaders. Four main types of events or contests took place there: 1. 2. 3. 4. Lusio: trained gladiators fought with wrapped swords Venationes: wild animals fought each other or professional animal baiters and killers Execution of criminals and Christians ad bestias (by wild beasts) Hoplomachia (aka munus): gladiator fights (McIntosh, 1981; Muñoz-Santos, 2017) Vast numbers of animals and men were killed in the Colosseum. After Emperor Trajan’s defeat of the Dacians in the 2nd century CE, he returned to a celebration that lasted 123 days. During that time, according to Zeigler (1988), 11,000 animals were killed and 10,000 gladiators fought. Etruscan influences on the gladiator culture are evident. The word lanista (superintendent of gladiators) is Etruscan in origin, and Figure 3.10 Gladiators in a mosaic at the Villa Borghese, Rome. The word gladiator means swordsman because gladius is Latin for sword. However, not all gladiators deceased gladiators were removed from fought with swords. the arena by slaves dressed as Charon, the Etruscan death demon (Zeigler, 1988). Other spectacles at the Colosseum included bloody, realistic naumachia (naval battles in the flooded amphitheater, generally fought by prisoners) such as that put on by Emperor Titus in 80 CE. Such battles were put on in other places in the Empire, either in artificial lakes or amphitheaters (Muñoz-Santos, 2017). DANCE IN ANCIENT ROME Ancient Romans took part in ritual dances, just as the Greeks did, for the purposes of purification and fertility, for example. The Greek and Etruscan influence on dance was evident during the Roman Republic, inspiring the study of dance among the upper classes. It is said that Scipio Aemilianus Africanus (the Younger) (185–129 BCE) closed the dance schools around 150 BCE because he saw them as Greek-influenced and symptomatic of immorality. 40 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Military dances known as Salii were characterized by armed warriors and priests of the god Mars, who engaged in rhythmic foot-stamping and jumping (Sachs, 1937). The Salii were typically at the festival of Quinquatrus (March 19) and that of Armilustrium (Oct. 19) (Carcopino, 1941). During the years of the late Roman Republic, dancing for personal health, fitness, or pleasure became far less popular. Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE) argued that no respectable man would dance. In his Pro Murena (63 BCE), he wrote, “For no man, one may almost say, ever dances when sober, unless perhaps he be a madman, nor in solitude, nor in a moderate and sober party” (63 BCE/1929, vi.13). Even though the Romans during the Empire still did not enjoy dancing themselves, they appreciated fine mimetic dance, in which historical and mythological stories were told through movement. The renowned Roman tradition of pantomime would continue to influence European ritual and theater throughout the medieval period and beyond. SUMMARY Figure 3.11 Roman pantomime dancers wearing traditional masks for a stock character. A pantomime performer was known as a pantomimus, or “imitator of everything.” Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • Primary and secondary historical sources are used for research into ancient Greek and Roman culture, ideals, physical education, festivals, and dances. • The ideal Greek citizen and/or athlete was expected to demonstrate kalokagathia, or beauty of body and mind, as well as aretē, or virtue (especially moral virtue in action). • The Minoan and Etruscan cultures influenced the competitive, ritual, and recreational games of ancient Greece and Rome. • Doctors of ancient Greece and Rome such as Herodikos, Hippocrates, and Galen had the most influences on Western civilization’s views of health fitness. • Physical education systems in ancient Sparta and Rome were more militaristic than was the physical education system of Athens. Different attitudes toward the role of physical training and athletic training in the lives of citizens yielded different emphases on teaching methods and practice among the city-states of ancient Greece and between Greece and Rome. • The Olympics and other ancient Greek and Roman games were important to sports history because of their religious significance, the written records of competitive sports and training, their sociopolitical importance to the populace and to the leaders, and to the relationships between athletes and spectators. • Theatrical, ritual, and military types of dance were performed in ancient Greece and Rome. • The Colosseum and the Circus Maximus were essential to ancient Roman culture in providing central locations for free athletic events aimed at keeping the populace contented. Physical Education and Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome 41 LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the history and philosophy of the time period covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or other research. 1. Greek Visual Arts (Visual): Find images of Greek athletic activities, dances, and games depicted on ancient vases, bowls, and paintings. Create a display of these, identifying the activities and any special characteristics of the images. 2. Medicine, Physical Education, and Sports (Research): Research the writings of Herodikos, Hippocrates (or the group of writers collectively known as Hippocrates), and Galen, comparing and contrasting the views on physical education and fitness in each. 3. Philosophy, Physical Education, and Sports (Research): Research the writings of Plato and Aristotle concerning physical education, and create a T-chart showing the differences between their philosophies in terms of recommended activities, ages for different training, benefits and risks of physical activity, and the place of physical education and sport in society. 4. Virtual Tours (Outreach): Search the Internet to find video tours of archaeological sites such as Olympia, ancient Greek theaters where dances were performed, the Colosseum, the Circus Maximus, thermae (baths) such as that of the Emperor Caracalla (Rome), etc., to get a better idea of the spaces used for physical education and sport in ancient Greece and Rome. 5. Types of Gladiators (Research): Research the following types of gladiators to see what types of weapons they used, what they wore, and what other types of gladiators they were likely to fight. Secutores Thraces Myrmillones Retiarii Hoplomachi Provocatores Dimachaeri Essedarii Andabatae Meridiani Bestiarii Fiscales Caesariani/Postulati Catevarii Samnites 42 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 3.1: Copyright © 2008 by George Groutas, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Bull_leaping,_fresco_from_the_Great_Palace_at_Knossos,_Crete,_Heraklion_ Archaeological_Museum.jpg. Fig. 3.2: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/statue-discobole-discobolus-3425357/. Fig. 3.3: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Young_boxers_fresco,_Akrotiri,_ Greece.jpg. Fig. 3.4: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Panathenaic_amphora_Firenze_ Museo_archeologico_97779.jpg. Fig. 3.5: Copyright © 2008 by Portum, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Halteres_from_ancient_Greece.JPG. Fig. 3.6: Copyright © 2013 by Sailko, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Rilievo_con_danza_pirrica_di_guerrieri,_arte_neoattica_(100-50_ac._ca.)_da_modello_ ateniese_forse_del_350-300_ac_ca..JPG. Fig. 3.7: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Etruscan_riders_BM_3-2.jpg. Fig. 3.8: Source: https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/catalog/nlm:nlmuid-101449083-img. Fig. 3.9: Copyright © 2013 by Dietmar Rabich, (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Rome_(IT),_Kolosseum_--_2013_--_3387.jpg. Fig. 3.10: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Borghese_villa_gladiator_mosaic.jpg. Fig. 3.11: Source: https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47e4-0ec7-a3d9-e040-e00a18064a99. REFERENCES Avramidou, A. (2009). The Phersu game revisited. Etruscan Studies 12(1), 73–86. Boylan, M. (n.d. a). Galen. In Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from https://www. iep.utm.edu/galen/ Boylan, M. (n.d. b). Hippocrates. In Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from https:// www.iep.utm.edu/hippocra/#SH2a Bucher, C. A. (1956). Foundations of physical education (2nd ed.). St. Louis, MO: C. V. Mosby. Carcopino, J. (1941). Daily life in ancient Rome: The people and the city at the height of the Empire. London, England: George Routledge & Sons. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/ dailylifeinancie035465mbp Cicero, M. T. (63 BCE/1929). Pro Murena (C. D. Yonge & E. S. Crooke, Trans.). Sydney, Australia: George B. Philip & Son. Drees, L. (1964). Olympia: Gods, artists, and athletes. London, England: Hutchinson. Edgar, A. (2013). The birth of sport. Sport, Ethics and Philosophy, 7(1), 55–79. doi: 10.1080/17511321.2013.761883 Emmanuel, M. (1916). The antique Greek dance (H. J. Beavley, Trans.). New York, NY: Dodd, Mead. Forbes, C. A. (1929). Greek physical education. New York, NY: Century. Hawhee, D. (2004). Bodily arts: Rhetoric and athletics in ancient Greece. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Homer. (800 BCE/1975). The Iliad (R. Fitzgerald, Trans.). New York, NY: Anchor Press/ Doubleday. Physical Education and Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome 43 Howell, M., & Howell, R. (1980). The role of Theodosius the Great and Theodosius II in the closure of the ancient games: Fact and fiction. Paper session presented at the North American Society for Sport History Convention, Banff, Alberta, Canada. Howell, M. L., & Palmer, D. (1969). Sports and games in the Minoan period. In U. Simri (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Seminar on the History of Physical Education and Sport (April 9–11, 1968) (pp. 8-1–8-28). Netanya, Israel: Wingate Institute for Physical Education. Jokl, E. (1969). Pax Olympica. In U. Simri (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Seminar on the History of Physical Education and Sport (April 9–11, 1968) (pp. 3-1–3-19). Netanya, Israel: Wingate Institute for Physical Education. Jüthner, J. (1930). Kalokagathia. In Charisteria. Alois Rzach zum achtzigsten. Geburtstag dargebracht [Charisteria. Eightieth birthday offering for Alois Rzach], pp. 99–119. Reichenberg, Germany: Gebrüder Stiepel. Juvenal. (c. 2nd century CE). Satires, 6. Retrieved from http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/ juvenal_satires_06.htm Lämmer, M. (1988). Spectators and their behavior at contests in ancient Greece. International Journal of Physical Education, 25(2), 18–22. Lämmer, M. (1992). Myth or reality: The classical Olympic athlete. Int. Rev. for Soc. of Sport 27(2), 107–112. Lindsay, P. L. (1967). Literary evidence of physical education among the ancient Romans (master’s thesis). Alberta, Canada: University of Alberta. Lumpkin, A. (2014). Introduction to physical education, exercise science, and sport studies (9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis). (c. 86–103 CE/1897). Epigrams. Retrieved from http:// www.tertullian.org/fathers/martial_epigrams_book07.htm McIntosh, P. C., Dixon, J. G., Munrow, A. D., & Willetts, R. F. (1981). Landmarks in the history of physical education. New York, NY: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Muñoz-Santos, M. E. (2017). Why ancient Rome staged epic, violent sea battles. National Geographic History Magazine. Retrieved from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/ archaeology-and-history/magazine/2017/09-10/roman-mock-naval-sea-battles-naumachia/ Petrochilos, G. A. (2002). Kalokagathia: The ethical basis of Hellenic political economy and its influence from Plato to Ruskin and Sen. History of Political Economy 34(3), 599–631. Retrieved from https://muse.jhu.edu/article/13375 Plato. (360 BCE) Laws, Book VIII. (B. Jowett, Trans.). Retrieved from http://classics.mit.edu/ Plato/laws.8.viii.html Sachs, C. (1937). World history of the dance. (B. Schönberg, Trans.) New York, NY: W. W. Norton. Sawula, L. W. (1969). Physical activities of the Etruscan civilization (master’s thesis). University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. Scanlon, M. (2004). Games for girls. Archaeology Archive. Retrieved from https://archive. archaeology.org/online/features/olympics/girls.html Schröder, B. (1927). Der Sport im Altertum [Sport in antiquity]. Berlin, Germany: H. Schoetz. Seneca. (c. 65 CE). Epistles (Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium). Retrieved from https://sites.google. com/site/thestoiclife/the_teachers/seneca Spears, B. (1977). Sport in selected ancient societies, 2000 B.C. to 100 A.D. In U. Simri (Ed.), Physical Education and Sport in the Jewish History and Culture. Proceedings of the Second 44 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT International Seminar (pp. 142–147). Netanya, Israel: Wingate Institute for Physical Education and Sport. Willetts, R. F. (1981). Social aspects of Greek physical education. In P. C. McIntosh, J. G. Dixon, A. D. Munrow, & R. F. Willetts (Eds.), Landmarks in the history of physical education. New York, NY: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Vegetial (Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus). (c. 390 BCE/1767). De re militari (The military institutions of the Romans). (J. Clarke, Trans.). Retrieved from https://archive.org/stream/ pdfy-sOkC3FmoLlr4C6zz/The+Military+Institutions+Of+The+Romans+%5BDe+Re+Milit ari%5D_djvu.txt Virgil. (c. 29–19 BCE/n.d.) The Aeneid. (R. Fitzgerald, Trans.). Retrieved from https:// earlychurchhistory.org/entertainment/ancient-game-of-troy/ Yanko, A. (2015). Game Phersu: Pro et contra. Journal of Ancient History and Archeology, 2(1), 7–11. Zeigler, E. F. (Ed.) (1988). History of physical education and sport. Champaign, IL: Stipes Publishing. Physical Education and Sport in Ancient Greece and Rome 45 C H APTER 4 EARLY NON-WESTERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. Non-Western: refers to countries in Africa, Asia, South America, and others which do not share Western economies, cultures, and values Western: refers to countries in Europe and North America, as well as Western-influenced Australia and New Zealand, sharing economies, cultures, and values Mesoamerican Ball Game: a game for warriors, played with a rubber ball, in which the losing side’s captain would be executed • What do you think is meant by referring to non-Western cultures and countries? • Why study non-Western history in physical education and sport? • What do/can we know about sports in ancient world civilizations? • How can you learn about sports in civilizations of the ancient world? • What societal influences had impacts on Kisha: ancient Japanese horseback archery ancient non-Western physical education Shukiku/kemari: ancient Japanese ball game and sport? Dakyu: ancient Japanese game similar to field hockey Tsu-chu: ancient Chinese ball game, thought to be a precursor to Japanese shukiku or kemari Pancratium: ancient Greek combination of wrestling and boxing Kung-fu: ancient Chinese form of martial art Chi-kung: ancient Chinese breathing techniques Yoga: ancient Indian form of meditative body practice with spiritual significance for the practitioner Asanas: yoga poses Khazza lawizza: a form of Egyptian high jumping game Usekh: given to winners of ancient Egyptian competitions, it was a collar that covered parts of the chest and shoulders 46 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT INTRODUCTION: WHAT DOES NONWESTERN MEAN? Sociologists and geographers disagree about the exact meaning of the term non-Western. As a basic geographical term, the world can be divided into four hemispheres: north, south, east, and west. The Eastern Hemisphere contains what is sometimes called the Old World, and includes Europe, Africa, and most of Asia. The Western Hemisphere is sometimes called the New World as a consequence of colonization; however, it is not necessarily new to the indigenous peoples who live in that region of the earth! Nevertheless, on a purely geographical level, the world may conceptually be divided into East and West. Even so, what defines East, and what defines West? Who gets to decide? Who decides where the imaginary lines are drawn? However, sociologists and scholars from other academic disciplines use the term Western to refer to countries of “Europe, North America, and other world regions that share some economic, social, and cultural values” (“Hemisphere,” 2018). Using this admittedly general understanding, non-Aboriginal Australia and New Zealand would be considered Western. Sometimes people refer to sweeping changes in non-Western countries in which Western values are in the process of replacing a society’s traditional values as westernization. People rarely, if ever, speak of easternization. That is because historically, as a result of colonization, trade, communication, and technology, the Western countries have imposed their culture on other countries or the countries have adopted Western ways of their own volition for various reasons. The aftereffects of imperialism are often economic, social, and cultural and may be experienced in subtle or dramatic ways by people living in postcolonial societies. Westerners Early Non-Western Physical Education and Sport 47 are often unaware of the cultural biases inherent in their education and their paradigms. Later in this text, we will look at the concepts of global North and South as well. WHY STUDY ANCIENT NON-WESTERN CULTURAL HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT? As a consequence of a traditional academic bias toward Western culture in the study of history and philosophy, physical education scholars from Western countries have tended to author texts that focus on the history and philosophy of ancient Greece and Rome, Europe, and the United States. There is nothing inherently wrong with that approach: however, it is limited and insufficient to a complete understanding of history and philosophy. By confining our understanding to one strain of cultural history, we mostly ignore the heritage of many of the students in kinesiology and physical education programs while depriving ourselves of the opportunity to gain an appreciation for the contributions of non-Western countries to sport and physical education. Furthermore, by maintaining focus on Western contributions, an assumption of superiority may be unintentionally conveyed to students. Opinions may be formed like this one: if we do not study the sports of non-Western societies, it must be because they are less important, less developed, and less popular than the sports of Western cultures. They do not appear on our televisions, we will probably never play them, we don’t have to teach them in our curriculum, and they do not make money from broadcast rights and merchandise sales in our country; therefore, they are irrelevant. All of that may be true, except the irrelevant part. It would be impossible to study every culture, philosophy, and sport in the world in the context of a semester’s course. That is no excuse for ignoring the contributions of other countries, however. There is much we could learn if we broaden our perspective. Later in this textbook, we will consider global sport in the context of recent centuries and international sports competitions. This chapter covers some limited, but illustrative, examples of ancient non-Western societies’ athletic heritage. Figure 4.1. It takes effort and will to broaden perspectives, but the journey is worth it. 48 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT SYMBOLISM AND MAGIC IN SPORT Some of the earliest games in sports history involve using natural materials such as sticks, stones, fruits, and nuts. For example, we can easily imagine people tossing oranges back and forth as a pastime. Hitting a walnut with a stick, trying to catch the walnut, and chasing someone with a walnut to tag them could have been a simple game played anywhere such materials were available. A large fruit could serve as a rolling ball, to be kicked and dribbled. Wicker twigs could be woven into a ball that could be kicked over long distances. These examples are speculative, based on later developments in sport as well as observations by people who made notes when they encountered new civilizations. Those activities are purely physical and social. Could there be another component to ancient sport, beyond exercise and friendly competition? At least one scholar has done extensive research into that possibility. Simri (1969) uncovered evidence that the physics of sport activities held magical importance for ancient cultures. For example, the arc of a ball flying through the sky mimicked the arc of the sun and the moon, and playing a game in honor of those entities or their god and goddess representatives could be seen as helping to ensure the continuation of life and the success of agricultural endeavors. Kicking a fruit such as a grapefruit along a piece of ground eventually leads to a splitting of the fruit and a spilling of its seeds. Such would also be the case if a fruit were struck by a stick. Any resulting seedlings emerge as a blessing, encouraged by the human intervention of sport. Consequently, the sporting activity acts as a fertility ritual in agrarian societies, according to Simri. Ball games and their ritual importance have been studied by Henderson (1947) in Egypt and Krickeberg (1966) in Central America (Simri, 1969). The significance of magic and religion in ancient sports helps explain part of their popularity and reveals cultural underpinnings that are not immediately obvious to anyone who sees the sport as simply physical activity. Many ancient non-Western sports had purposes beyond physical fitness and recreation, and those purposes have, in some cases, remained embedded as part of the sport’s appeal. EXAMPLES OF NON-WESTERN SPORT IN THE ANCIENT WORLD As a distillation and representation of war games, ball games in which two opposing teams compete against each other are a natural development in civilizations in which maintenance of fighting skills and physical fitness are valued, especially among young men. Some would be considered brutal by today’s standards. We will begin with a game played by indigenous peoples in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, a region roughly between what is now central Mexico and the countries of Central America. THE MESOAMERICAN BALL GAME According to legend, the Mesoamerican ball game honored the memory of a ball game played by the Mayan gods Hun Hunahpú and Vucub Hunahpú. In another tradition, the Aztec rulers Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin and the ruler of Texcoco were the first to play the game, for the conquest of territory. In either case, warriors were always important participants. The Early Non-Western Physical Education and Sport 49 Figure 4.2 The Mesoamerican ball game, sometimes called pok-ta-pok. game was sometimes used to divine the future, such as the outcome of an upcoming battle. Furthermore, the movement of the ball could symbolize the sun’s or moon’s passing from the sky through the underworld or the earth and back (Cartwright, 2013; Glassford, 1969). The game was played on stone courts in many cities throughout Mesoamerica, by players ranging from professionals to captives taken in war. Players could use any body part except their hands to get the ball through a stone ring on the side of the court. The rubber ball used in the game was heavy enough to break bones, and defeat carried serious consequences for the losing team: the captain (and sometimes his entire team) would be decapitated to appease the gods (Cartwright, 2013). SPORT IN ANCIENT JAPANESE SOCIETY The ancient Japanese hunted and fished for sustenance. In the second century BCE, Japanese society was becoming more agrarian. The religious festivals held at their shrines included archery contests, early sumo wrestling, and ritual dances to ensure a good harvest. Weather prediction was sometimes based on the outcome of horse races. The relationships between earth, people, livestock, game, and crops were played out in sport by people at all levels of Japanese society (Sasajima, 1969, 1988). Figure 4.3 Sumo wrestling bout. A gyoji, or referee, carries a wooden war-fan, while a shimpan (umpire) watches on the right. Mid-19th-century woodcut. 50 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Japanese nobility in the first century CE enjoyed hunting for recreation and later for physical education in the pursuit of military might. While archery had long been a popular sport, select noble warriors were allowed to practice varieties of kisha, or horseback archery, during this later time period (Sasajima, 1969). Hunting with falcons also became popular with the nobles. Ball games such as shukiku (an early form of the Chinese import kemari, in which players try to keep a ball aloft using their feet) were played by nobles as well. In fact, during the Heian Period between 794 and 1192 CE, male nobles were required to play shukiku. The game, which survives today (often as an exhibition sport), was played on a 15-meter square court with forked pine, cherry, willow and maple tree branches in which the players placed the ball as part of the religious rituals surrounding this sport. They also placed the balls at Shinto altars for religious observance, and players wore different-colored traditional robes and hats to symbolize the different skill levels they attained in the game (Hays, 2009). Over time, the best athletes in this sport became the physical educators of the aristocracy (Sasajima, 1988). Commoners had little leisure time or energy to participate in recreational sports, but were among the earliest sumo wrestlers (Sasajima, 1988), although later the sport was taken over by the nobles and then the samurai warrior class. As the influence of Buddhism spread to Japan in the 6th century CE, hunting fell out of favor, and sports such as dakyu, a form of polo or hockey imported from China, gained favor among the upper classes. Dakyu is related to kemari as another variation of an earlier kicking game known as tsu-chu (Simri, 1973). SPORT IN ANCIENT CHINA The ancient Chinese kicking game of tsu-chu is first mentioned in writings of the third century BCE, but it may, in fact, be much older than that. Players used their feet to kick a ball over a net, into a hole in the ground, or through a hole. Remnants of the game survive today throughout Asia and southeast Asia as sepak takraw, or sepak raga, and as kemari in Japan. Its many variations have been used for military training and for recreation over the years (Simri, 1973). The Chinese philosopher and teacher Confucius (551–479 BCE) recommended that upperclass males study archery, charioteering, and music (which also meant dance) as part of their development of diplomatic skills. They were not expected to serve in the military, so they did not train in the martial arts (Brownell, 2017). On the other hand, ancient Taoist principles of Chinese philosophy found in the book, the Chuang-tzŭ, also recommend that people seek “the fast of the mind” (hsin chai) and “sitting in forgetfulness” (tso wang), or meditative practices for health and well-being (Feng, 1952, p. 241). In general, a sense of balance and equilibrium was considered essential to the simplicity of being for many followers of the Tao. Confucius’s contemporary, general and author of The Art of War Sun Tzu (544–496 BCE), remarks on only one form of exercise for warriors: squatting. For those who studied the martial arts in the Warring States Period (450–221 BCE), wrestling and tsu-chu were part of their physical training regimen. There is some evidence that Greek physical education habits and sports skills were brought to China via trade routes through Macedonia, where gymnasia were to be found thanks to the spread of Greek culture by Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) (Christopoulos, 2010; Finn, 1988). Alexander was a friend of the Olympic champion of the pancratium (combination of wrestling and boxing) (336 BCE), Dioxippus. The armies of Alexander, under his influence, took tents with them on their military expeditions and practiced the pancratium and in 326 BCE carried the sport with them across the Himalayas, where it may have become a Early Non-Western Physical Education and Sport 51 forerunner of Chinese kung-fu (ch’uan-shu) as well as of today’s mixed martial arts (Corcoran & Farkas, 1983). The martial art of kung-fu was practiced in the Shaolin Monastery, a temple founded in the fifth century CE on Song Mountain in China. According to legend, the Bodhidharma brought Zen Buddhism from India to China around 520 CE, and taught the monks martial arts to keep them “alert, fit and able to protect themselves” (Finn, 1988, p. 14). Monks also studied chi-kung (breathing exercises), horsemanship, and both armed and unarmed combat skills (Corcoran & Farkas, 1983) and healing arts. SPORTS IN ANCIENT INDIA The practice of mind-body centering known as yoga originated in ancient India as part of a greater way of life in which practitioners sought health Figure 4.4 A Shaolin student practicing kung-fu. and connection with the gods or spiritual center Performing groups of Shaolin students demonstrate skills and training techniques around the world. using meditation and, in some cases, various systems of poses (asanas) and breathing techniques (“Sports and Games in Ancient India” (n.d.)). There have long been many types of yoga in addition to the physical purification training of hatha yoga, a form practiced widely in the West in the 21st century. Hindus, Buddhists, and Figure 4.5 A modern Indian yogi in a meditative pose. 52 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT members of the Jain faith share the heritage of yoga; however, the Hindu faith and practice of yoga predate the other two by thousands of years, and different faiths have used yoga in different ways with different goals. Other popular sports in ancient India included chariot racing, javelin throwing, wrestling, archery, hunting, weightlifting, swimming, and discus throwing. Men and women alike enjoyed self-defense training, cockfighting, and other forms of animal fights (“Sports and Games in Ancient India,” (n.d.). India’s military history provides examples of combat training with knives, swords, javelins, and maces (“The Military of Ancient India” 2012). While not a sport, a popular pastime originating in India is the game of chess. Legend has it that the game was invented by a demon king for his wife’s amusement (and she immediately beat him at it). The game is also featured in the Arthashastra of the 3rd century BCE, a political text (Anand, 2008). SPORT AND PASTIMES IN ANCIENT EGYPT Ancient Egyptians were fond of games, acrobatics, juggling, and dance. In some cases, gymnastics and acrobatics were performed by female dancers as part of cult celebrations (Trigger, 1993). For those who did not have to spend their lives building its architectural marvels, according to some authors, leisure time allowed for fishing, field hockey, running, swimming, boxing, gymnastics, jumping, walking, archery, javelin throwing, wrestling, and boating (Decker, 1992; Mark, 2017). People of all non-slave social classes participated in games and sports, and physical fitness was highly prized in ancient Egyptian society. Figure 4.6 An Egyptian dancer/acrobat, from a painting on pottery, circa 1292–1186 BCE. Early Non-Western Physical Education and Sport 53 Physical fitness was considered so important for a pharaoh that part of the Heb-Sed festival, held after the first 30 years of a king’s reign to rejuvenate him, focused on his ability to run a course and engage in different tasks along the way (including his skill in archery) (Mark, 2017, para. 17).This jubilee festival run is believed to have been more ritualistic than competitive, as the king would not be allowed to engage in actual competition for religious reasons (Decker, 1992; Kyle, 1993; Trigger, 1993). As the descendant of the gods, defeat would have been disastrous for the status quo of Egyptian politics and religion. Special facilities for sports were unknown in Egypt, and there was no formal tradition of competitions such as were found in ancient Greece, though festival games featuring races, gymnastics, and acrobatics in honor of Min (the god of fertility) were recorded (Mutimer, 1974), and there may have been funeral games played by soldiers with competition in wrestling and fencing to honor pharaohs (Kyle, 1993). Significantly, although there was no ancient Egyptian word for sport (Kyle, 1993; Mutimer, 1974), athletic games such as khazza lawizza, a type of high jumping game (Brewster, 1960; Kyle, 1993), and competitions were popular, with the winner possibly receiving money and a special collar known as a usekh (Alchin, 2018). Tug-of-war was depicted in hieroglyphs, as was fencing. Animals were part of several types of pastimes. In royal tombs, there are paintings featuring hunting with hounds, for example, though whether the paintings depict actual events or ritual expressions of rebirth remain indeterminate (Trigger, 1993). There were also acrobatic performances involving bulls, in which the participants would leap or vault over bulls, often performing flips and other acrobatic tricks before landing. Bull-leaping was a favorite sport throughout that part of the Mediterranean, including Crete and ancient Greece as well as Egypt (McInerney, 2011), and vestiges of this activity remain visible in the French course landaise to this day. SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • Non-Western refers to countries of the world which do not include Europe, North America, Australia, and other countries sharing a similar world economy as well as societal values and other cultural similarities. • We study non-Western history in physical education and sport in order to understand other cultures to broaden our understanding and appreciation of their contributions to the world of sport and physical education. • While more research is needed to expand our understanding of sport and physical education in ancient cultures, there is much we can learn about sports in ancient world civilizations in Mesoamerica, Japan, China, India, and Egypt that can serve as a starting point for understanding ancient non-Western sport. • We can learn about sports in the ancient world through ancient texts, artworks, legends, architecture, decorative arts, and modern-day vestiges of ancient sports. • Societal influences such as religion, class structures, traditions, women’s roles, and socioeconomic differences can be seen to have impacted ancient non-Western physical education and sport. 54 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the history and philosophy of the time period covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or other research. 1. Watch Modern Versions of Ancient Non-Western Sports (Visual): Do an online search for videos of kemari, tsu-chu, and course landaise (bull leaping). Notice the clothing worn to participate in these sports. What sorts of athletic skills are needed to do them well? Are you able to connect them conceptually with any sports with which you are more familiar? Would you like to try them yourself? 2. Sports and Games in Non-Western Cultures (Research): Select a sport or game such as bo-taoshi, sepak takraw, sumo wrestling, fireball soccer, or buzkashi. Write a research paper of approximately three to five pages about the pastime. Where is it played, and by whom? What are the basic rules? What is its history? What is its place in the culture? This would be an excellent opportunity to work with your librarian to find resources. 3. The Experience of Yoga (Kinesthetic): There are many ways to experience yoga. The best is to take a class, if there is a qualified teacher nearby. If not, you might try following along with a beginner video online, or even consulting a book that can guide you through some basic asanas. Be aware of recommendations about correct form, the use of breath, and focus. What benefits do you think you would derive if you were able to practice yoga long term? If you have experienced yoga before, try a different type of yoga for a new experience. 4. Cross-Cultural Experience (Outreach): If there is an opportunity to see the Shaolin monks perform, a Japanese taiko drumming concert, an African dance ensemble, a Chinese acrobatic troupe, or a similar event, arrange to attend. Alternatively, try a kung-fu class or invite a kung-fu instructor to visit your class to do a lecture/demonstration. Discuss the experience in class briefly, sharing your impressions and observations. FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 4.1: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/isolate-top-mountains-alone-cliff-1209275/. Fig. 4.2: Copyright © 2006 by Sputnik, (CC BY-SA 2.5) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/ index.php?curid=785963. Fig. 4.3: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kunisada_Sumo_Triptychon_c1860s.jpg. Fig. 4.4: Copyright © 2009 by Kevin Poh, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Art_of_Shaolin_Kung_Fu.jpg. Early Non-Western Physical Education and Sport 55 Fig. 4.5: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/yoga-indian-indian-yogi-symbol-2232810/. Fig. 4.6: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Female_topless_egyption_dancer_ on_ancient_ostrakon.jpg. REFERENCES Alchin, L. (2018). Ancient Egyptian sports. Retrieved from http://www.historyembalmed.org/ ancient-egyptians/ancient-egyptian-sports.htm Anand, V. (2008). The Indian defense [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://content.time.com/ time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1815747_1815707_1815674,00.html Brewster, P. G. (1960). The Egyptian game khazza lawizza and its Burmese counterpart. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 85(2), 211–213. Brownell, S. (2017). Sport in China. In R. Edelman & W. Wilson (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of sports, 241–256. Cartwright, M. (2013, September 16). The ball game of Mesoamerica. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://www.ancient.eu/article/604/the-ball-game-of-mesoamerica/ Christopoulos, L. (2010). Early combat sport rituals in China and the rise of professionalism (475 BC to 220 AD). Nikephoros, 23, 19–41. Corcoran, J., & Farkas, E. (1983). Martial arts: Traditions, history, people. New York, NY: Gallery Books. Decker, W. (1992). Sports and games of ancient Egypt (A. Guttmann, Trans.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Feng, Y-L. (1952). A history of Chinese philosophy, Vol. I: The period of the philosophers (2nd ed.). (D. Bodde, Trans.) Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Finn, M. (1988). Martial arts: A complete illustrated history. Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press. Glassford, R. G. (1969). The Mesoamerican rubber ball games. In Proceedings of the First International Seminar on the History of Physical Education and Sport (April 9–11, 1968). (Uriel Simri, Ed.) Netanya, Israel: Wingate Institute for Physical Education, pp. 22-1–22-13. Hays, J. (2009). Games in Japan: Go, shogi, kemari, and children’s games. Retrieved from http:// factsanddetails.com/japan/cat21/sub144/item791.html Hemisphere. (2018). National Geographic Society. Retrieved from https://www. nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hemisphere/ Henderson, R. W. (1947). Ball, bat and bishop: The origin of ball games. New York, NY: Rockport Press. Krickeberg, W. (1966). El juego de pelota mesoamericano y su simbolismo religiose. In P. Kirchhoff (Ed.), Traducciones mesoamericanistas (pp. 191–313). México: Sociedad Mexicana de Antropología. Kyle, D. G. (1993, May). Decker on sport in pharaonic Egypt: Recreations and rituals, combats and ceremonies, agonism—and athletics? Sports and games of ancient Egypt [Review of the book Sports and games of ancient Egypt by W. Decker (A. Guttmann, Trans.)]. Canadian Journal of History of Sport, 24(1), 75–83. Mark, J. J. (2017). Games, sports & recreation in ancient Egypt. Retrieved from https://www. ancient.eu/article/1036/games-sports--recreation-in-ancient-egypt/ McInerney, J. (2011). Bulls and bull-leaping in the Minoan world. Expedition, (3), 6–13. 56 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Military of ancient India, The. (2012). Retrieved from http://ancientmilitary.com/ancient-indiamilitary.htm Mutimer, B. T. P. (1974, December). Sport in ancient Egypt [Review of the book Sport in ancient Egypt by A. D. Touny & S. Wenig (T. Becker, Trans.)]. Canadian Journal of History of Sport & Physical Education, 5(2), 81–85. Sasajima, K. (1969). National aspects of the history of sports in Japan. In Proceedings of the First International Seminar on the History of Physical Education and Sport (April 9–11, 1968) (Uriel Simri, Ed.). Netanya, Israel: Wingate Institute for Physical Education, pp. 14-1–14-8. Sasajima, K. (1988). History of physical education and sport in ancient Japan. Canadian Journal of History of Sport, 19(2), 57–61. Simri, U. (1969). The religious and magical function of ball games in various cultures. In Proceedings of the First International Seminar on the History of Physical Education and Sport (April 9–11, 1968) (Uriel Simri, Ed.) Netanya, Israel: Wingate Institute for Physical Education, pp. 2-1–2-20. Simri, U. (1973). The ancient Chinese kicking game and its remnants. Canadian Journal of History of Sport & Physical Education, 4(1), 58–62. Sports and games in ancient India. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.crystalinks.com/ indiasports.html Trigger, B. G. (1993). Sports and games of ancient Egypt [Review of the book Sports and games of ancient Egypt, by W. Decker]. International Journal of African Historical Studies, 26(1), 204–206. Early Non-Western Physical Education and Sport 57 C H APTER 5 AFTER ROME FELL: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SPORT IN THE MIDDLE AGES, RENAISSANCE, REFORMATION, AND ENLIGHTENMENT KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. Diversium: unique to the Eastern Roman Empire, in this type of chariot race, the winner of a morning race could challenge the loser to a rematch the same afternoon, with each using the other’s horses and chariot, to prove that the win was the result of skill, not mere luck • When political control of the Roman Empire shifted to Constantinople, what kinds of sports were popular there, and how were they different from what had been played in Rome? • How did social class structure in the Tyzkanion: type of polo played in Byzantium, more akin to lacrosse than to modern polo Middle Ages influence which sports and Lapka: Ukrainian ball and bat game, derived from a game played by a fertility cult clergy, and nobility? Feudalism: social, economic, and political structure of Europe in the Middle Ages Scutage: a fee knights could pay to avoid military service Squire: a stage in knightly training, in which a youth aged 14–21 serves a knight Chivalry: an ideal of courtesy, loyalty, valor, and generosity in the Middle Ages Tournament, or melee: Medieval mock warfare, with the aim to capture opponents for ransom Joust: Medieval sport of one-on-one riding in armor toward an opponent and using a lance to unseat him Knights-errant: knights who roamed the country to participate in tournaments (melees) to make their fortunes pastimes were enjoyed by commoners, • What were knighthood and chivalry, and how did they influence spectator sports in medieval times? • How did religion influence sports, fitness, and games in the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Reformation, and Counter-Reformation? • Where was the technique of classical ballet developed? • How did the Enlightenment philosophers Lists: name for a jousting arena affect the way educators thought about Quintain: target for jousting practice; examples might be a simple shield, or a rotating man-shaped target the mind and body? 58 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) INTRODUCTION After Romulus Augustulus, the last Roman emperor, was deposed by the Germanic leader Odovacar in 476 CE, political control of the Empire was dispersed among many different rulers in different parts of Europe. The Eastern Roman Empire, however, continued to hold the imperial regalia, and Constantinople was the legal center for the Roman Empire from that point until Charlemagne was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800 CE by Pope Leo III. Sports in what later came to be known as Byzantium continued Greek and Roman traditions, though gladiatorial contests and the killing of wild beasts quickly fell out of favor. Chariot races thrived, and in fact, the hippodrome in Constantinople was connected to the imperial palace, and the emperor himself was an important part of racing days (Cameron, 1976; Schrodt, 1981). Chariot racing teams were divided by colors: red, white, blue, and green. The chariot races in Byzantium featured a unique type of race known as the diversium. To prove that a win was the result of skill and not merely of equipment, the winner of a morning’s race could challenge the loser in the afternoon, with each using the other’s chariot and horses. Fans of each color’s team sat in different places in the stands, and rivalries were intense. In fact, one fan riot in 532 CE, the Nika Revolt, led to a massacre of 30,000 people in the hippodrome. Whether because of the status of women in the Eastern Roman Empire or for their safety, women were not allowed to attend the chariot races, though they were allowed to watch through grilled windows and were known to have had preferences for different factions of racing teams. One exception may have been the dancers who performed to organ music between races (Schrodt, 1981). Dualism: beginning with Plato (in Western civilization), the idea that the body and mind are separate entities Monism: body and mind/spirit are considered to be fully integrated Dance of Death: during the time of the Black Death, any allegorical artistic representation of death personified, leading people in a dance Renaissance: French for “rebirth” Sprezzatura: casual nonchalance, exhibiting superior skill without ostentation Jeu de paume: early form of tennis, played without racquets in a walled court Pall-mall: early form of croquet Morris dancing: performance dance in which teams of dancers wearing bells use sticks and swords as props Protestant Reformation: religious, social, and political upheaval beginning in 1517; caused by objections to abuses of the Catholic Church Book of Sports Controversy: King James I allowed people to play sports and games on Sundays as long as they did not interfere with religious observances, but Puritans wanted all Sunday sports banned Restoration: King Charles II restored the monarchy to England after the Interregnum under Puritan Oliver Cromwell, bringing back science, arts, and greater enjoyment of sports Ballet: a classical theatrical dance form which grew out of the courtly dances of the Renaissance; its technique was first codified in France, where techniques for transcribing dance were also developed After Rome Fell 59 (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) Age of Enlightenment: sometimes called the Age of Reason, refers to the late 17th through the 18th centuries, an era of profound liberal humanistic philosophical thought John Locke: English philosopher; in Some Thoughts Concerning Education, recommended play for children and the development of a sound mind in a sound body Another popular sport for the Byzantine nobility was polo. The particular form of polo played by young men at this time went by the name tyzkanion. Rather than using polo mallets, the riders used sticks with nets on the ends, and the game resembled a kind of horseback lacrosse (Schrodt, 1981). Horsemanship was a skill prized by the aristocracy of this era, and playing tyzkanion was a way in which they could demonstrate adroitness and strategy on horseback. Following a tyzkanion match, players might go to the Turkish baths, which were similar to the Roman thermae. Fortunes shifted over the years between 500 and 800 CE, and power and wealth were more concentrated in the western part of the Empire by the time Charlemagne was crowned. Among the various cultural groups that populated Europe, remnants of pagan religions were interspersed among what became predominantly Christian territories. For people who followed the old ways, magic and symbolism continued to be a part of their reason to participate in sports. For example, in eastern Europe, in an area now known as Ukraine, an ancient fertility cult used a bat and ball to play what became known as lapka, an early form of baseball. The round shape of the ball, imitative of the sun and moon in their celestial trajectories, could also be used for summoning rain. A crack of a bat could imitate thunder, frightening away evil, and awakening the earth and encouraging the growth and fertility of crops and women. Another ball and bat game was knattleikr, played by the Vikings during certain seasons of the year, possibly for similar purposes (Simri, 1969). As time went on, games and sports continued to be associated with religious festivals such as Shrove Tuesday (the Tuesday before the Catholic Lenten season, now called Mardi Gras in the United States), Easter, and Whitsuntide (Pentecost, the seventh Sunday after Easter), among others. COURT AND COUNTRYSIDE, KNIGHTS AND PEASANTS: SURVIVAL AND SPECTACLE Despite the violent upheaval of the political structure of Europe in the early Middle Ages, daily life for 60 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT the lower classes continued much as it had before. Work in fields and towns relied on manual laborers to harvest crops, build castles and churches, and provide services and artisanal goods. While the Church frowned on remnants of Roman athletics and excessive physical training at the expense of intellectual work and spirituality, on the local level, parish priests were more lax with rules and sometimes took part in games themselves. In the monastic centers of learning, manual labor kept many of those in religious orders physically fit. While farmers had their physical labors, their nutritional intake may have been limited by trade disruptions and the vicissitudes of weather and plant infestations, which could reduce harvests. For those near bodies of water, boating and/or fishing were good forms of recreation that could also supplement protein intake (Hoffmann, 1985). Animal protein could also come from trapping small game or birds. Women also worked in physically demanding jobs, either in agriculture or in the various trade guilds (Howell & Howell, 1986). A notable example of a contemporary observation on the physical fitness of farmers is Lambert of Hersfeld’s Annales Lamberti (1075), in which there is a notation that the farmers do not have the physical strength to carry arms for battle. On the other hand, peasant dances, footraces, wrestling, swimming, and various pastimes provided recreational opportunities. Professional performers (from the lower classes) such as tumblers, jugglers, dancers, and vaulters maintained their physical condition and were fed at the castles, feasts, and fairs at which they performed. Their survival depended on their ability to perform the feats for which they were paid. In England, prior to the Norman Conquest in 1066, freeholders were allowed to hunt on their own land. However, William the Conqueror restricted about 25% of the country for the “king’s forest,” where hunting without permission under different rulers could result in being maimed, tortured, fined, blinded, castrated, or even killed (Henricks, 1982, pp. 24–25). If dogs Figure 5.1 Cistercian monks at work in the fields. After Rome Fell 61 of commoners were found in the king’s forest, a fine might be paid, or the dog might have the left claws of its feet removed (Strutt, 1898, referencing Blount, 1679). The next level up the social ladder, we find the clergy, whose positions afforded them some of the privileges of the aristocracy. They were often granted licenses to hunt in the chases (game preserves) and parks, which were off-limits to the peasantry. They were also allowed to own birds of prey for hunting, though their birds were generally less imposing than were those of the upper echelons. For the nobility, hunting by men and women made for a pleasant, though sometimes dangerous, pastime. Scent hounds, sight hounds, lances, bows and arrows, and nets could be used to trap and kill game for meat and furs. One source for research into medieval hunt is tapestries from that era. Falconry and hunting are seen in the Bayeux Tapestry (Bayeux, France) (Carter, 2006); a stag hunting series is now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City); and exquisite unicorn tapestries (depicted as a stag hunt) are at the Cloisters (also in New York City). Various stages of the hunt are shown, and we see that horns are used to announce each phase (Forsyth, 1952). Books about hunting in this era include Le Art de Venerie (1327), The Master of Game (1406–1413), and Frederick II of Hohenstaufen’s work on falconry, De Arte Venandi cum Avibus (1247). Figure 5.2 A hunting party leaving the castle. From a tapestry circa 1495–1515, the Netherlands. 62 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Falconry, riding, dancing were all physical activities available to aristocratic males and females, and both genders also enjoyed chess and card games (Haskins, 1927; Vaucelle, 2006). Bridge fights such as the Gioco del Ponte in Pisa, Italy, and horseracing events such as the Palio di Siena (Siena, Italy) provided exciting diversions at certain times of the year; the Palio di Siena endures in modified form to this day (Heywood, 1969; Mandell, 1984). However, in terms of display of status, nothing compares to the medieval sports of knightly tournaments and jousts. To understand their place in European society, we need to understand what it meant to be a knight. The European social, economic, and political structure of society during the Middle Ages was hierarchical. The Pope, designated as the voice of God on earth, held power over feudal society, especially over the many religious orders, cardinals, archbishops, and bishops. Kings were acknowledged as the rulers of their lands and all those in them. The lords owed allegiance to their king, but in turn were owed fealty (allegiance) and military service by the knights and all who served under them on their lands. Limitations on social and geographic mobility meant that most people stayed near where they were born, working the same sorts of occupations their forefathers had worked before them or ruling estates. Primogeniture, the rule of first-born inheritance, meant that eldest sons inherited titles, but younger sons might join the clergy or enter military service. It is worth noting that feudalism as a social structure was not practiced over all of Europe; Italy, for example, is an exception (Leibs, 2004). Given the risks of infant and childhood mortality, families often had more than one son to ensure the succession of titles. While boys might receive the physical training of a knight, in reality the ruling class often tried to avoid actually going to war and could even pay scutage, Figure 5.3 From the Allegory of Good Government by Ambrogio Lorenzetti, a fresco at the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena, Italy, mid-14th century. This detail shows dancing as one of the benefits of good government. After Rome Fell 63 a fee to avoid it (Henricks, 1982). However, war was sometimes an economic, political, or social necessity, and training for it followed established structures in the life of a nobleman (Huizinga, 1954). Until the age of seven, a boy was kept at home, after which he was sent to the home of a powerful lord or the king to train as a page. This practice, like that of strategic marriages, strengthened the bonds between members of the ruling class. As a page, he learned courtly manners, served his lord and lady, and observed the customs of the aristocracy. At 14, he became a squire, training in knightly activities, caring for a knight’s horse and equipment, and serving a knight. If his valor and resources were sufficient, at age 21 he might become a knight himself; otherwise he might remain a squire (Zeigler, 2006). Not all scholars believe that the training in seven-year increments was the prevalent educational pattern for knighthood (Beeler, 1971; Hollister, 1962). Indeed, some knights belonged to monastic orders such as that of the powerful Knights Templar, protecting pilgrims and fighting in the eight Crusades after Pope Urban II called for the First Crusade in 1095 CE. The concept of chivalry was part of the fabric of society in the Middle Ages, especially during and after the 11th century. Following the Norman Conquest, when military training was tempered with Christian values, a knight was expected to display courtesy, loyalty, generosity, and physical ability, all qualities of chivalry. The attitude of the nobility toward education began to include more awareness of health fitness and conscious study of the physical, sometimes at the expense of the intellectual. Whereas in medieval universities, the Seven Liberal Arts of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy were taught, most knights did not attend university (Broekhoff, 2006). Petrus Alfonsus (1062–1140) introduced the parallel Seven Knightly Arts—sometimes known as the Seven Free Arts (Wilds, 1938)—as a form of physical education to pair with mental education. In Disciplina Clericalis, Alfonsus included riding, swimming, archery, boxing (more like pancratium, a mixture of boxing and wrestling), falconry, chess, and verse-making, in addition to the regular combat training (“The Pedantic Swordsman,” n.d.). These are described in the Song of Roland and later in Johannes Rothe’s German chivalric poem, Der Ritterspiegel (The Knight’s Mirror). While chivalry may have been more of an ideal than a reality, its values were reflected in a popular spectator sport of the time, the tournament, or melee, and its later development, the joust. The ancient Roman horseback game, the Ludus Troiae, continued to be performed in London in the Middle Ages (Strutt, 1898). A variation known as the tournament involved teams of knights engaging in mock combat as a form of training and entertainment. By capturing opponents and holding them for ransom, knights could earn horses, equipment, and money. While not intended to be mortal combat, knights sometimes died from heart attacks, overheating, or accidents during such events. Knights-errant were knights who roamed the country to participate in such events to make their fortune (Hardy, 1974). At first, tournaments were held in city streets. However, eventually they were moved to a field where tents and pavilions could be set up for viewing and rituals Figure 5.4 Tilting: a medieval joust. Knights of pageantry and courtesy observed toward ladies and riding horseback would try to unseat their opponents using blunt lances. royalty. Jousts became popular around the 13th century 64 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT as a form of mock combat between two armored opponents on horseback, who rode toward each other in the lists to try to unseat each other with lances, with results displayed on some of the first scorecards in sports history (Anglo, 1988; Henricks, 1982). Minstrels and heralds could be hired to promote the knights’ reputations, functioning as early public relations specialists (Carter, 1992). Training for tilting (another word for jousting) was done using various forms of quintains, or targets, which varied from simple shields to rotating man-shaped targets to real men. Water jousts in boats were another form of practice and were events in their own right (Strutt, 1898). THE CHURCH AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN THE MIDDLE AGES It would be too easy to claim that the solemn authority of the Church exerted extensive power over physical education and sports in the Middle Ages. With its emphasis on spiritual life and intellect, its encouragement toward heaven-focus rather than body-focus and its ascetic tendency to treat the body as unworthy and deserving of scorn and abuse, it is tempting to believe that denial of the physical pleasure of exercise and competition would be a social norm. Yet we have seen that sports and physical pastimes during this era flourished, often during feast days and Church festival days. Once again, we must consider the evident disconnect between the idealized philosophy of medieval Christianity and the secular reality of the people’s lives. True, the Greek philosopher Plato was among the first in Western civilization to suggest the idea of dualism, in which the body is separate from the mind (soul), as opposed to monism, in which body and mind/spirit are fully integrated. However, early Christians demonstrated several ways in which the body is revered or celebrated. For example, during Mass, the miracle of transubstantiation is said to turn bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ for the consumption of the worshipper. Resurrection of bodies happens at several points in the Bible. In I Corinthians, 6:19–20, Christians are told to glorify God in their bodies, because it is a temple of the Holy Spirit (Ballou, 2006). Therefore, while some monks mortified their bodies, scourging them with whips and wearing uncomfortable clothing, subjecting them to extreme conditions of poverty or solitude, others, like the robust and militaristic Knights Templar, took an entirely different approach toward the physical. Furthermore, recruits to monastic life tended to come from the upper classes, where their secular lives had accustomed them to vigorous physical activities such as tournaments and hunting (Carter, 1992). The Church, therefore, bowed to the inevitable and worked to Christianize sport, as it had worked to Christianize knighthood. In the 12th century, writers often learned from classical Greek and Roman texts that fitness and physical activity might be seen as beneficial, so long as pagan extremes such as gladiator contests were avoided. One of the most important chroniclers of medieval sport was William Fitzstephen, a clerk who had served Thomas Becket as his chancellor and wrote his biography. While not a member of the clergy himself, his close association with the Church helped him to bridge the secular with the religious worlds. Between 1173 and 1175, he wrote a preface to his Life of Saint Thomas, calling it Description of London, and detailed then-current sports and pastimes. He vividly described sports such as horseracing, ball games, bear-baiting, ice skating, and cockfighting, dividing them into seasonal categories. His firsthand descriptions form an important primary source in sports history, corroborated by public records of the time (Carter, 1988). After Rome Fell 65 It bears mentioning that the Black Death during the mid-14th century created significant strains on the European population. In some areas, deaths of farmers had the effect of reducing harvests, so nutritional food supplies were diminished significantly. Woodcuts and other artworks from the time depict the so-called Dance of Death, in which the figure of Death leads people in an allegorical dance, reminding the faithful that life is brief and that all are equal in death. Figure 5.5 Replica of a Dance of Death fresco. The original fresco is in the Church of the Holy Trinity, Hrastovlje, Slovenia. THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE AND PHYSICAL CULTURE Renaissance is a French word meaning “rebirth.” When we refer to the Renaissance in Europe, we mean a time in history in which there was a widespread change in social attitudes, arts, sciences, and literature. A flowering of culture is evident during that era, with a resurgence of interest in the classics of Greece and Rome. The exact dates of the Renaissance are not fixed, partially because different parts of Europe experienced this change at different times, and partially because it depends on which significant events historians use to mark the beginning and end of the era. Roughly speaking, the Renaissance is considered to have occurred between the 14th and 17th centuries. It can generally be said to encompass the time between the Black Death and the beginnings of what would become known as the Enlightenment. Some scholars might refer to it as the Early Modern Period (Guttmann, 2011). While a more humanistic and secular attitude toward the human body emerged among the aristocracy during this period, important elements of religion continued to inform thoughts and values. For example, the use of dueling as a means of settling disputes was a human physical activity in which the outcome was viewed as God’s judgment (Mandell, 1984). Dueling in central and eastern European universities became fashionable in the 1300s (Zeigler, 2006), and a ritualized version of the duel, known as the Mensur, continues to this day as a student rite of passage. On the other hand, tournaments continued to be popular into the late 1500s, though chivalric ideas were fading (Strutt, 1898). In terms of education, the very notion of childhood changed from the perspective that children were simply smaller versions of adults to the understanding that children have developmental needs unique to that stage in life. Publications created throughout the Renaissance provide us with a glimpse of changing ideas about physical education. Vergerio’s De Ingenuis Moribus et Liberalibus Studiis (On the Manners of a Gentleman and Liberal Studies) (1402–1403) maintained that physical education should be directed toward militaristic ends, and he disdained dancing. By the following century, however, Vives’s pamphlet, De Concordia et Discordia in Humano Genere (Harmony and Discord in the Human Race), called for peace and the use of sports and games to promote physical growth. Falling in the middle ideologically, in 1528 Baldassare Castiglione published Il Cortegiano (The Courtier), in which the ideal courtier would be capable of military skills but not expected to use them to a great extent. Rather, he should attain a figure that was pleasing to the eye and take part in dancing, archery, fencing, tennis, running, swimming, and hunting, all with sprezzatura, or casual nonchalance (McIntosh, 1981). Sir Thomas Elyot recommended similar activities in his Book of the 66 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Governor (1531) but drew upon Galen’s work to note the physical benefits of specific categories of exercise for different purposes, emphasizing the importance of physiology in physical education in addition to character building and social graces (Leibs, 2004; McIntosh, 1981). In keeping with the Renaissance interest in classical learning, Galen’s influence was felt throughout Europe in translations of his De Sanitate Tuenda (Care of Health). A book of the same title, written by Girolamo Cardano in 1560, drew heavily from Galen’s work. Hieronymus Mercurialis’s De Arte Gymnastica (1569) also relied on Galen, but also referenced over 100 other Greek and Latin authorities in a prescriptive and wide-ranging description of sports, games, exercises, posture, and dance, intended for an audience that included the general public as well as physicians (McIntosh, 1981; McClelland, 2007). Books about social dance and manners written during the Renaissance included Guglielmo Ebreo’s De Pratica Seu Arte Tripudii (On the Practice or Art of Dancing) (1463), Jehan Tabourot’s Orchesography (1589, written under the name Thoinot Arbeau), and Fabritio Caroso’s Nobiltà di Dame (1600). These books, written by continental dancing masters who traveled and taught among the nobility, not only provide valuable information about dance steps and music but also reveal the importance of dance as required education for the upper classes. While Vives did not believe women should dance, that attitude was not prevalent during the Renaissance (Howell & Howell, 1986). In England, performances of morris dancing (in which teams of dancers wearing bells dance using sticks and swords as props), hopping dances, and festival dances such as the maypole dance delighted the commoners (Strutt, 1898). Women began to be educated along with men in schools such as La Casa Giocosa of Vittorino da Feltre, tutor for the Gonzaga family and other nobles of Mantua. Ball games, outdoor exercise in all kinds of weather, fencing, snowball fights, swimming, and jumping games were included in his curriculum, and it is noteworthy that he himself took part in the activities rather than directing them at a distance (English, 1981; McIntosh, 1981). Royalty set examples of female participation in physical activity, particularly in the person of Queen Elizabeth I, whose love of hunting, riding, archery, bull-baiting, bear-baiting, and dancing endeared her to her subjects. Women continued to participate in hawking, fishing, bowling games, and other ball games (English, 1981; Howell & Howell, 1986; Vaucelle, 2006). One of the ball games that gained popularity during the Renaissance, especially in France and England, was jeu de paume, an early form of tennis, which was played in a walled court and created many opportunities for wagering on the players (Guttmann, 2011; Simri, 1969; Strutt, 1898). Women also enjoyed pall-mall (a forerunner of croquet) and golf, though Mary, Queen of Scots, was criticized for playing them when she was supposed to be in mourning for her husband. There are records of women participating in women’s regattas in Italy, but the women involved were not likely to have been from the upper classes (Howell & Howell, 1986; Mandell, 1984). In England, beginning with the reign of Edward III (1312–1377), royal decrees against participation of the lower classes in certain pastimes forbade (among other things) some ball games, throwing weighted stones, and football because the important military skill of archery was being neglected (Semenza, 2003; Strutt, 1898), continued throughout the Renaissance in that country. While enforcement of the bans varied, this is another example of a way in which the playing (or disapproval) of various sports continued to denote social class. However, restriction on the playing of sports was not always limited to the lower classes. Universities such as Oxford and Cambridge frowned on student participation in sports because of the distraction they offered from studies. McIntosh (1981) notes that students caught playing football at Oxford in 1584 might be imprisoned, fined, or flogged. After Rome Fell 67 Figure 5.6 A modern-day morris dance team. English physical education for younger students during this period often lacked formality in private homes. However, at Merchant Taylors, an upper-class institution founded in 1347, Headmaster Richard Mulcaster (who administered the school from 1560–1586) wrote books on education that included supervised physical education beyond informal games. Influenced by Castiglione as well as a militaristic attitude, he believed that athletics should develop motor skills and physical exercises should help with health fitness or rehabilitation after illness (McIntosh, 1981; Semenza, 2003). THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION Figure 5.7 Portrait of Huldrych (Ulrich) Zwingli, created after his death, by Hans Asper. 68 On October 31, 1517, a German Catholic theology professor named Martin Luther (1483–1546) sent an inquiry entitled The Ninety-five Theses or Disputation on the Power of Indulgences to his bishop, protesting (among other issues) the sale of indulgences by the Church as a means of avoiding repercussions for sins. Copies were printed and distributed, first in Latin and then in German, by friends of Luther. This was the beginning of what became the Protestant Reformation, a religious and social upheaval that spread, mainly across northern European countries and to the North American continent with the Puritans. As different factions developed and were either HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT accepted or rejected by various rulers, struggles between belief systems led to suppression of one faith or another and culminated in wars based on religious dogma. Within five years, a Swiss humanist reformer named Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) had published Christian Education of Youth (1523), the first Protestant work on education. In it, he allowed that, in moderation, public festivals and parties could be part of Christian life. Activities to strengthen the body such as fencing, wrestling, throwing stones, running, and jumping would contribute to health, and games like chess would sharpen the mind. Although he believed the spirit to be more important than the body, he believed that the body should be kept fit for vigor and possible military service. Games that relied on chance rather than skill, such as cards and dice, were frowned upon as contributing nothing to the enhancement of the body, intellect, or spirit (Androne, 2014a; Cho, 2016). Other Reformation authors of the time echoed the recommendation for physical activity in moderation, including Humphrey’s Of Nobilitye (The Nobles) (1563), which was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth I. In England, Henry VIII had rejected the Catholic Church when they would not grant him a divorce, and he established himself as the head of the Church of England in 1534. Struggles between Catholics and Protestants would continue throughout the 1500s, notably under the reign of Mary I (known as Bloody Mary, reigning from 1553–1558), who tried to reverse the Reformation. Elizabeth I then ruled from 1558 until her death in 1603. As we have seen, under her rule, sports and dance flourished. In 1599, the ruler James I (at that time known as James VI of Scotland) wrote Basilikon Doron (Royal Gift) for his son, in which he detailed the expectations of a ruler. According to James, a Protestant, football should be avoided due to the dangers it posed, but running, leaping, wrestling, fencing, dancing, playing catch or tennis, bowls, archery, pall-mall, horseback riding, cards, dice, and billiards were all suitable for courtiers, within moderation. When he ascended to the throne of England in 1603 upon Elizabeth I’s death, he quickly outlawed Sunday bear-baiting, bull-baiting, profane dancing, and bowling as unlawful (meaning excessive) exercises or pastimes. His desire was that sports and games should not interfere with required worship services on the Sabbath, but he allowed that people could exercise and pursue recreational activities on Sundays outside of the times that they needed to be in church. Sundays were particularly significant to the people in his kingdom because it was the only nonworking day for most of his subjects. Figure 5.8 Title page from The King’s Declaration of Sport, Beginning in 1616 in Lancashire, he overruled also known as The Book of Sports, 1633. After Rome Fell 69 a local magistrate’s edict forbidding all sports and games on Sundays, and in 1618 he issued a controversial The King’s Declaration of Sport (aka the Book of Sports). The Book of Sports continued to restrict unlawful sports (and made bowling at any time illegal for the lower classes), but made it possible for people to pursue recreational physical activities on Sundays so long as they did not cause them to miss religious services. It is unclear to what extent violations of the Book of Sports were prosecuted, and it is likely that enforcement varied across the land; however, the controversy continued throughout the Jacobean era. In 1642, the First Civil War broke out in England, and in 1644 Puritans were burning the Book of Sports because it did not forbid sports and games on the Sabbath. It was at this time that the author John Milton wrote a tract entitled On Education (1644), calling for physical education to encourage a sound mind in a sound body, using Spartan-style militaristic exercises and the need for recreational activities to rest from daily labors. Charles I was forced to ban all sports and pastimes on Sundays. This ordinance held throughout his reign and after his death in 1649, when a period known as the Interregnum began and Charles II fled to the Continent. However, with the 1660 Restoration of Charles II (1630–1685), maypoles went up across the land, theaters reopened, and pleasurable pastimes abounded. Known as the Merry Monarch, Charles II was famously fond of athletics and women. He was also known for his interest in scientific experiments, and he was careful to weigh himself before and after exercise as a measure of the effectiveness of his play. On a social note, his public participation in sports and games served to expose him to the populace in a way that was unusual for rulers of the time and served to demystify the English monarchy to an extent (Semenza, 2003). John Playford, a bookseller and music publisher, recorded English popular dances in his bestselling book, The English Dancing Master (1651), with lists of dances, figures, and music. Exact instructions for performing the movements were not included; however, it remains a valuable record of English dance. Across the English Channel, like many of his predecessors, King Louis XIV (1638–1715) (known as the Sun King) loved to dance. He founded the Académie Royale de Danse in 1661, with the aim of developing dance and choreography for his courtiers. In 1672 its director, Italian-born dancer and composer Jean-Baptiste Lully, opened a dance school that Figure 5.9 The Royal Gift of Healing, printed in 1684. For centuries, was to become the training ground for dancers of in England the populace believed that the touch of a king could the Paris Opera Ballet (Kassing, 2017). cure sickness. 70 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT At this school, what we know today as the technique of ballet as a theatrical dance form was first developed, and to this day, dancers around the world use French vocabulary to describe ballet movements. The king also directed Pierre Beauchamp to devise one of the earliest ways of writing dances, and his technique shows a Baroque fascination with symmetry, intricacy, and elegance. Raoul-Auger Feuillet later expanded on this method of transcribing dances, and the records of choreography from that time have allowed dance historians to work on performed reconstructions of period pieces. Royalty such as Charles II and Louis XIV set the tone of intellectual curiosity and love of spectacle in their courts. The power of monarchs rose as that of the Church diminished. However, Catholicism still played a major role in European thought and society. The Church had found a response to the Reformation in the Counter-Reformation, and Pope Julius III (with Ignatius Loyola) founded the Collegium Germanicum in Rome for religious education in 1552. Loyola’s Society of Jesus (Jesuits) followed his lead in Counter-Reformation spiritual and physical exercise regimens, maintaining a sense of balance between training and rest along with respect for hygiene and the role of maintaining the body to do holy work (Casalini, 2014). THE ENLIGHTENMENT The Age of Enlightenment, sometimes called the Age of Reason, refers to the late 17th through the 18th centuries, an era of profound liberal humanistic philosophical thought. During the Enlightenment, men such as Descartes and Kant pondered the nature of being, mind/body duality, and morality. Descartes’ famous insight, “I think, therefore I am,” in Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One’s Reason and of Seeking Truth in the Sciences (1637) appeared on the early end of this period. Kant’s works, published in the late 1700s, light the latter side. We will revisit Kant in a later chapter because his work on ethics is also part of our studies. A recurring theme throughout this text has been the foundational educational notion that bodily health and fitness are important to intellectual health and wellbeing. In Western thought, we have seen it since the Greek ideal of aretē, and the Roman author Juvenal (60 CE–130 CE) reiterated it in his Satires as “mens sana in corpore sano,” (X, 356), which means “a sound mind in a sound body.” That refrain was taken up by English philosopher Figure 5.10 An example of Feuillet dance notation, from John Weaver’s book, Orchesography, 2nd edition, 1721. After Rome Fell 71 John Locke (1632–1704) in his 1693 book, Some Thoughts Concerning Education. Locke recognized the need for children to have time to play to develop a sense of freedom. Adults, he believed, owed children a balanced intellectual and physical education in order to help them achieve the greatest happiness in life. Overall, while the mind is more important than the body, the body must be maintained in good physical health, in order to meet life’s challenges and adapt to changes in the environment (Androne, 2014b). Another important Enlightenment thinker whose influence was felt in education was Swissborn Jean-Jacques Rousseau. We will return to his thoughts on physical education as seen through his book, Émile, or Treatise on Education (1762) in a later chapter. For now, suffice it to say that his writing encouraged the natural development of physical abilities in childhood education and he recognized the importance of physical activity as part of a comprehensive education. His influence would be profound on educational theory and practice throughout Europe and in North America. Figure 5.11 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, author of Émile, or Treatise on Education. Notice the natural setting and the book he carries, representing learning from both. 72 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Liberal educational and political thought reached their height in action through the American and French revolutions, both of which presented visceral and bloody challenges to social and political structures that had existed for centuries, eroding the paradigm of the monarchies’ divine right to rule. The invention of the printing press made books available to common people, often in their own languages, and critical thinking and discussions were facilitated by that innovation. With greater awareness came rising expectations of life’s possibilities, resulting in a wider view of learning that encompassed the classics as well as new, sometimes revolutionary, thoughts. The ways in which the intellectual climate of the Enlightenment supported physical education throughout Europe will be explored further in an upcoming chapter, but that journey must wait. We have bypassed investigation into the sports and physical activities of another part of the world that had suddenly vaulted into importance, and it is time to go back and consider the history of North America during the colonial era. SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • When political control of the Roman Empire shifted to Constantinople, chariot races and a form of polo known as tyzkanion became popular. Women were not allowed to attend chariot races, and the gory gladiatorial events of Rome were less welcome in Byzantium. • Commoners, clergy, and nobility each had different types of sports and recreational pastimes during the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation, sometimes by choice and sometimes by decree. • Knighthood was a status achieved through military training and valor in medieval times, and chivalry was the code by which an ideal knight lived. • Overall, sports and games were tolerated and often encouraged by clerics from the Middle Ages through the Counter-Reformation so long as they were practiced in moderation and did not interfere with religious obligations. • The technique of classical ballet was developed in France, and ballet dancers still use French vocabulary throughout the world to describe its movements. • The Enlightenment philosophers gave deep consideration to the relationship between the mind and the body, generally encouraging health fitness for the sake of mental fitness. After Rome Fell 73 LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the history and philosophy of the time period covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or further research. 1. The Education of Nobility (Research): Search online or in your library for Vergerio’s De Ingenuis Moribus et Liberalibus Studiis (On the Manners of a Gentleman and Liberal Studies) (1402–1403), Castiglione’s Il Cortegiano (The Courtier) (1528), and James VI’s Basilikon Doron (Royal Gift) (1599). According to these sources, did the expectations of participation in sport and recreational games change over the course of the 15th and 16th centuries? If so, how? 2. Spectacle and Performance (Visual): Clothing styles affected posture, carriage, everyday movement, and dance. For early court dances and ballets, costumes could be even more restrictive. Use websites such as http://world4.eu/history-of-costumes/, http://www.vam. ac.uk/content/articles/o/origins-of-ballet/, and https://www.fashion-era.com/undergarments. htm to download images of dancers and nobles, noting how undergarments, clothing weight, and fashions might have affected movement for dance and recreational pastimes. 3. Timeline (Conceptual Understanding): Create a timeline showing the period from the fall of the Roman Empire (476 CE) through the Enlightenment (early 1800s). Note the major social, political, religious, and educational events and indicate which sports and games were popular for men and women in each era. 4. Jousting Training (Kinesthetic): Using Strutt’s The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England or a similar historical source, find out how different quintains were used and develop safe modern-day versions. For example, use pool noodles and bicycles, kayaks, piggyback carries, wheelchairs, or scooters to tilt at targets. Video-record your efforts to share with other students. Period costumes are optional. FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 5.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cistercian_monks_at_work.jpg. Fig. 5.2: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_Hunting_Party_Leaving_a_Castle_ (From_Incidents_in_a_Stag_Hunt)_MET_152384_1.jpg. Fig. 5.3: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lorenzetti_Good_Govt_Detail.jpg. Fig. 5.4: Copyright © by Supersabre. Reprinted with permission. Fig. 5.5: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dance_of_Death_(replica_of_15th_ century_fresco;_National_Gallery_of_Slovenia).jpg. 74 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Fig. 5.6: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/morris-dancing-men-outside-summer-235876/. Fig. 5.7: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bild_Zwingli_Asper.jpg. Fig. 5.8: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Book_of_Sports.jpg. Fig. 5.9: Source: https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_ details.aspx?objectId=1667527&partId=1. Fig. 5.10: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Feuillet_notation.jpg. Fig. 5.11: Source: https://www.loc.gov/item/2004670276/. REFERENCES Androne, M. (2014a). The influence of the Protestant Reformation on education. Procedia— Social and Behavioral Sciences, 137(1), 80–87. Androne, M. (2014b). Notes on John Locke’s views on education. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences 137(1), 74–79. Anglo, S. (1988). How to win at tournaments: The technique of chivalric combat. Antiquaries Journal, 68(2), 248–264. Arbeau, T. (1589/1967). Orchesography. New York, NY: Dover. Ballou, R. B. (2006). An analysis of the writings of selected Church fathers to A.D. 394 to reveal attitudes regarding physical activity. In E. F. Ziegler (Ed.), Sport and physical education in the Middle Ages (pp. 26–39). Victoria, British Columbia, Canada: Trafford. Beeler, J. (1971). Warfare in feudal Europe, 730–1200. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Blount, T. (1679). Fragmenta antiquitatis: Ancient tenures of land. London, England: Butterworth and Son. Broekhoff, J. (2006). Chivalric education in the middle ages. In E. F. Ziegler (Ed.), Sport and physical education in the Middle Ages (pp. 40–48). Victoria, British Columbia, Canada: Trafford. Cameron, A. (1976). Circus factions: Blues and greens at Rome and Byzantium. London, England: Oxford University Press. Carter, J. M. (1988). Sports and pastimes of the middle ages. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Carter, J. M. (1992). Medieval games: Sports and recreations in feudal society. New York, NY: Greenwood Press. Carter, J. M. (2006) Sport in the Bayeux Tapestry. In E. F. Ziegler (Ed.), Sport and physical education in the Middle Ages (pp. 49–55). Victoria, British Columbia, Canada: Trafford. Casalini, C. (2014). Active leisure: The body in sixteenth-century Jesuit culture. Journal of Jesuit Studies, 1(3). Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1163/22141332-00103003 Castiglione, B. (1528/2003). The book of the courtier. Mineola, NY: Dover. Cho, D. (2016). Huldrych Zwingli: A Christian humanistic educator. Liberty University Press. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/37200416/_Huldrych_Zwingli_A_Christian_ Humanistic_Educator_in_Legacy_of_Religious_Educators-_Historical_and_Theological_ Introductions.pdf Ebreo, G. (1463/1993). De pratica seu arte tripudii (On the practice or art of dancing) B. Sparti (Ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Elyot, T. (1531). The book of the governor. Retrieved from https://archive.org/stream/ bokenamedgouerno01elyouoft/bokenamedgouerno01elyouoft_djvu.txt After Rome Fell 75 English, E. B. (1981). Women and sport during the Renaissance. Medicine Sport, 14(1), 24–30. Forsyth, W. H. (1952). The Medieval stag hunt. Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series, 10(7), 203–210. Guttmann, A. (2011). Reviewed work(s): Sport and culture in early modern Europe [Review of the book Sport and culture in early modern Europe/le sport dans la civilisation de l’Europe pré-moderne by J. McClelland & B. Merrilees, Eds.]. Journal of Sport History, 38(2), 336–338. Hardy, S. H. (1974). The medieval tournament: A functional sport of the upper class. Journal of Sport History, 1(2), 91–105. Haskins, C. H. (1927). The Latin literature of sport. Speculum, 2(3), 235–252. Henricks, T. S. (1982). Sport and social hierarchy in Medieval England. Journal of Sport History, 9(2), 20–37. Heywood, W. (1969). Palio and ponte: The sports of central Italy from the age of Dante to the XXth century. New York, NY: Hacker Art Books. Hoffmann, R. C. (1985). Fishing for sport in Medieval Europe: New evidence. Speculum, 60(4), 877–902. Hollister, C. W. (1962). Anglo-Saxon military institutions on the eve of the Norman Conquest. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Howell, R., & Howell, M. L. (1986). Women in the Medieval and Renaissance period: Spectators only. Canadian Journal of History of Sport, 17(1), 11–37. Humphrey, L. (1563/1973). The Nobles. Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum. Huizinga, J. (1954). The waning of the Middle Ages. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Kassing, G. (2017). History of dance (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Leibs, A. (2004). Sports and games of the Renaissance. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Mandell, R. D. (1984). Sport: A cultural history. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. McIntosh, P. C. (1981). Physical education in Renaissance Italy and Tudor England. In P. C. McIntosh, J. G. Dixon, A. D. Munrow, & R. F. Willetts (Eds.), Landmarks in the history of physical education (pp. 63–84). London, England: Routledge & Kegan Paul. McClelland, J. (2007). Body and mind: Sport in Europe from the Roman Empire to the Renaissance. New York, NY: Routledge. Pedantic Swordsman, The. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://pedanticswordsman.weebly.com/ullrand-knighthood.html Playford, J. (1651). The English Dancing Master. Retrieved from http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/ playford_1651/ Schrodt, B. (1981). Sports of the Byzantine Empire. Journal of Sport History, 8(3), 40–59. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4c97/0848e94ece5a279d0c14338367ae8d7 89b79.pdf Semenza, G. M. C. (2003). Sport, politics, and literature in the English Renaissance. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press. Simri, U. (1969). The religious and magical function of ball games in various cultures. In Proceedings of the First International Seminar on the History of Physical Education and Sport (April 9–11, 1968), Uriel Simri (Ed.). Netanya, Israel: Wingate Institute for Physical Education, pp. 2-1–2-20. Strutt, J. (1898). The sports and pastimes of the people of England, W. Hone (Ed.). London, England: Chatto & Windus. 76 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Vaucelle, S. (2006). Les femmes et les “sports” du gentilhomme de l’époque medieval à l’époque moderne. Clio, 23(1), 1–13. Wilds, E. H. (1938). The foundations of modern education. New York, NY: Farrar & Rinehart. Zeigler, E. F. (2006). Sport and physical education in the middle ages. Victoria, British Columbia, Canada: Trafford. After Rome Fell 77 C H APTER 6 INDIGENOUS PEOPLES, COLONIALISM, EXPANSION, AND REVOLUTION IN NORTH AMERICAN SPORT AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. Indigenous peoples/First Nations peoples: people who are native to a certain area rather than who are brought to that area; First Nations is the preferred terminology in Canada Lacrosse: game played with netted stick and ball, popular among the indigenous peoples of the Eastern Seaboard and mid-Atlantic areas of North America Double-ball: game mostly played by Native American women, in which sticks were used to throw two balls tied together Shinny: game similar to field hockey, played by indigenous peoples Gambling: an important part of spectator participation in sporting events among indigenous peoples and settlers Work bees: community gatherings to perform work such as baking, barn-raising, corn-husking, quilting, and pea-shelling Skittles: a form of bowling done on a wooden alley rather than on a lawn (bowling green) Minuet: a stately dance of the 18th century, exemplifying the grace, symmetry, and elegance of the time Contra dance: longways dances, in which groups of two or three couples dance repeated figures before progressing up and down the lines to dance with other groups of couples Folk dance: participatory dances from different nations, using the music and clothing of the country from which they originate 78 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT • What are some sports we know were played by indigenous peoples in North America? • What part did sports and recreational gambling play among indigenous peoples and colonists? • Were different sports and pastimes played in different regions of colonial America? • Did Puritan and Quaker beliefs affect participation in physical activities? • Which of the Founding Fathers of the American Revolution wrote about exercise? • Did women participate in sports and dance in colonial America? INTRODUCTION American history, like all history, is constantly challenged when new archaeological evidence and research is presented. The belief that human beings arrived in North and South America exclusively via a land bridge from Asia was challenged by Thor Heyerdahl when in 1947 he showed that the crew of his raft, Kon-Tiki, were able to travel from Polynesia to South America. While this physical feat was impressive, it failed to convince the majority of scholars that sea travel provided a means of human migration to the Americas. Likewise, the view that the “New World” was “discovered” is problematic in several ways. First, it implies that there were no human inhabitants in the Americas before discovery. Unfortunately, the view that indigenous peoples were uncivilized, inconvenient residents led to centuries of genocide and various mistreatments that continue to the present. Second, the question of who discovered the continents generally implies that Caucasians did the discovering, despite the questions raised by Heyerdahl’s successful experiment. Third, the implication that any discovery gave rights of conquest to the explorers ignores the human rights issues of colonization. As historians, we need to consider the assumptions we might make when we discuss the identities and activities of those who were already in the “New World” when it was “discovered.” For example, historically speaking, we should acknowledge the existence of indigenous cultures in these lands. Referring to these cultures as those of the First Peoples (they were and are many cultures, not just one) rather than Indians is a good start. In Canada, First Nations is sometimes the preferred nomenclature. Even discussing “Native Americans” as such uses an otheroriented nomenclature implying a European perspective Indigenous Peoples, Colonialism, Expansion, and Revolution 79 on indigenous peoples. However, it is still preferable to the derogatory terms still in use in some sports team names (Taylor, 2018). Wherever possible, we will make efforts to specify groups rather than generalizing and refer to different nations by their preferred designations, such as Lakota instead of Sioux. That being said, many historical resources do not make such careful distinctions, and myriad important details have been lost or have yet to be recovered by scholars: this is an area of sports history in need of continued research. SPORTS AND RECREATIONAL PASTIMES AMONG INDIGENOUS PEOPLES OF NORTH AMERICA Can you name a sport or recreational pastime that was traditionally played by indigenous peoples in North America? Aside from footraces, swimming, horseback riding, archery, hunting, fishing, canoeing, and climbing, many people nowadays would name the game we now know as lacrosse. Versions of that game were known in southern parts of American colonies as toli or kabucha (Choctaw), anetsó (Cherokee), hótti icósi (Creek), and sometimes as bagataway or the Creator’s Game among Great Lakes and mid-Atlantic groups such as the Huron, Algonquin, Mohawk, Onondaga, Ojibwe, and other Six Nation Iroquois tribes to help keep peace among them (Haag & Millis, 2001; Rasmussen, 2018). The Haudenosaunee know it as their medicine game, and to this day they play it with deep spiritual intent to help heal the sick (Jacques, 2018, personal communication). Figure 6.1 A 19th-century lithograph of indigenous ball players by George Catlin. 80 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT The game was originally played with curved sticks that reminded a Jesuit French missionary, Jean de Brébeuf, of a shepherd’s crook or bishop’s crozier (crosse), so any jeu de la crosse (game of the crozier) became known to Europeans as lacrosse. It was a game that could be played by teams of up to 1,000 per side, on fields up to a mile and a half (2.5 km) in length (Becker, 1985). Among the Choctaw, months of preparation would precede a match, with feasting and dancing while shaking lacrosse sticks toward the sky in ritualistic pleas for divine help in the game (Zirin, 2008). Indigenous women played all the ball games that men did, but often played using different rules from those used by the men. Similar to lacrosse, double-ball was almost always played by women. Two balls were tied together and thrown using decorated sticks over a field that could be a mile long or more (Keith, 1999). Ritual was also part of kickball or stick-kicking races that were meant to promote fertility. Male or female runners in these races could cover 25 miles in a day’s game. Running games also served as cardiovascular training for war, hunting, and carrying messages over long distances. According to Gems, Borish, and Pfister (2017), Aztec relay runners covered 260 miles (420 km) in one day to tell King Montezuma of the arrival of Hernán Cortés. To this day, the Tarahumara (Rarámuri, as they call themselves, means “the running feet”) of northern Mexico continue to play long-distance kickball, often covering 50 to 100 miles or more over several days (IrigoyenRascón & Batista, 2012). Another game of endurance was called shinny, a sort of field hockey game in which players used individually decorated, curved sticks of 2 to 4 feet in length. Shinny was played throughout North America, most often by women, though only men played it in Northern California (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017). Teams might consist of more than 100 players on a field up to a mile long (Keith, 1999). Sports fulfill important cultural and physical needs. As we have seen indicated in Carroll’s Symbolic Hunt Theory, many of the sports of First Nations peoples helped with survival and taught observation, endurance, tolerance of pain, and cooperative competition while building strength and skills. Socially, improved interpersonal relationships, individual and group motivation, leadership skills, and fairness to others were additional important benefits of sporting events (Keith, 1999). As with other Native American sports events, gambling on shinny was open to men and women, and gambling was an important part of spectatorship among indigenous peoples (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017; Lumpkin, 2017). It was part of the nexus between sports and their social, economic, and spiritual lives. COLONIAL AMERICA: SPORT, RECREATION, AND GAMBLING Sheridan’s (1780) A General Dictionary of the English Language defines sport as “play, diversion, game, frolic, and tumultuous merriment; mock contemptuous mirth; that with which one plays; play, idle gingle; diversion of the field, as of fowling, hunting, fishing” (II, no page; Davis, 1972, p. 2). This meaning differs from the early 21st-century definition, and the added allusion to athletic competition is missing from that reference. However, historical evidence indicates that colonists competed in many types of sporting events; competitive sport was merely one component of the total picture of physical activity. As we will see, the types of activities varied between indigenous peoples, settlers, and slaves and free blacks, and there were regional and socioeconomic class differences as well. Indigenous Peoples, Colonialism, Expansion, and Revolution 81 In New England, for example, we know that many colonists were Puritans who had emigrated in order to find a land where they could live according to their religious beliefs, founding Plymouth Colony in 1620. However, as our look at Puritan England showed us in the last chapter, those beliefs did not necessarily preclude all recreations, but served to discourage anything that interfered with religious services on Sundays or might cause immorality and frivolous wasting of time. Many leisure and survival-related sporting activities could keep people from idleness, which was considered detestable, and improve health, the better to facilitate religious observance and to do work that needed to be done in the community. For example, hunting, fishing, trapping, work bees (community baking, barn-raising, cornhusking, quilting, pea-shelling, etc.), and militia training days afforded opportunities for recreational social interaction, competition, and physical activity. The militia training days were days in which militiamen would gather to work on military skills like marksmanship, and since they brought large numbers of families together, they eventually took on the atmosphere of fairs (Davis, 1972). As the Counter-Reformers had learned in Europe, diversions served to increase productivity during working hours. Prominent clergymen such as Cotton Mather (1721) and Joseph Seccombe (1739) praised fishing as suitably refreshing to the mind and spirit, the latter going so far as to approve fishing on Sunday. Figure 6.2 In this painting, Militia Training (James G. Clonney, 1841), the general mood of merriment and carousing is evident with depictions of dancing, drinking, and a shooting competitor. 82 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Cruelty to animals and blood sports in which animals fought, were taunted, or were used cruelly (e.g., cockfighting, bear-baiting, and duck hunting using owls) were frowned upon in New England. We should also bear in mind that not all colonists were Calvinist Puritans, and many people took part in what Zeigler calls “trespass sport” (1988, p. 177), which meant any recreational diversion that ignored Puritan regulations. Card and dice games, quoits (a game similar to horseshoes), bowls, wrestling, boxing, shuffleboard, and dancing were available at inns, coffee houses, and taverns. Horseraces were organized and popular in the northern as well as in the southern colonies (Ballou, 1976; Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017; Zeigler, 1988; Zirin, 2008). In the mid-Atlantic region, New York’s Dutch settlers brought outdoor traditions of ice skating, sleigh riding, a form of ice hockey, bowling (which was usually done outside on a grassy bowling green), and skittles (a form of bowling) (Zeigler, 1988). While William Penn’s Quaker beliefs had initially restricted many active leisure pastimes using blue laws, Pennsylvania had a somewhat more relaxed view of sports than did New England during the 18th century due to more relaxed Anglican and Presbyterian settlers’ influences in the middle of that century. Upper-class sports fishermen near Philadelphia formed the Schuylkill Fishing Company in 1732, and the Philadelphia Jockey Club was created in 1766 to promote horseracing (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017; Zeigler, 1988). In the southern colonies, landowners enjoyed displaying their wealth through horseracing, gambling, and cockfighting, even when laws were passed to try to restrict them. Only upperclass men had the means to participate in high-stakes gambling, and wagers were points of honor as well as subjects of legal contracts and disputes. North Carolina enacted Sabbath-day laws forbidding any “Game, Sport, or Play, on the Lord’s Day” (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017, p. 20), and South Carolina had similar laws governing colonists. Penalties for violations were usually fines. Other popular sports in the south were tennis, fencing, fox hunts, bowling, footraces, and various ball games. Along with the usual outdoor sports such as hunting and fishing, southerners were fond of horseback rides and walks. When the weather permitted, they partook of winter sports as well. However, these pursuits often differed from those of the enslaved plantation slaves in that region. Despite living lives of arduous physical toil, slaves had some leisure time and regular plantation work paused on Sundays. In the time available for recreational activities, they could play games and learn dances and music passed down from their ancestors. In marked contrast to their white neighbors, black men and women often excelled in swimming and diving. They earned local fame with their swimming competitions and pearl-diving abilities. More bloody water spectacles involved bravado as men Figure 6.3 Logo of the Schuylkill Fishing Company, founded in 1732. Indigenous Peoples, Colonialism, Expansion, and Revolution 83 fought sharks and alligators. Horseraces, boating, cards, footraces, and dice games all afforded gambling opportunities (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017, p. 20). However, when it came to children’s pastimes, an interesting sociological pattern emerged, in which players were kept from being tagged out of games. For example, Zirin (2008) notes that “If they played dodgeball, then no one would be eliminated” (p. 5). Games could therefore build cooperation, community, and a sense of safety in a brutal and unpredictable world. Up and down the Eastern Seaboard, the relatively safe lifestyles in the more populated areas of the colonies found a sharp contrast with the lives endured by those living further inland in frontier lands. Rugged isolation was a common way of life for frontiersmen, by choice or by necessity. Under those circumstances, gatherings providing opportunities for such competitions as axe-throwing, shooting, ball games, wrestling (including eye-gouging), boxing, tree-felling, and racing were welcome diversions (Zirin, 2008). Survival skills often morphed into recreational opportunities, bringing people of different classes, national origins, and ethnicities together in the wilderness. These occasions afforded opportunities for trade, communication, and even courtship, especially when dances were part of the events. Among the sports of this era, baseball in its 18th-century form was recorded as having been played in New York City before the Revolution, in Valley Forge in 1778, and in New Jersey at Princeton in 1787 (Betts, 1968; Ballou, 1976). Apparently Princeton was a campus especially fond of sports. Moreau de St. Méry, an author of the late 18th century, noted “at Princeton College, … sport and licentious habits are said to absorb the pupils more than study” (Ballou, 1976, p. 6; Moreau, in Roberts & Roberts, 1947). APPROACHING REVOLUTION: THE FOUNDING FATHERS, PHYSICAL EDUCATION, AND SPORT Figure 6.4 Dr. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813), an Enlightenment thinker, exerted great influence over the attitudes toward physical activity and health in the late 18th century, just as the United States was becoming a nation in its own right. 84 In colonial times, several well-known future leaders of the American Revolution recorded their opinions concerning health and fitness. Benjamin Franklin, Dr. Benjamin Rush, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson, all signatories to the Declaration of Independence in 1776, contributed to the literature and thought concerning physical activity and sport. Their thoughts would have been noteworthy even if they had not been revolutionary leaders, but they offer a glimpse into the Enlightenment in the American colonies. Franklin’s 1749 pamphlet Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania advocated for boys’ activities such as wrestling, running, and jumping. He also favored swimming as a healthful activity suitable for youth. The proposals in this document were incorporated into the founding of the Academy of Philadelphia, which later became the University of Pennsylvania. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Another proposal for an institution of higher learning, in this case a federal university, was put forth by a physician from Philadelphia, Dr. Benjamin Rush. He was in favor of any exercise that could lead to better health, elegance, and strength following the classical ideal of mind, body, and spirit (morals). He agreed with Franklin that swimming could be beneficial, but he also favored tennis, golf, skating, jumping, quoits, horseback riding, and bowling. Counseling healthful diet, exercise, and avoidance of hard liquors, his writings achieved wide popularity and continued to be circulated well into the 19th century. Among other works, his Sermons to Gentlemen Upon Temperance and Exercise (1772) and his On the Amusements and Punishments Proper for Schools (1790) are of particular interest to scholars in physical education and kinesiology. A copious writer, colonial lawyer John Adams was a lifelong proponent of exercise for health and well-being. “Exercise invigorates, and enlivens all the Faculties of Body and of Mind. It arouses our Animal Spirits, it disperses Melancholy. It spreads a gladness and Satisfaction over our minds and qualifies us for every Sort of Buisiness (sic), and every Sort of Pleasure,” he wrote (Adams, in Butterfield, 1961, p. 27). His views were shared by his contemporary, Thomas Jefferson, who advocated two hours per day of walking, riding, and shooting (Betts, 1968). FEMALE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN COLONIAL AMERICA For colonial women, the amount of physical activity varied between the upper and lower classes and between different ethnic groups. Like the men of the time, most women were expected to be industrious, and the need for physical labor required strength and endurance. The demands of childbirth and motherhood added to the need for health fitness. Many women of the time participated vigorously in the same types of sports men enjoyed. In New York, for example, women played tennis, bowling, ninepins, fishing, shooting, riding, and ice skating. Generally, their pastimes were spontaneous, pleasant diversions rather than organized competitions. The most popular exercise for women (and men) was social dance. Rich and poor, regardless of age, ethnicity, or national origin, all groups danced with great enjoyment, except where forbidden by religious restrictions. Dances travel with immigrants, so the latest European dances migrated as well. Slaves not only had the dances of their African countries’ traditions, but they also imitated the manners and movements of the plantation owners in their fancy dress dances. The dances of the different Native American groups reinforced traditional roles for men and women while celebrating their cultures, histories, physical strength, and endurance. While the stately minuet suited the clothing and hair fashions of the upper class with its gently rising and falling steps, courtly dances of English and Scottish provenance also found favor in the posh ballrooms of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. Contra dances, or longways dances in which groups of two or three couples dance repetitive patterns, then move up or down opposing lines to dance with different groups, could be danced by as many people as could fit in the dancing space. Folk dances from different countries helped immigrants maintain their traditions and their music within their communities. Folk dances and dances of slaves or indigenous peoples often contained ancient ritualistic elements, moving them beyond mere physical activity to a religious or spiritual realm. Indigenous Peoples, Colonialism, Expansion, and Revolution 85 Figure 6.5 This 19th-century wood engraving by Winslow Homer shows a contra dance, or longways dance, taking place after a work bee of corn husking. SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • Among the sports we know were played by indigenous peoples in North America are versions of lacrosse, double-ball, shinny, and footraces. • Sports and recreational gambling were common among indigenous peoples and colonists. • Different sports and pastimes played in different regions of colonial America, depending on socioeconomic status, ethnicity, religion, climate, topography, and immigration patterns. • Puritan and Quaker beliefs affected participation in physical activities, often restricting them with legislation concerning Sabbath-day activities; those restrictions were relaxed over time and did not forbid all physical exercises and pastimes. • Of the Founding Fathers of the American Revolution, most prominently, Benjamin Franklin, Dr. Benjamin Rush, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson promoted exercise through their writings. • Women of all socioeconomic strata and ethnicities participated in sports in colonial America. 86 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the history and philosophy of the time period covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or other research. 1. Cross-cultural Understanding (Discussion): Watch the film Spirit Game: Pride of a Nation (available from XLRator Media, http://www.xlratormedia.com/film/spirit-game-pride-nation) to see how the game of lacrosse continues to serve as a vital part of the culture of the Iroquois Nation. Hold a class discussion about the film and what it reveals about the role of the game in their culture, the place of the Iroquois people in international sports, and perceptions of the Iroquois in North American sports history. 2. Primary Sources Research (Research): Read Joseph Seccombe’s Business and diversion inoffensive to God, and necessary for the comfort and support of human society. A discourse utter’d in part at Ammauskeeg-Falls, in the fishing-season, available at https:// www.library.unh.edu/special/images/finaid/milne/seccombe.pdf. Starting at page 16, how does he justify the sport of fishing from the standpoint of his religious beliefs? 3. Education Through the Physical (Research): Discuss the beliefs of Benjamin Franklin and Dr. Benjamin Rush as they pertained to the development of educational institutions in Pennsylvania (see text and References list for sources). What forms of physical education did they recommend? For whom (e.g., men, women, different ethnicities, socioeconomic levels)? At what institutions? Were their ideas implemented in schools? 4. Dance Reconstruction (Kinesthetic): Using the cue sheets available under “Education” at www.lloydshaw.org and music recordings available at that site under “Store,” reconstruct and dance a typical colonial American contra dance that came from England: the Virginia Reel, Thady You Gander, or Weaver’s Reel. For additional research, do an online search for the Virginia Reel and related dances. Notice that instructions and figures vary between different sources. Why do you think that is? Is it important to always dance only the original version? How could you research to find out what the earliest known version of the dance might have been? FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 6.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ball_players.jpg. Fig. 6.2: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%27Militia_Training%27_by_James_G._ Clonney,_1841.JPG. Fig. 6.3: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Schuylkill_Fishing_Company.png. Indigenous Peoples, Colonialism, Expansion, and Revolution 87 Fig. 6.4: Source: https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/catalog/nlm:nlmuid-101428039-img. Fig. 6.5: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_dance_after_the_husking_ (Boston_Public_Library).jpg. REFERENCES Ballou, R. B. (1976, April). Sports, physical activity and recreation in early American history. Paper presented at the meeting of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE), American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (AAHPER), Milwaukee, WI. Becker, M. J. (1985, January). Lacrosse: Political organization in North America as reflected in athletic competition. Expedition Magazine [Penn Museum], 27(2), 53–56. Betts, J. R. (1968). Mind and body in early American thought. Journal of American History, 54(4), 787–805. Butterfield, L. H. (Ed.). (1961). Diary and autobiography of John Adams, Vol. I: Diary 1755–1770. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Davis, T. R. (1972). Puritanism and physical education: The shroud of gloom lifted. Canadian Journal of History of Sport & Physical Education, 3(1), 1–7. Franklin, B. (1749). Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania. Retrieved from https://archives.upenn.edu/digitized-resources/docs-pubs/franklin-proposals Gems, G. R., Borish, L. J., & Pfister, G. (2017). Sports in American history: From colonization to globalization. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Haag, M., & Millis, H. (2001). Choctaw Language & Culture: Chahta Anumpa. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. Irigoyen-Rascón, F., & Batista, J. M. P. (2012). Rarajípari: The kick-ball race of the Tarahumara Indians (3rd ed.). Chihuahua, Mexico: Centro Librero la Prensa. Retrieved from https://www. amazon.com/Rarajipari-Kick-Ball-Tarahumara-Indians-ebook/dp/B0092IUWFE Jacques, A. (December 2018). [Conversation at Onondaga Nation from the Earth Craft Fair, December 8]. Keith, S. E. (1999). Native American women in sport. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 70(4), 47–49. Lumpkin, A. (2017). Introduction to physical education, exercise science, & sport (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. Mather, C. (1721/1968). The Christian philosopher: A collection of the best discoveries in nature, with religious improvements. Gainesville, FL: Scholars’ Facsimiles & Reprints. Rasmussen, H. C. (2018). The life and death of raquette in nineteenth-century New Orleans. Sport History Review, 49(1), 23–38. Roberts, K., & Roberts, A. M. (Eds.). (1947). Moreau de St. Méry’s American Journey (1793–1798) (K. Roberts & A. M. Roberts, Trans.). Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Runes, D. D. (Ed.) (1947). The selected writings of Benjamin Rush. New York, NY: Philosophical Library. Seccombe, J. (1739/1743). Business and diversion inoffensive to God, and necessary for the comfort and support of human society. A discourse utter’d in part at Ammauskeeg-Falls, in the fishingseason. Boston, MA: S. Kneeland and T. Green. Retrieved from https://www.library.unh.edu/ special/images/finaid/milne/seccombe.pdf 88 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Sheridan, T. (1780). A General Dictionary of the English Language. Menston, England: Solar Press, 1967. Taylor, M. (November, 2018) The Native American athlete. Lecture presented at State University of New York, College at Cortland. Zeigler, E. F. (1988). History of physical education and sport (rev. ed.). Champaign, IL: Stipes. Zirin, D. (2008). A people’s history of sports in the United States: 250 years of politics, protest, people, and play. New York, NY: New Press. Indigenous Peoples, Colonialism, Expansion, and Revolution 89 C H APTER 7 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN 19TH-CENTURY EUROPE KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. Rationalism: philosophical viewpoint that reason is the basis of knowledge, rather than emotion or experience Temperance: avoidance of alcohol; temperance movements in the 19th century sought to curtail or stop alcohol consumption Women’s suffrage: the right of women to vote; a suffragette is a woman working toward that goal British public school: a private (usually boarding) school for ages 11–19, open to the whole of Britain rather than to local students only; examples are Rugby, Eton, and Harrow Muscular Christianity: use of athletics to develop selfdiscipline, endurance, strength, and fortitude for a life of Christian values and service; primarily evident in British sports from the Victorian era and exemplified through the novels of Thomas Hughes Corps de ballet: the ensemble dancers of a ballet, whose job is to provide living frames for the principal dancers and to dance large group pieces Character dance: in classical ballet, dances loosely based on the folk dances of various countries such as Spain, Poland, Italy, Hungary, and Russia Divertissements: in classical ballet, dance diversions that are meant to entertain but do not necessarily advance the narrative plot; may be character dances, duets, or smaller groups of the corps de ballet, or dances of the entire corps de ballet 90 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT • How did the political changes in 19th-century Europe affect physical education? • Who were the main proponents of German, Danish, and Swedish gymnastics? • What were the goals of the British sports model? • How did the idea of muscular Christianity reverberate through the work of the YMCA? • How did the waltz challenge social dance traditions? (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) INTRODUCTION En travestie: in ballet, dancing in the clothing and character of the opposite gender The 19th century was a turbulent one, filled with exciting historical events and changes. Under the influence of rationalism, the people of 18th-century Europe had embraced a reasoned, fact-based paradigm that continued to present challenges to the remaining European traditions of class structures. From the Napoleonic Wars through various countries’ efforts at national unification, from the War of 1812 through the Franco-Prussian War, from the US Civil War through the Spanish-American War, the emphasis in Western cultures was on increased industrialization, imperialism, and social Darwinism. The need for military readiness inspired many educators to embrace physical education as a vital component of the educational process, resulting in the inclusion of physical education in public schools throughout Europe as well as in the United States. During this part of the modern era of sports, a different ideal of sports developed in England, partially influenced by British public school sports. Christianity continued to be an important influence, too, through the YMCA (Young Men’s Christian Association) and the idea of muscular Christianity. Muscular Christianity used athletics to encourage male health and fitness for a life of Christian service and self-discipline. Social changes for women included efforts to make useful leisure activities available to all classes as well as active involvement in the temperance (anti-alcohol) and suffragette (women’s voting rights) movements during this era, and the changes were reflected in the sports and recreational opportunities afforded to women. We will examine these in more detail in the following chapter, but this chapter will provide some additional historical context for European girls and women in physical education and recreational sports. Waltz: a social dance form for couples based on turning steps, done to music that has three beats per measure Philanthropinum: founded in Dessau, Germany, in 1774 by Johann Bernhardt Basedow, this school featured daily physical education and healthy physical activity Schnepfenthal Institute: founded by Christian Salzmann in 1784, this German boarding school was patterned after the Philanthropinum and was home to Johann GutsMuths’s physical education system of gymnastics for youth Nationalism: any extremist form of patriotism; may include denigrating people of other nations, advocating purity of language, and promoting military readiness and might Turnverein: organization devoted to the pursuit of German gymnastics and patriotic nationalism Turners: German gymnasts Turnplatz: an outdoor space for gymnastics, generally featuring a horse-like vault, rings, ladders, ropes, high bar, parallel bars, and room for fencing and other exercise and sports Turnfests: outdoor physical contests for German gymnasts Turnvater: gymnastic father; a term of honor for Friedrich Jahn, who started the turnverein movement and developed the turnen system Sokol gymnastics: a Czech-centric gymnastic system developed in contrast to the German gymnastics of Friedrich Jahn Ordnungsübungen: ordered exercises done on command under the method developed by Adolf Spiess for German public school physical education Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 91 (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) Normal schools: teacher training schools, where prospective instructors could learn the norms expected of educational institutions Boom: a piece of Swedish gymnastic equipment, resembling a wooden ship’s mast laid horizontally on supports Stall bars: a form of wooden ladder attached to walls in the Swedish gymnastics system British public school ideal: an emphasis on sports, even at the expense of academics, was seen as leading to ideal character traits of loyalty, honesty, good sportsmanship, teamwork, and leadership, all of which were felt to be desirable in Britain’s upper classes Women’s rational recreation: middle- and upper-class women in Great Britain used settlement houses and groups of religious women to provide physical education to lower-class girls and women; their purpose was to guide their recreational activities into wholesome pastimes YMCA: founded in London in 1844 by George Williams, the Young Men’s Christian Association began as a prayer and Bible study group but eventually embraced muscular Christianity and incorporated athletics and recreational pastimes Muscular Judaism: in the late 19th century, some Jewish leaders hoping for establishment of a Jewish state encouraged gymnastics to build the self-assurance, health, and strength of Jews Quadrille: dance for four, French in origin Cotillion: dance for four couples in which the basic sequence of steps alternates with changes or variations Round dances: dances in which couples dance around a room in a circle, generally counterclockwise 92 In the world of dance, great schools of classical ballet were developed in Italy and Russia. The ballets Swan Lake, The Nutcracker, Sleeping Beauty, and Giselle were choreographed featuring the corps de ballet in long white tutus and dances of different nationalities in character dance segments called divertissements. Unfortunately, as the century wore on, fewer and fewer males were attracted to the art form, and by the end of the 1800s, women often took on male roles en travestie (dressed as males) out of necessity. However, in the ballrooms, the waltz was king, though it initially shocked the society matrons of the time. Contrasted with the stately minuet of the previous century, the waltz gave dancers a new standard of public intimacy with their partners. Contra dances and quadrilles continued to enliven ballrooms and taverns, but the waltz was revolutionary in more ways than one. GERMAN GYMNASTICS Have you ever wondered where the equipment for men’s and women’s gymnastics competitions comes from? Who invented the equipment, where was it used, and how long has it been around? For the answers, we need to turn to Germany. After losing to Napoleon’s army at the Battle of Austerlitz in 1806, the last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II of Germany, abdicated—though he remained emperor of Austria—and the Holy Roman Empire was essentially dissolved after a thousand years of European political, social, and religious influence. The French influences of humanism and Rousseau’s naturalism caught hold in the city of Dessau, where Johann Bernhardt Basedow (1724–1790) had founded what he called a Philanthropinum, the first educational institution in Europe to offer daily physical education (Zeigler, 1988). The Philanthropinum (which roughly translates as “a place for friends of humanity”) was a revolutionary educational institution. Recognizing that children were not merely little adults, the school uniform did away with powdered wigs, formal attire, and other trappings of the 18th century. Only half the school day was devoted to academics, with the rest being HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Figure 7.1 A drawing of Basedow’s carpentry workshop, showing the freedom of movement possible in the school uniform of the Philanthropinum. allocated to physical activities. The revised simple clothing allowed great freedom of movement, which was helpful because students spent three hours per day in physical recreation (dancing, riding, and fencing, for example) and two hours per day in manual activity (carpentry, masonry, and crafts). During the summer months, Basedow had the children learn to live in tents while they practiced hunting, swimming, fishing, and boating. Basedow hired a teacher who is now considered by many scholars to have been the first physical educator of the modern era, Johann Friedrich Simon (Dixon, 1986; Mechikoff & Estes, 1998). Johann Friedrich Simon’s curriculum was developmental and attuned to the natural development of children. For younger children, participation in ancient Greek games and contests strengthened their muscles and allowed for rough-and-tumble recreation. Older students refined their physical skills with knightly activities such as riding, dancing, vaulting (over live horses!), and fencing. Hand-eye coordination was encouraged through tennis, ball games, and skittles, among other games (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998). Despite Basedow’s reputation for being a difficult colleague, his novel approach to education drew great educators to the Philanthropinum, including Christian Salzmann (1744–1811), who worked under Basedow and founded his own school in 1784. Salzmann’s Schnepfenthal Institute was patterned after Basedow’s Philanthropinum. A greater emphasis on outdoor activities, healthy living with good food and lots of sleep and recreation time, and classrooms streaming with light all contributed to the success of the Schnepfenthal Institute, which has survived to the present (Dixon, 1986). Saltzmann hired a young geography professor named Johann Friedrich GutsMuths (1759– 1839) whose additional abilities as a physical educator soon became apparent. GutsMuths took Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 93 Basedow’s writings and developed experimental exercise regimens with important theoretical and practical implications. In Gymnastik für die Jugend (Gymnastics for Youth, 1793), he emphasizes the interconnections between mind and body, describes gymnastic exercises and other recreational activities, and argues for physical education for girls to encourage health and beauty. In 1796, he went on to write another book, in which he described international games and discussed the nature of play. His final book was a practical guide for swimming instruction (1798), which he viewed as an essential safety concern at a time when many people did not know how to swim because fashionable people simply bathed without actually knowing how to perform swimming strokes. GutsMuths used climbing ropes, exercises to train sensory awareness, rope ladders, vaulting equipment shaped like a horse, exercises to train the aesthetic sensibilities, dance lessons, fencing, balancing equipment, swimming, camping, archery, military drills, and speech exercises, all often performed in outdoor settings, though indoor equipment was also available to the students. His work as an advocate for gymnastics and physical education to promote health and fitness as part of a strong nation had lasting impact, and demand for gymnastics programs led to greater demand for teacher training in his methods. He taught gymnastics to the age of 76, and his 50 years of service and writing earned him a place in history as the founder of modern physical education (Dixon, 1986; Mechikoff & Estes, 1988). Figuratively standing on the shoulders of Basedow, Simon, Salzmann, and GutsMuths, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778–1852) was a German nationalist whose lifelong goal was to promote German spiritual renewal and strength, nationwide physical education, unification of Germany’s various states, and patriotic pride. He felt humiliated by the defeat of the Prussian army by Napoleon at the Battle of Jena and Auerstedt, and his militaristic zeal led him to work for physical education of all Germans, regardless of age or class differences (Polidoro, 2000). After founding a secret society called the German League with two compatriots, Jahn began teaching gymnastics and physical exercise in Berlin. Beginning in 1811, he created what would be known as the turnverein movement. Using exercises similar to those of GutsMuths’s, his turners Figure 7.2 Boys climbing ropes, from GutsMuths’s book, (German gymnasts) practiced their skills Gymnastics for Youth (1793). at a turnplatz (an outdoor gymnastics area 94 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT with apparatus) and engaged in turnfests (outdoor gymnastics festivals). Consequently, he was called Turnvater (gymnastics father) Jahn (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998). German gymnastics encouraged manly development of strength through use of apparatus including parallel bars, ropes, horse-shaped vaults, and balance beams. Women were generally excluded from the turnplatz not only to preserve their modesty (they could only exercise in skirts), but also to minimize the risks to health and attractiveness that were believed to accompany vigorous exercise, according to the physicians of the time (Dine, 2003). Their energies were needed for motherhood; any excessive attention to their bodies could be a potential threat to their femininity and morality. It was even feared that since their bodies opened at the genital area, strenuous exercise could induce prolapse, in which inner tissues would protrude through the openings of their nether regions (Pfister, 1981). Jahn and other gymnasts fought with the Lützow Free-Corps in the revolution against the French occupation, where he achieved great success as an army recruiter of volunteers. With Prussia liberated, his attention became more focused on the turner societies, which had become popular throughout Germany, believing that they alone (rather than the military or the educational system) held the key to true German nationalism. Students at the University of Jena took up the cause and formed a Burschenschaft (student society) following the ideals of Jahn’s German League in 1815. German students and turners became more violent over the next few years, with activities culminating in acts of vandalism, riots, and murder. Figure 7.3 Photo taken in 1931 of the oldest horse-vaulting apparatus in Germany. Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 95 The result was the banning of turner societies and gymnastics from 1819 to 1842. Jahn was arrested and detained at Spandau Fortress, then at another prison, and later under house arrest, between 1820 and 1825. The charge was vague, involving activities of a secret and treasonous nature. The German princes and King Friedrich Wilhelm III had been alarmed by the populist nature of turner societies and the political implications of an egalitarian class-free society. While the turnvereine were closed, German gymnastics continued under different names in schools, emphasizing healthful fitness, military readiness, and manliness. It was only after the more liberal King Friedrich Wilhelm IV came to power that the gymnasts were able to meet openly again, although Jahn himself was nevermore permitted to live in a town containing a university or even a gymnasium (Dixon, 1986; Mechikoff & Estes, 1998; Polidoro, 2000). Jahn did not live to see the eventual unification of Germany under Otto von Bismarck, which came only after the defeat of the French in 1871 in the Franco-Prussian War. Following the creation of Bismarck’s Second German Reich that year, the organization of the turners fell to a new group, the Deutsche Turnerschaft (the German Turners’ Association). The societies became less political and more focused on calisthenics, competitions, and group functions, eventually even letting women perform exercises for an exhibition at the 1896 turnfest. Females were eventually allowed to compete in turnfests in the 1920s (Polidoro, 2000). According to Ueberhorst (1979), Jahn’s influence throughout Europe was considerable. Wherever Germans settled, gymnastics clubs followed: London, Paris, Luxembourg, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Italy, Russia, Romania, Hungary, Greece, and Austria all had clubs. In Belgium, educators took up German gymnastics and morphed it into a Belgian method. An alternative gymnastics method called Sokol (falcon) gymnastics began in Bohemia (an area inhabited by Czech-speaking citizens). Developed by two doctors, Miroslav Tyrš and Henry Fugner in the Figure 7.4 Drawing of the Spiess turnplatz in Basel, Switzerland (1847), from his book on gymnastics for schoolchildren. 96 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 1860s, it offered a similar populist, liberal philosophy to that of German gymnastics, but with a Czech-centered focus on national customs and language. Sokol gymnastics was open to women as well as men (Mandell, 1984). It is important to note that an alternative to Jahn’s more liberal turner beliefs came to Germany through the Prussian Cabinet’s recommendation of a system devised by Adolph Spiess (1810–1858) in the 1840s. Spiess’s curriculum allowed for the inclusion of girls in physical education classes and eventually became the official public school model throughout Germany. His developmental approach included examinations to qualify to move up to the next level of exercises, Ordnungsübungen (ordered exercises on command), colleges of physical education to produce qualified instructors, and inspectors to supervise and provide assistance and guidance. The goal of Spiess’s curriculum was authoritarian, based on submission and obedience on command, rather than the more democratic method of the turners (Dixon, 1986). Although German gymnastics exerted tremendous influence throughout Europe (and the United States, as we will see in the next chapter), the history of physical education includes other important contributions, particularly from the countries of Denmark, Sweden, and Great Britain. Other countries employed physical educators, of course, but their methods and philosophies are less well known: it is another of the areas ripe for historical research. We turn our attention next to the Scandinavian countries, beginning with Denmark. DANISH GYMNASTICS In the history of Danish physical education, one name stands above all in terms of influence. Early in life, Franz Nachtegall (1777–1847) had been an outstanding fencer and gymnastic vaulter. When his father, a German tailor who had settled in Copenhagen, passed away, Nachtegall left university studies to become a tutor. Like GutsMuths, he taught geography. After reading GutsMuths’s Gymnastik für die Jugend, Nachtegall began teaching GutsMuths-style gymnastics in addition to tutoring other subjects. He opened a successful gymnasium (using the familiar hanging ladders, balance beam, vaulting horse, and poles) and also taught at public and private schools. It was perhaps also GutsMuths’s influence as well as his own humble beginnings and love of swimming that led Nachtegall to create the Society for Promoting the Art of Swimming, serving poorer Danish children with lessons and competitive opportunities. He was soon Figure 7.5 Danish physical education pioneer Franz Nachtegall (1777–1847). His influence led to Denmark’s becoming the first European country to include physical training in its schools as an essential part of coursework. Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 97 appointed as a professor of gymnastics at the University of Copenhagen and became Director of the Military Gymnastic Institute, which gave a nationalistic tinge to his system. Nachtegall advocated for required physical education in Danish schools, and his efforts (along with the help of former student Prince Frederick) led to laws requiring gymnastics in secondary schools and later also (for boys only) in elementary schools. Despite a law compelling teacher training colleges to require gymnastics training, proper and thorough physical education coursework lagged, and qualified teachers were hard to find. However, his efforts continued and eventually led to relatively short-lived normal schools for physical education instructors, first for men, and later for women, in the 1830s. He had worked with several colleagues to publish a Manual of Gymnastics for the Village and Town Schools of Denmark (1828), which led the king to command that gymnastics instruction be included in all Danish schools. Still, owing to a lack of qualified instructors until the normal school graduates were able to assume positions, many of Denmark’s early instructors came from a military background. After the normal schools closed in the late 1850s, military gymnastics achieved lasting prominence in that country (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998). In addition to his work on behalf of girls in physical education, Nachtegall was notable for his energy and persistence in advocacy. His combination of natural physical abilities, teaching gifts, written communication skills, networking, and administrative adroitness served his goals well. He is a model of inspiration for those with vision and self-discipline in the physical education field, even though his version of GutsMuths’s gymnastics was destined to remain somewhat geographically isolated. SWEDISH GYMNASTICS The Swedish system was created by Per Henrik Ling (1776–1839), who had studied with Nachtegall in Denmark. Like many physical educators of the time, he had had some university education but had dropped out and become a private tutor in academic subjects. However, his decision to enroll in the University of Copenhagen and take up gymnastics and fencing changed his life as he discovered the physical benefits of exercise in his own body. Sweden suffered political losses in the Napoleonic wars due to an alliance with England that allowed ships to use the ports of Sweden. In retribution, the Russians attacked Finland (in 1808, it was part of Sweden), taking a vast amount of land. Following losses to the French in the southern parts of the kingdom, King Gustavus IV Adolf of Sweden was removed by his own forces in 1809 and replaced by his childless uncle, Charles XIII, whose powers were limited by a new constitution and the Swedish Diet (ruling entity). An heir was found in a related French aristocrat, who became Charles XIV in 1818. Ling had been appointed fencing master of the Royal Military Academy in 1813, but with the financial support of King Charles XIII, he established and directed the Royal Gymnastics Central Institute in 1814. There, he devised a system using four general aspects of exercise: • • • • 98 aesthetic, military, pedagogical, and medical. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Figure 7.6 A postcard from 1902 showing a Swedish gymnasium at the Norrköping Military School. Notice the resemblance to a ship’s rigging, with ladders, ropes, and a central mast (boom). With goals including harmonious development of the body following gradually increased difficulty of exercises, a strong nationalist sentiment, and healthful unity of the mind and bodily systems, Ling’s gymnastics differed from Jahn’s system mainly in the degree of complexity of the exercises. Swedish gymnastics emphasized correct posture, sometimes forcing students to hold positions for extended periods of time while teachers made corrections to achieve the precise effect demanded by Ling (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998; Polidoro, 2000). The equipment also varied from that used by German gymnastics. As a nation with extensive coastlines, it was perhaps natural that a piece of wooden apparatus resembling a ship’s mast, called a boom, was featured. Wooden stall bars were another innovation, resembling a ladder with close-spaced rungs attached close to a wall. Oblique ropes, resembling a ship’s rigging, were part of the gymnasium. In place of the German vault resembling a horse, Ling’s vaulting apparatus was an ingenious set of interlocking boxes that could be adjusted to the height requirements of different ages (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998). In the realm of health, Ling is known as the father of physical therapy and developed the basis of what came to be known as Swedish massage. His medical gymnastics was popularly called the Swedish Movement Cure (Beck, 2010). Ling’s son, Hjalmar Ling, carried Swedish gymnastics into the public schools throughout Sweden. He initiated a series of exercises known as the Day’s Order, which covered 11 different parts of the body in a systematic directed set of movements, providing an apparatus-free workout that could be learned and used across the country by instructors of varying degrees of experience. THE BRITISH SPORTS IDEAL Contrasting the ordered, instructor-led Swedish gymnastics model, physical education in Great Britain developed along very different lines. In order to understand the difference, it is essential to grasp a broad overview of British education. For pupils who were not taught at home or Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 99 in private lessons with a local cleric, for example, the grammar schools of the 17th and 18th centuries offered local education for younger students. In the 18th century, private local schools emerged as an alternative for a rising middle class with the means to pay for them. Some of the grammar schools, meanwhile, had turned to taking in boarding students (as Eton and Winchester always had), which meant that they could accept students from local gentry and the entire country as well as foreign students. Hence, Winchester, Eton, Westminster, Harrow, Charterhouse, Shrewsbury, and Rugby became the seven main “public” schools (Money, 1997). Students in these schools likely grew up playing local games and sports as children, participating in contests of a folk version of football on holidays such as Shrovetide (the last Tuesday before the traditional Christian Lenten season). The expectation of their parents on sending their boys to public schools was that their children would be brought up with selfdiscipline, fortitude, and the ability to become leaders in British society. To this end, sports were encouraged to develop traits of loyalty, honesty, teamwork, good sportsmanship, and leadership as parts of the British public school ideal. It is not too great a leap to see the connection between this ideal and the Greek and Roman ideals; after all, students would be studying the classics at these schools (Anderson, 2010). A public school education included academics, of course, but outstanding scholarship was not the ultimate goal for most students. The British sports ideal fostered a sense of fellowship with one’s teammates, forging connections that would maintain the social status quo while encouraging fond memories of school days. Games such as fives (handball), cricket, football, and pastimes such as fishing, archery, boating, and swimming were promoted as healthy recreation. One author who reminisced about his school days at Rugby (and later at Oxford) was Thomas Hughes, who wrote Tom Brown’s School Days (1857). This ode to childhood hijinks in a public school, complete with bullies, sporting matches, and many opportunities for recreational play and pastimes, presents the quintessential novel of what would become known as muscular Christianity. Muscular Christianity takes its name from a passage in the Bible: “What? know ye not that your body is the temple of the Holy Ghost which is in you, which ye have of God, and ye are not your own?” (I Corinthians, 6:19, King James Version). The body was seen as a gift from God, and Christian people therefore had a responsibility to develop its strength and keep it healthy in order to live full, cheerful, manly lives as servants of God on earth. In the chapter of Tom Brown’s School Days entitled Tom Brown’s Last Match, Tom and a schoolmaster have a conversation about the nobility of cricket. “Come, none of your irony, Brown,” answers the master. “I’m beginning to understand the game scientifically. What a noble game it is, too.” “Isn’t it? But it’s more than a game. It’s an institution,” said Tom. “Yes,” said Arthur, “the birthright of British boys old and young, as habeas corpus and trial by jury are of British men.” “The discipline and reliance on one another which it teaches is so valuable I think,” went on the master, “it ought to be such an unselfish game. It merges the individual in the eleven; he doesn’t play that he may win, but that his side may.” (Hughes, p. 290) 100 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Figure 7.7 Muscular Christianity in action: the cricket match, from the 6th edition (1911) of Tom Brown’s School Days by Thomas Hughes. Rather than practice sports drills or spend time trying to become virtuosic players, the British schoolboy simply learned by playing the game. In terms of football (what we now call soccer), this was not as simple as it sounds, because each public school had its own rules, and the rules were different from the many versions of folk football played throughout Great Britain. Sometimes even within a public school, the different houses (dormitories) would have different rules, and negotiations over how many people could play for each side, how big the pitch (playing field) would be, what would serve as goals, how big the goals would be, would holding or tackling be allowed, and so forth could take a while. The games were self-regulated by students, so there were no referees or coaches to determine boundaries or rules. This obstacle to interschool play and intercity games led to different solutions. In the case of Rugby, the school maintained its traditional rules and their game is now known by the name of the school. For town residents who wanted to play, a different solution was found. In 1863, the Football Association was formed to reach a standardized set of rules that would allow for municipal teams to play other municipalities (Mangan, 1988). That led to what became known as association football. The word soccer comes from British slang for the abbreviation for association, or assoc. Fun fact. But we digress. The British sports ideal carried over into the realm of amateur sport as a means of classconsciousness. While the Football Association made intercity league play possible, it also led to the rise of professional players, often from lower classes, who played for money rather than for love of the game. They honed their skills with practice and dedication, devoting more time and energy to their sport than could upper-class athletes who played on a much more casual basis, as they had learned in their public school days (Harvey, 1999; Lewis, 1999). Despite initial resistance by upper-class amateurs, eventually professionalism became the norm in league play, and aristocrats found recreation in the more exclusive sporting pastimes of yachting, horseracing, Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 101 big game hunting, and polo, for example. This was an example of Darwin’s theory of evolution as it was interpreted into social Darwinism through exclusion of lower classes from certain sports activities. In some ways, it was a continuation of the older British rules concerning sports, when commoners were forbidden to hunt in the king’s forest or play skittles on the Sabbath, their only day off from labor. MUSCULAR CHRISTIANITY, THE YMCA, AND JEWISH GYMNASTICS All classes of society were welcome at the new Christian Bible study group founded in 1844 by a group of 12 men led by a London draper named George Williams. Primarily organized to provide a place of prayer and refuge from the clamor and temptations of London’s streets, it would be decades before gymnasiums would become a regular part of the newly formed Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) (Baker, 1994). In fact, sports were seen as just another temptation, encouraging people to wager and spend money on sporting equipment and sporting event admissions, when funds might be put to better use on charitable programs for the poor. It was felt that physical development could lead to vanity and sinful self-adulation. However, over the years it became apparent that membership in YMCAs was faltering across Britain, and some local chapters began to offer athletic activities and facilities as an enticement for young men to join. As youth left agricultural towns for industrial cities, the idea of having clubs open to all, with fitness opportunities and Christian morality readily available, gained traction. Despite objections over the association with smoking and gambling, billiard rooms were eventually added to many YMCAs by popular demand. As a way to attract and keep young men engaged and strong for the work of spreading the Christian gospel, the YMCA seemed a natural vehicle for the spread of muscular Christianity. Far from the prevalent stereotype of the weak, slender, stoop-shouldered, wan cleric, muscular Christians provided a healthy, attractive model of manliness. They were fit for missionary work at home or abroad (Garnham, 2001). Christianity was not the only religion to embrace physical fitness in the 19th century. Jewish sports clubs calling themselves “Maccabi” or sometimes “Bar Kochba” were formed. Sometimes clubs were established in reaction to anti-Semitism encountered in German patriotic turnvereine; this was the case with expatriate German Jews who founded the Israelitische Turnverein in Constantinople in 1895, for example, as well as in Bulgaria in 1897. Muscular Judaism (Muskeljudentum) also found adherents in the Zionist movement, where leaders like Theodor Herzl and Max Nordau (also known as Max Südfeld) encouraged gymnastics as a natural and necessary component of a longed-for Jewish state. Not all Jews favored the attention these efforts drew to their people, and the real threat of anti-Semitic repercussions caused some to reject the efforts of Herzl and Nordau (Mandell, 1984). WOMEN’S RATIONAL RECREATION While muscular Christianity and muscular Judaism encouraged physical fitness in men, women’s reform societies in Great Britain flourished in the late Victorian era, with the goal of preserving morality among lower-class women by providing interactions with upper- and middle-class female associates, who were seen as genteel examples of feminine modesty and refined education. 102 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Examples of such groups were the Girls (sic) Friendly Society (GFS), the Women’s Protective and Provident League (WPPL), and the Women’s Industrial Council (WIC), all of which were aimed at the improvement of the lower classes. With a somewhat condescending view of laboring women, these groups worked to expose working girls and women to lectures, formal dinners, education, lending libraries, and arts and crafts. These efforts were the basis of women’s rational recreation, and groups of women met regularly to try to improve the lot of poor women through guided recreational activities. Physical activities were part of the programming, too, in private settings, settlement houses, or institutions such as Madame Bergman Osterberg’s Physical Training College. Dancing lessons, gymnastics classes, military drill classes, swimming, and excursions were included among the activities meant to “improve” the girls. Prayers and the singing of hymns would complete the meetings, rounding out the wholesome gatherings. Whether the motivation behind these efforts was altruism or a subtle means of reaffirming class consciousness, the efforts must be recognized as an important part of physical education activities for women in the 19th century (Parratt, 1999). SOCIAL DANCE IN THE 19TH CENTURY The minuet having passed into disuse, what types of dances would have been taught in the 19th century? Country dances for the common folk remained as popular as ever, and ballroom versions of country dances likewise continued to enliven dances of the gentry. The Scottish reel and strathspey were sometimes danced, though they were not entirely accepted in the beginning of the century (Aldrich, 1991). The grand march would always open a ball, and led dancers to form groups for the next dance. Group dances like the quadrille (of French origin, it had a basic figure that could be done with just four dancers), the cotillion, in which four couples face inward and dance as a set following a caller’s instructions, the mazurka (of eastern European origin), the galop (as energetic as its name suggests), the Lancers (a group dance for four couples), and contra dances made up the program of a typical ball. However, in the 19th century, the waltz reigned supreme. Certain German and Austrian folk dances under the collective name of German Dances were round dances (danced in a circle around the room) in triple time, meaning the rhythm was 1-2-3, 1-2-3. The tunes and rhythm are important, because manual laborers would often sing work songs in which the first of every three beats was accompanied by an effort such as swinging a hammer or a scythe (Quirey, 1987; Carner, 1948). The Austrian ländler, the waltz’s immediate predecessor, was originally sung and danced at the same time, as were the carols of old France and England. In the taverns, woods, and river inns of Vienna in the early 1800s, tunes of Joseph Lanner and Johann Strauss the Elder accompanied the dancers (Carner, 1948). While the waltz nowadays seems an innocent and old-fashioned dance, its closed dance hold with a man’s arm around a woman was a radical departure from polite ballroom dance of the time. Imagine a young woman of the mid-1800s, tightly laced in her corset per the fashion, in a late-night ballroom heated by candles, held close by a man with the scent of liquor and perhaps tobacco on his breath, whirling repeatedly in his arms. The effect was intoxicating, dizzying, and either romantic or repugnant, depending on one’s point of view and one’s partner. Could we blame her for needing to step out onto the balcony or into the garden for some fresh air? Of course, her partner could not let her go alone if he was a gentleman. Therein lies a risk to morality, and part of the reason for society’s objection to waltzing. Nevertheless, for reasons that may be Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 103 Figure 7.8 Engraving of a waltz, based on a painting by James Stephanoff (1839). The manners and demeanor of polite society are evident, as are the joys of waltzing and being invited to join the dance. obvious to you now, the dance’s popularity only grew throughout the 19th century. The shock it gave the older generation was probably an element of the attraction; our era had a similar reaction to “dirty dancing” and grinding. Insofar as the waltz encouraged recreational exercise, the pleasure it gave men and women in that era was important as an affective motivation for movement. We must remember that opportunities for women to experience such giddy exhilaration were extremely limited at the time. Learning to waltz well was an expected accomplishment for people of means and leisure, and a graceful performance of the dance gave pleasure to spectators as well, once the initial shock wore off. Quirey (1987) does not exaggerate with the comment, “The advent of Waltz in Polite Society was quite simply the greatest change in dance form and dancing manners that has happened in our history” (p. 66). SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • Numerous wars and rising nationalism in the 19th century led to increased demand for physical education to improve health and strength along with patriotism. • The main proponents of German gymnastics were Johann GutsMuths, Friedrich Jahn, and Adolph Spiess. The main proponent of Danish gymnastics was Franz Nachtegall. The main proponents of Swedish gymnastics were Per Henrick Ling and his son, Hjalmar Ling. • The goals of the British sports ideal were to develop traits of loyalty, honesty, teamwork, good sportsmanship, and leadership. Professionalism and excessive drilling in skills were seen as incompatible with this model, which emphasized participation for the sake of playing the game. 104 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT • The YMCA used the idea of muscular Christianity to encourage membership and to prepare young men for the physical challenges of spreading the Gospel and living moral, manly lives. Later in the 19th century, muscular Judaism was used by Zionist leaders in Maccabi and Bar Kochba gymnastic clubs to encourage health and fitness among Jewish youth. • The waltz challenged social dance traditions with its closed dance position, in which couples were brought into close, intimate physical proximity, contrary to the norms of previous social dances. LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the history and philosophy of the time period covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or other research. 1. Evolution of Gymnastics Apparatus (Visual): Find illustrations and photographs of gymnastic apparatus from the time of Johann GutsMuths to the present, including German and Swedish systems. Which apparatus have changed, and how? Which of the apparatus remain part of gymnastics training today? Which are no longer used? 2. Advocacy Research (Research): GutsMuths, Jahn, Nachtegall, Ling, and others succeeded in convincing their countries’ leaders of the importance of physical education. Find at least three translations of different authors who wrote about German, Danish, and Swedish gymnastics in 19th-century Europe. What arguments did they use in their writing to promote physical activity? Could some of the same arguments be used today? How did they perceive the role of exercise for female education? 3. Literature, Film, and the British Sports Ideal (Research): Read or watch Tom Brown’s School Days or Tom Brown at Oxford. What specific examples of incidents in the book or film can you find which support the British sports’ muscular Christianity? Does this ideal persist in Great Britain’s public schools today? 4. Physical Experience (Kinesthetic): To get a better understanding of Hjalmar Ling’s Day’s Order, read and try to demonstrate movements from one of the texts used by a later proponent of the system in the United States, Claës J. Enebuske. The text is available online through Google books under the title Progressive Gymnastic Day’s Orders: According to the Principles of the Ling System. First Collection. Arranged for Class Work in Schoolrooms Without Gymnastic Apparatus. Note that the exercises were performed to music. Try doing them to music from the 19th century and then to popular music suggested by the class. Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 105 FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 7.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chodowiecki_Basedow_Tafel_21_a_Z.jpg. Fig. 7.2: Copyright © by Wellcome Images, (CC BY 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Gutsmuths,_Gymnastik_fur_die_Jugend._Wellcome_L0026823.jpg. Fig. 7.3: Copyright © 1931 by BArchBot, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-12352,_%C3%84ltestes_Turnpferd.jpg. Fig. 7.4: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Basel_Turnplatz.jpg. Fig. 7.5: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Franz_Nachtegall,_Director_of_ Gymnastics_at_the_Civil_Gymnastic_Institute_of_Denmark.jpg. Fig. 7.6: S ource: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Norrk%C3%B6ping,_ milit%C3%A4rskolans_gymnastiksal_1902.jpg. Fig. 7.7: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tom_Brown_6th_ed-p339.png. Fig. 7.8: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Waltz_by_J_Stephanoff.png. REFERENCES Aldrich, E. (1991). From the ballroom to Hell: Grace and folly in nineteenth-century dance. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Anderson, N. F. (2010). The sporting life: Victorian sports and games. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger/ ABC-CLIO. Baker, W. J. (1994). To pray or to play? The YMCA question in the United Kingdom and the United States, 1850–1900. International Journal of the History of Sport, 11(1), 42–62. Beck, M. F. (2010). Theory and practice of therapeutic massage. Clifton Park, NY: Milady (Cengage Learning). Carner, M. (1948). The waltz. London, England: Max Parrish. Dine, P. (2003). For health and beauty: Physical culture for Frenchwomen, 1880s–1930s [Review of the book For health and beauty: Physical culture for Frenchwomen, 1880s–1930s, by M. L. Stewart]. International Journal of the History of Sport, 20(3), 164–165. Dixon, J. G. (1986). Prussia, politics and physical education. In P. C. McIntosh, J. G. Dixon, A. D. Munrow, & R. F. Willetts (Eds.), Landmarks in the history of physical education (rev. ed.) (pp. 112–155). London, England: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Garnham, N. (2001). Both playing and praying: “Muscular Christianity and the YMCA in north-east County Durham. Journal of Social History, 35(2), 397–407. doi: 10.1353/ jsh.2001.0122 GutsMuths, J. C. F. (1793/1803). Gymnastics for youth, or, a practical guide to healthful and amusing exercises: For the use of schools; an essay toward the necessary improvement of education, chiefly as it relates to the body (unknown translator). Philadelphia, PA: P. Byrne. Harvey, A. (1999). Football’s missing link: The real story of the evolution of modern football. In J. A. Mangan (Ed.), Sport in Europe: Politics, Class, Gender (pp. 92–116). London, England: Frank Cass. Hughes, T. (1857/1923). Tom Brown’s school days. Philadelphia, PA: George W. Jacobs. Lewis, R. W. (1999). “Touched pitch and been shockingly defiled”: Football, class, social Darwinism and decadence in England, 1880–1914. In J. A. Mangan (Ed.), Sport in Europe: Politics, Class, Gender (pp. 92–116). London, England: Frank Cass. 106 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Mandell, R. D. (1984). Sport: A cultural history. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Mangan, J. A. (1988). Pleasure, profit, proselytism: British culture and sport at home and abroad, 1700–1914. London, England: Frank Cass. Mechikoff, R. A., & Estes, S. G. (1998). A history and philosophy of sport and physical education: From ancient civilizations to the modern world (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: WCB/McGraw-Hill. Money, T. (1997). Manly and muscular diversions: Public schools and the nineteenth-century sporting revival. London, England: Gerald Duckworth. Parratt, C. M. (1999). Making leisure work: Women’s rational recreation in late Victorian and Edwardian England. Journal of Sport History, 26(3), 471–487. Pfister, G. (1981). The influence of women doctors on the origins of women’s sports in Germany. In E. Jokl (Ed.), Medicine and Sport, Vol. 14 (pp. 58–65). Basel, Switzerland: S. Karger. Polidoro, J. R. (2000). Sport and physical activity in the modern world. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Quirey, B. (1987). May I have the pleasure?: The story of popular dancing. London, England: Dance Books. Ueberhorst, H. (1979). Jahn’s historical significance. Canadian Journal of History of Sport & Physical Education, 10(1), 7–14. Zeigler, E. F. (1988). History of physical education and sport (rev. ed.). Champaign, IL: Stipes. Physical Education and Sport in 19th-Century Europe 107 C H APTER 8 19TH-CENTURY PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. Settlement houses: community centers in large cities, at which immigrants and the poor could learn basic skills, languages, and civics along with games and sports YMCA/YWCA: Young Men’s Christian Association/Young Women’s Christian Association; a membership organization originally founded for religious study and prayer; often included gymnasiums, fitness centers, and gathering places for recreational pastimes YMHA/YWHA: Young Men’s Hebrew Association/Young Women’s Hebrew Association; similar to Christian associations, but designed and managed to serve Jewish members Manifest Destiny: the 19th-century belief that the United States was destined to spread its territory, democracy, and capitalism across the continent of North America, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean Round Hill School: first school in the United States to require daily physical education as part of the curriculum; also first in the United States to have a physical education instructor and to introduce German gymnastics Monitorial system: a model in which more advanced students assist the teacher with other students, learning by teaching Forty-Eighters: German immigrants to the United States who arrived after the failed German Republican revolution of 1848 and founded turnvereine (German gymnastics clubs) in many cities throughout this country, beginning in Cincinnati 108 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT • How did European teachers of gymnastics influence early American physical education? • Who were some of the pioneers of physical education in the United States? • Why do cities have playgrounds? • What was society’s view of women and exercise in the United States during the 19th century? (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) INTRODUCTION In the previous chapter, the growing importance of physical education as part of a comprehensive education in Europe was outlined. Now it is time to turn once again to the United States and learn the ways in which physical education began to be recognized as part of the educational process there. Immigrants brought their ideas about physical education, as well as sports from their countries, to influence physical activities in educational and social realms. Settlement houses, YMCAs, YWCAs, YMHAs, and YWHAs began to flourish in large cities to welcome immigrants and help them become established in an unfamiliar land, often using physical fitness to encourage membership and usage. There were many firsts in the 19th century in the United States. The first school to offer physical education as part of its daily activities was founded. The first normal schools to provide teacher training in physical education were established. The first intercollegiate athletic competitions were held. The first college degree program in physical education was created. The first public parks and playgrounds were planned and maintained. There were many blights on this era, however. Indigenous peoples were slaughtered, slaves were used and abused, and women were afforded few rights and privileges during this century. Wars, disease outbreaks, racial and social inequality, and economic disparity caused stresses within the population. Meanwhile, the concept of Manifest Destiny led to territorial battles and rugged frontier living, where physical labors required especially strong, resilient men and women. From meat cutters to miners, factory workers to farmers, shopkeepers to sailors, the need was obvious for healthy laborers and women strong enough to bear and raise children. In this chapter, you will gain an overview of Swedish movement cure: based on the physiotherapy of Per Henrik Ling, the ideas contained within the cure encompassed Swedish gymnastics, massage, diet, hygiene, and environmental controls such as light and temperature Kinesiology: literally, the study of motion, especially human movement Anthropometrics: recording of body measurements, sometimes to be used as a means of comparing bodies to a standard Calisthenics: fitness exercises requiring no special apparatus or equipment, developed by Catharine Beecher Delsartism: a system of expressive gymnastics (“applied aesthetics”) developed by French singing, acting, and dancing instructor François Delsarte, popular in the late 19th century Tableaux mouvants: (also known as tableaux vivants) staged recreations of famous events or paintings using Delsarte’s system of gymnastics and movement expression Phrenologist: one who studies the human skull as a guide to character and intellectual ability; this study (phrenology) was popular in the 19th century Light gymnastics: exercise system developed by Diocletian Lewis (who called it “new gymnastics”), often done to music using small apparatus such as wands, rings, Indian clubs, light dumbbells, and beanbags Common schools movement: led by Massachusetts educational reformer Horace Mann, a 19th-century push for public, nondenominational education as a basis for citizenship in a democratic society Body building: a term coined by Boston YMCA employee Robert J. Roberts in 1877 19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 109 (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) Mintonette: original name of the sport of volleyball, created by YMCA employee William G. Morgan in 1895 Playground movement: in the late 1800s, efforts to provide natural open spaces for children and others to play, exercise, explore, relax, and learn 110 the efforts of the pioneers of physical education in the United States and some of the challenges they faced. ROUND HILL SCHOOL In 1820, a traveler returned to the United States from Europe to take up a position as a professor and librarian at Harvard University. Joseph Green Cogswell (1786–1871) had been traveling for four years abroad, where he had studied the educational theories of Swiss educational reformers Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) and Philipp Emanuel von Fellenberg (1771–1844). According to Geldbach (1976), Cogswell visited Salzmann’s Schnepfenthal Institute in Germany, where the gymnastics curriculum of GutsMuths impressed him deeply (Geldbach, 1976). However, Bennett (1969) disagrees somewhat on the details of that visit, saying there is no evidence he met directly with GutsMuths. Growing restless at Harvard, in 1823 Cogswell teamed up with a powerhouse of American education, George Bancroft, whom he had known in Europe. They were determined to try out their experimental educational ideas at their new Round Hill School in Northampton, Massachusetts. The school taught over 300 boys, ages 9 to 16, over the 11 years of its existence before it closed due to financial difficulties. The school’s prospectus promised to mold “not laborious students only, but faithful and useful citizens” (Cogswell & Bancroft, 1823, p. 10). In addition to opportunities to study seven different languages, courses in mathematics, sciences, history, geography, and religious studies were offered. Most notably from the perspective of this textbook, physical education was an important part of the curriculum, making Round Hill School the first boys’ school in the United States to require physical education (Bennett, 1969). Beginning in early 1825, Round Hill became the first in the United States to have a physical education teacher, when a student of Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, German refugee Charles (Karl) Beck, joined the faculty and brought German gymnastics to the students. He built a turnplatz and translated Jahn’s textbook on gymnastics (Deutsche Turnkunst) into English (Treatise on Gymnastics Taken Chiefly from the German of F. L. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Figure 8.1 Lithograph of Round Hill School, Northampton, Massachusetts: the first boys’ school in the United States to require physical education as part of the curriculum. Jahn, 1828). For five years he contributed immensely to the school’s reputation for healthy students, and his background as an ordained Lutheran minister dovetailed nicely with Bancroft’s background in theology and concerns for the moral character of the students (Bennett, 1969). Cogswell himself had initially taught physical activities, including football, swimming, archery, ice hockey, dancing, riding, jumping, leaping, hunting, baseball, running, hiking, wrestling, and camping. Beck’s contribution gave each student three hours per week of systematic training, drawing on naturalistic methods derived from Jahn’s work. Games and sports were also meant to “promote hilarity,” according to the founders (Cogswell & Bancroft, 1826, in Geldbach, 1976, p. 239). The fact that “hilarity” was one stated goal of required physical activity in an academically rigorous school of that time period implies a positive affective culture at the school without negating the importance of the physical training. Cogswell served as a kindly father figure who sought balance between the necessity for disciplined work and the need for rest and recreation. After Round Hill School closed, he went on to found a similar school in Raleigh, North Carolina, and then to serve as a librarian for the wealthy Astor family in New York City. Bancroft moved on to write histories and to serve in the cabinet under President James Polk as Secretary of the Navy, where he created the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland. While neither made great contributions to the history of physical education following their time at Round Hill, their careers further demonstrate the caliber of these two men who believed vehemently in the roles of physical education and dance should play as important components of comprehensive education. Through their efforts, German gymnastics established its place as a leading system of fitness training. It would fall to others to build on that foundation. 19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 111 GERMAN GYMNASTICS IN THE UNITED STATES Beck’s friend and fellow German turner refugee, Charles (Karl) Follen (1796–1840), later got him a job teaching Latin at Harvard University. Follen had established the first US college gymnasium at Harvard in 1826. Follen’s gymnasium included German gymnastics apparatus such as parallel and horizontal bars, ropes, ladders, climbing poles, vaulting bars and horses, dumbbells, jumping stands, and more. He was named superintendent of the facility and served as an instructor for two years, after which he became a professor in Harvard’s school of theology. The apparatus was left without a caretaker and the last piece was taken out by 1830 (Geldbach, 1976). However, Follen had also established the first public gymnasium in the United States in Boston in 1826, where he tried unsuccessfully to lure Jahn from Germany to teach gymnastics. Instead, another German refugee, Franz Lieber (17981872), immigrated and added a swimming school to the gymnasium. As at the most liberal of the turnvereine in Germany, men of different socioeconomic classes exercised together regularly at the Boston Gymnasium. That principle of democratization did not extend to African Americans, who were excluded from northeast gymnasia despite the active antislavery leanings of Follen and Lieber and the efforts of John Neal to allow them access at his Portland, Maine, gymnasium (Geldbach, 1976). Women were likewise generally excluded from physical education classes in the early 1800s (as they were often excluded from other subjects), though they participated regularly in active pastimes such as swimming, walking, skating, and sledding (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017) and hunting and angling (McMurray, 2008). Since his arrival in the United States, Lieber had advocated for select gymnastics for women to improve their health and well-being. He noted that women’s “mental improvement” had become more of a societal norm, so that “care should be taken that the body is not sacrificed to the mind, not health to intellect” (quoted in Geldbach, 1976, p. 271). Another instance in which girls were afforded the opportunity to participate in German gymnastics was due to William Fowle of the Boston Monitorial School, who had begun offering gymnastics to his female pupils since 1825 with great success (Geldbach, 1976). The monitorial system was a popular educational model in the early 1800s in which more skilled students served as helpers to the instructors and learned by teaching. This would have been particularly useful in a school where a male instructor was teaching gymnastics to females and hands-on corrections might be needed. Figure 8.2 The frontispiece from Charles Follen’s Collected Works (1841), showing gymnastics exercises he taught. 112 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT From the 1820s through the remainder of the 19th century, immigration to the United States rose dramatically. German immigrants escaping a failed republican revolution in their country in 1848 founded turnvereine in many US cities, starting in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1848. These Forty-Eighters, as they were known, were often professionals and intellectuals who had been part of the turner movement in their homeland. Other German immigrants were laborers who had come for work on railroads, canals, in meat-processing facilities, and on farms. All were welcome at the turnvereine, where their language, customs, reform-minded ideas, and gymnastics were celebrated. As a bulwark against the American nativists of groups like the American Party (also called the Know-Nothings), these turners banded together to protect their lives and property (Barney, 1982; Munrow, 1981). Efforts to establish schools to train teachers in German gymnastics reaped only limited success, but a move to establish a national United Turnvereine of North America beginning in 1850 proved valuable for the cohesion of the movement. Libraries, national and regional gymnastics festivals (turnfeste), and a national newspaper (called Turnzeitung) helped to connect the various clubs and gave support to their political efforts in the areas of anti-prohibitionism and the antislavery movement while supporting the turners’ defiance of Sabbath-day prohibitions through activities like gymnastics, dancing, shooting, and beer drinking (Barney, 1982; Hoffmann, 2001; Mechikoff & Estes, 1998). While turnvereine exist in the United States to this day, their influence has lessened dramatically. However, the work they did in the 19th century led to the inclusion of German gymnastics in many schools and postsecondary institutions of higher learning as well as in Figure 8.3 Gymnasts of the Milwaukee Turnverein, 1866. 19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 113 YMCA/YWCA and other gymnasiums nationwide. While some within the movement urged the inclusion of women and girls in their exercise classes, and some turnvereine successfully opened classes for women in the latter part of the 19th century, full membership for females in this male-dominated world was still being debated as late as 1998. The organization is now open to males and females, with many clubs relying on women for club work and membership revenues (Hofmann, 2000). In the 1800s, the turnvereine ensured that the German gymnastics influence surpassed that of another European transplanted gymnastic system, Per Henrik Ling’s and Hjalmar Ling’s Swedish gymnastics. SWEDISH GYMNASTICS Swedish immigration to the United States rose after 1860, and the influence of Swedish gymnastics was not felt until the latter part of that century. There was interest in the physiotherapeutic work of Swedish gymnast Per Henrik Ling, whose work on a precursor to what became known as Swedish massage made quite an impact in the medical community. George Taylor (1860) was among those who brought Ling’s principles to North America during the early upsurge in medical treatment issues, with a lengthy volume extolling the virtues of the Swedish Movement Cure. The movement cure consisted of prescribed exercises for various parts of the body (medical gymnastics) and massage, along with recommendations for diet, hygiene, and environmental factors such as light and temperature. Women and men were encouraged to use the cure in Taylor’s book, and a section on education reflects Hjalmar Ling’s Day’s Order (see Chapter 7) and strongly urges that physical education be included in schools. Figure 8.4 Advertisement for mechanical massage appliance available at George Taylor’s Movement Cure Institute in New York City, 1887. 114 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Meanwhile, the work of Swedish teacher Anton Santesson (1825–1892) in educational gymnastics for women and girls found some adherents in those who wanted to expand on Hjalmar Ling’s work. Santesson himself, however, was never able to create a comprehensive female curriculum for Ling’s methods, nor was he able to significantly alter the prevailing bias toward improving the male physique in Swedish gymnastics (Westberg, 2018). Despite that mid-century burst of interest, Swedish gymnastics did not really gain traction in the United States until the 1880s, when immigrants Hartvig Nissen (originally from Norway) and Baron Nils Posse of Sweden were supported by private funding from Mary Hemenway (mother of the man who donated Hemenway Gymnasium to Harvard) to open the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics in 1890. The Swedish system as taught by the graduates of this school became more popular with women and girls than with men and tended to be used more in New England than elsewhere in the country. In some ways it was felt to be too controlled, restrictive, and formal—not to say boring—at a time when individualized programs and leisurely recreational activities were in fashion (Munrow, 1981). One source asserts that Posse coined the term kinesiology from the Greek origins of kinesis (motion) and logos (discourse or study) (Kennard, 1994). The Swedish system nevertheless exerted lasting influence through a number of pioneers in physical education, notably doctors who were understandably interested in the medical benefits of Ling’s work. Three of those doctors, Edward M. Hartwell, Dudley Allen Sargent, and Edward Hitchcock drew on the legacy of Ling’s work in their own endeavors. Hartwell became principal of the Boston Normal Gymnastics School, was director of physical training for the Boston Public Schools and was an instructor in physical culture at Johns Hopkins University (Munrow, 1986; Park, 1987). Following a career as a “strong man” boxer and gymnast touring with circuses, Sargent served as director of Bowdoin College’s gymnastics program. He then worked as the director of physical education at Harvard’s Hemenway Gymnasium, where he melded what he saw as the best of the German and Swedish gymnastics systems in an eclectic blend. His individualized programs used free weights, and innovative machines in which the weights and pulleys provided resistance to build balanced muscle strength. His inventions and versions of Swedish physician Gustav Zander’s machines would be more or less familiar to anyone who works with machine weights today. When students were initially unable to work with cumbersome heavy weights but rejected as a sign of weakness the Indian clubs and light barbells he had offered as an alternative, he devised adjustable weight machines to allow for progressive overload of muscles according to individual needs (De la Peña, 2003). Whether using gymnastics or other apparatus, Figure 8.5 One of Gustav Zander’s medical machines, Sargent’s work incorporated anthropometrics, the adapted by Dudley Sargent for strength training. 19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 115 careful recording of measurements aimed at the development of a well-balanced, symmetrical, and well-proportioned ideal body. He noted the strengths and weaknesses of each student as compared to a standard male body. While he did not invent anthropometrics, his use of them was a hallmark of his teaching, and this method was used widely based on his work. He used the same technique at Yale as well as at Harvard (De la Peña, 2003). Many of his students were unused to physical labor, given their upbringing as members of a privileged class, and the work reconnected them to their physicality while encouraging scientific development of strength and muscle tone. Sargent’s academic appointment as a professor, his use of scientific methods of research and analysis, and his creation of the Harvard Summer School for Physical Education (an independent teacher training program) helped to increase the acceptance of physical education as a subject on a par with other academic disciplines in higher education (Shimon, 2011). Sargent revised his work and applied it to women who frequented his Cambridge and New York City gymnasiums, at separate hours from those in which men exercised there (De la Peña, 2003). He founded the Sargent Normal School of Physical Education, with courses in anatomy and physiology as well as gymnastics, later combining it with Boston University to create the Sargent College of Physical Education (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998). Like Edward Hitchcock, he served as president of the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education (AAAPE) (Park, 1991). Hitchcock also used anthropometrics, charting the measurements of all Amherst College students from 1861 to 1901 via required physical exams. He served as a professor of physical education and hygiene, and like Sargent, he used the results of his studies to quantifiably research human physical ideals, meaning average or normal measurements. He became the first president of the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education (AAAPE), providing leadership service to the profession while it was still in its early phase of acceptance in higher education. Hitchcock recommended three to four hours of daily physical activity for optimum health (Betts, 1968). It must be understood that both he and Sargent were working with a population that was heavily skewed to the white, middle- to upper-class part of humanity. While their research activities gave them status that helped to establish physical education as a valid academic endeavor, it was eventually realized that anthropometrics were compounding invalid and prejudicial views of racial and socioeconomic inequality (Mechikoff & Estes, 1998). DELSARTISM During the last three decades of the 1800s, students of French singing, acting, and movement instructor François Delsarte (1811–1871) shared his Delsarte System of Physical Culture in the United States via classes and performances using his teachings (Polidoro, 2000). Expression and relaxation through movement was at the core of Delsartism, which he called applied aesthetics. Steele Mackaye, Emily Bishop, Genevieve Stebbins and Henrietta Hovey were among the most important teachers of Delsartism in North America. Performances of costumed enactors posed as statues, performed dances and pantomimes, and made living recreations of famous paintings (often with classical themes) known as tableaux mouvants or tableaux vivants. These were commonly featured in amateur and professional variety shows, community celebrations, recitals, and school presentations across the country, reaching a peak 116 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT in the 1890s. Men who trained in Delsartism generally used the work as an enhancement of their oratorical skills on the lecture podiums, but men and women also arranged nonverbal performances using the system (Ruyter, 1999). For middle- and upper-class women especially, Delsarte exercises allowed more freedom of movement and a more confident use of their bodies than was generally accepted in an era of stiff corsets and strict societal rules. Bishop shared the system through her writings and teaching, especially at Chautauqua in western New York. Various summer institutes had attracted numerous students to Chautauqua Lake’s resorts, beginning in 1874. Bishop’s first invitation to teach there came in 1888 through the department of physical culture that had been established there in 1886 by Dr. William G. Anderson, who desired that she share the gymnastic elements of Delsartism rather than the Figure 8.6 Example of a tableau vivant, circa more expressive components. Her students were mostly 1891. This image depicts reconciliation using women and girls, but her 1892 publication of Americanized typical Delsartean poses. Delsarte Culture emphasized the importance of health and grace with applications for men and women (Ruyter, 1999). Notably, Bishop recognized the benefits of an eclectic approach to fitness: she encouraged people to combine Delsartism with other gymnastics systems as part of a total rational gymnastics education (Bishop, 1892). BEYOND THE EUROPEAN SYSTEMS One notable pioneer of physical education in the United States desired the benefits of exercise for women but rejected the German system as too taxing. Catharine Beecher (1800–1878), sister of Harriet Beecher Stowe (author of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, an antislavery tome) and an abolitionist herself, devoted her life to education for women. Her views were typical of the 19th century in that she believed a woman’s place was as a homemaker. On the other hand, she recognized the need for an understanding of female physiology and activity. Two of Beecher’s books dealt specifically with fitness: A Course of Calisthenics for Young Ladies (1831) and Calisthenic Exercises for Schools, Families, and Health Establishments (1856). Like Mary Lyon, her fellow exercise advocate who founded what became Mount Holyoke College, Beecher founded female seminaries in which she stressed the need for daily physical exercise (Polidoro, 2000). Her calisthenic exercises achieved lasting popularity, as they required no special equipment and apparatus and could be done by men as well as women and children. At the time of her writing, women were thought to be weakened first by menstruation, then childbirth, then menopause; the strain of normal physical functions required that their vital energies be optimized for their roles as wives and mothers. Unfortunately, the medical establishment believed that too much intellectual stimulation and education would tax the body’s energies, to the detriment of the delicacy of the female constitution. Catharine Beecher was an important advocate for women’s fitness at a time when the risk of carrying and bearing children was often literally a question of life and death (Atkinson, 1985). 19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 117 Figure 8.7 Calisthenic exercise showing a girl performing a Figure 8.8 Calisthenics were not just for women. Here a punching movement, from Catharine Beecher’s Calisthenic boy is shown doing an exercise requiring no special Exercises for Schools, Families, and Health Establishments equipment. Such movements could be done in the home or (1856). schoolroom. Beecher’s calisthenics were the basis of physical education for girls at Emma Willard’s Troy Female Seminary in New York State. Women’s fitness advocates Mary Lyon of Holyoke and Catharine Beecher both encouraged Willard to include physical education in her academy from 1821, early in its history. Sports were also part of the educational program there. While Round Hill School is generally cited as the first school in the United States to require physical education, Round Hill was actually the first to have a physical education teacher, but not the first to require physical education: that honor goes to Emma Willard’s school (Kendall, 1973; Leepson, 1992). During the mid-1900s, tremendous interest in health education and reforms swept the United States in response to urbanization and industrialization. In Boston, William Ellery Channing and Dr. Lemuel Shattuck studied overcrowding in Boston, and in New York City, an Association for the Improvement of the Condition of the Poor published its first report in 1845. Scotsmen George Combe, author of Constitution of Man (1828) and Dr. Andrew Combe (his younger brother, fellow phrenologist, and author of Principles of Physiology (1834) and Physiology of Digestion (1836)) exerted tremendous influence in the United States toward modernization of 118 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT medical treatments and recommendations for exercise. They were joined by voices from Philadelphia’s professional Journal of Health, the Graham Journal of Health and Longevity (published by Sylvester Graham of graham cracker fame), the Medical Magazine, and the Boston Health Journal and Advocate of Physiological Reform as well as newspapers such as New York’s Mirror (Betts, 1968). Later in the century, settlement houses would provide health education, recreational and physical activities, day care, language classes, and social services to the millions of poor and immigrant urban dwellers in cities like Boston, Chicago, and New York City. Some of the most famous of these volunteer community centers were Jane Addams’s Hull House in Chicago, Lenox Hill Neighborhood House, University Settlement House, and Henry Street Settlement in New York City, and Denison House in Boston. These institutions helped socialize immigrants through sports activities as well as through their other social and educational programs (Husock, 1992). Growing partially out of this general interest in the health and well-being of all citizens (including schoolchildren), the organizers of the 1860 Boston Convention of the American Institute of Instruction asked Diocletian “Dio” Lewis (1823–1886) to demonstrate his new system, which he called “New Gymnastics” but became known as light gymnastics (Wosh, 1982; Zeigler, 1974). Drawing on the work of Per Henrik Ling as well as Catharine Beecher and her calisthenics, he added apparatus such as wands, rings, Indian clubs (so named because British colonialists found them being used for fitness in India), light dumbbells, and beanbags. He also encouraged the use of music in his system to improve rhythmic activity (hearkening back to the early Greeks as well as some European gymnastics). He advocated for women’s exercise and for temperance, achieving success and influence as the founder of Lewis’s Figure 8.9 Light gymnastics for men and women using Normal Institute for Physical Education in 1861 dumbbells, from Dio Lewis’s book The New Gymnastics for (Welch, 1994; Zeigler, 1974). Men, Women, and Children (10th ed., 1869). As the first school in the United States designed for physical education teacher preparation, this institute ensured that students were prepared to meet the growing need for qualified physical educators. The small pool of existing trained teachers was a roadblock in the efforts of New England cities, and then later states (beginning in California in 1866) to implement laws passed to require physical education in all public elementary and secondary schools (Polidoro, 2000). Lewis’s normal school predated the 1866 founding of the New York 19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 119 City turner school for the German gymnastics system, but both institutions helped to advance opportunities for consistent quality teacher preparation in the United States. In addition to light gymnastics, calisthenics, and the European gymnastics methods, the YMCA was also active in promoting fitness in the United States, though as in Europe, the initial Y associations served as missionary organizations rather than exercise facilities. Thomas Valentine, a captain and missionary, opened the first American YMCA in Boston in 1851. A freed slave, Anthony Bowen, founded the first African American YMCA in Washington, DC, in 1853 (“History—1800s–1860s,” 2019), and the first US YWCA followed in New York City in 1858. Gymnasiums began to be part of new YMCA buildings beginning in 1869, though exercise classes were offered before that with the intention of integrating mind, body, and spirit in Christian practice. The term body building was coined by a Boston YMCA employee named Robert J. Roberts in 1877 (Rock, 2008). A school to train YMCA workers opened in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1885, and it added a physical education component in 1887. By 1891, the physical education part of the school had separated and become the international YMCA Training School, which developed curricula and trained instructors for worldwide physical education in association gymnastics, fitness, and health. That same year, a Canadian graduate student invented the game of wbasketball there, and James Naismith’s original written rules for the game helped promote the sport for recreation and competition, since players could be confident that the rules were understood and agreed upon. Figure 8.10 Early-20th-century YMCA basketball players. 120 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT A fellow student at the Training School and later a YMCA worker, William G. Morgan, observed the success of the basketball program with great interest. He went on to invent a game called mintonette, which he thought would appeal to older players at his Holyoke, Massachusetts, facility in 1895. The sport became known as volleyball. Between the inventions of basketball and volleyball, in 1889 the YMCA appointed Luther H. Gulick (1865–1918) to supervise physical training at the Training School. He was a former student of physical education pioneer Delphine Hanna (who had studied with both Sargent and Lewis and was among the first to advocate for lifelong, outdoor carryover sports) at Oberlin College in Ohio (“Brief Outline,” 1941; Lynn, 1960). Gulick was a force of nature. He was heavily influenced by the positive aspects of organized sports and games and dedicated to muscular Christianity, and it was partially through his influence that the British school sports ideals were brought to North America. In 1903, he became the director of the Public Schools Athletic League in New York City, where he organized competitive events and championships. He also initiated the Girl’s Branch of the NYC Public Schools Athletic League, in which he vigorously promoted dancing as a controlled, healthful exercise which could help immigrants maintain a sense of cultural heritage while also learning dances that would help them become part of their new American communities (Putney, 2011). His observations on this and his essays on physical training for women were published in 1911 as The Healthful Art of Dancing (Winter, 1999). In this Gulick was given support by a graduate of the Boston College Sargent School of Physical Education, Elizabeth Burchenal (1875–1959), whom he hired to work for the Girl’s Branch. Burchenal’s interest in folk dancing led her to teach dances, organize folk dance festivals, and share her ideas about the integration of folk dance into comprehensive physical education in New York, across the country, and around the world. She founded the American Folk Dance Society in 1916 and authored many books on folk dancing and singing games, which made it easier for teachers to introduce students to the positive social, physical, and emotional benefits of dance education. Gulick’s energies extended to outdoor activities, and he was instrumental in the founding of the Boy Scouts of America, the Camp Fire Girls, and the Playground Association of America (PAA, which eventually became the National Recreation and Park Association, or NRPA). The Figure 8.11 Elizabeth Burchenal in folk dance attire. Her influence playground movement of the late 1800s, helped to secure the place of recreational folk dance in physical of which Gulick was a part, drew on the education. 19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 121 outdoor influence of German physical education and concern for the well-being of youth, especially in congested, dirty inner cities. Parks like those in New York designed by landscape architects Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, open spaces, sand gardens, school gardens, and arboretums provided opportunities for play, recreation, education, relaxation, and exercise. This was important because rapid expansion of urban areas led to overcrowding, industrialization (including child labor), and unsanitary living conditions for many city dwellers. Creating and maintaining open green spaces became an important part of public policy (Frost, 2012). Eventually, state and national movements to preserve natural wonders and recreational areas would expand on the efforts Gulick and others had made in the 1800s through the playground movement. THE BATTLE OF THE SYSTEMS Educational reformers, notably including Massachusetts’ Horace Mann (father of the common schools movement), had been calling for inclusion of physical education in schools without much success, but Lewis’s system spurred greater inclusion of fitness activities in schools. Mann was an admirer and friend of George Combe’s, and the latter’s Constitution of Man was influential in Mann’s writings in his Common School Journal beginning in 1838 (Betts, 1968). Lewis’s use of small, relatively inexpensive apparatus that could be used anywhere—as opposed to the large, more expensive apparatus and gymnasiums required in the German and Swedish systems—was a significant element of the success of light gymnastics. During that century, many schools were one-room community-centered buildings with only one teacher for all subjects and ages, especially in sparsely populated rural areas. The burden of expense was combined with a commonly held belief that physical fitness had no place in the academic environment. William G. Anderson brought together representatives of various methods, normal schools, gymnastic systems, measurement techniques, and fitness equipment manufacturing to a meeting at Adelphi Academy in Brooklyn in 1885. This meeting led to the founding of an important professional organization for physical education and allied professions, the Association for the Advancement of Physical Figure 8.12 Washington, DC, students at the end of the Education (AAPE), which was eventually known 19th century, doing light gymnastics in the schoolyard as the American Alliance for Health, Physical with dumbbells. The mixed-gender exercise class is Education, Recreation, and Dance (currently the progressive for its time. Society of Health and Physical Educators, SHAPE America) (SHAPE America, n.d.). A few years later, a conference was held in 1889 in Boston, called A Conference in the Interest of Physical Training. Representatives from most of the major methods of physical education (with the exception of organized sports) met to debate the relative merits of each system. While 122 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT they did not reach a consensus, Dudley Sargent called for an eclectic mix in which the best of each system would combine with the best of others to provide an ideal balance. What America needs is the happy combination which the European nations are trying to effect: the strength-giving qualities of the German Gymnasium, the active and energetic properties of the English sports, the grace and suppleness acquired from French calisthenics, and the beautiful poise and mechanical precision of the Swedish free movements, all regulated, systematized, and adapted to our peculiar needs and institutions. (Sargent, 1889) The Swedish gymnastics instructor Hartvig Nissen later commented in 1892 that the Swedish system was a good one when funding for fully equipped gymnasia was not possible, but he also recommended the additional use of German gymnastics for strengthening (Nissen, 1892). Like the Delsarte teacher Bishop, he believed a mixture of different systems would yield the best physical results. There was no clear winner, nor even an exact time period, for the so-called Battle of the Systems. It was less a battle than a national conversation. The era of the founding of AAPE and the Conference in the Interest of Physical Training, however, represents a moment in time in which diverse practitioners of physical education were beginning to work together toward the goal of providing fitness opportunities for all, recognizing the benefits of alternative methods. SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • European teachers of gymnastics influenced early American physical education through educational institutions, establishment of gymnasiums and gymnastics clubs, founding of normal schools to standardize instruction, writing, and translations of works by European gymnastics teachers into English. • Some of the pioneers of physical education in the United States included the founders and teachers at Round Hill School, Catharine Beecher, Dudley Sargent, Edward Hitchcock, Delphine Hanna, Luther Gulick, and Elizabeth Burchenal. • Cities have playgrounds because the playground movement of the 1800s led to the establishment of open spaces for recreation, relaxation, education, and exercise. This was important because rapid expansion of urban areas led to overcrowding, industrialization (including child labor), and unsanitary living conditions for many city dwellers. • Society’s view of women and exercise in the United States during the 19th century was that limited exertion was beneficial for their health and their ability to survive the physical demands of childbirth and parenting. 19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 123 LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the history and philosophy of the time period covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or other research. 1. Mental Mapping (Visual): Find images of major leaders and teachers of 19th-century physical education in the United States. Create a sort of “family tree” (or several trees), showing the connections between the earliest teachers of German gymnastics, Swedish gymnastics, and other systems as they evolved over the course of the century. 2. Research and Reflection (Research): Hartvig Nissen wrote in 1892 that the Delsarte system was hardly a system at all, and that it was not based on physiological principles. He said that it was sometimes being used simply to make money. Read Bishop’s Americanized Delsarte Culture (1892) at https://books.google.com/books/ about/Americanized_Delsarte_Culture.html?id=FEoMAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcove r&source=kp_read_button#v=onepage&q&f=false. What do you think? Do you agree or disagree with Nissen’s assessment, and why or why not? For additional research, see Genevieve Stebbins’s Society Gymnastics and Voice Culture: Adapted from the Delsarte System (1888) at https://books.google.com/books?id=af7_D1n6rtUC&printse c=frontcover&dq=Stebbins+gymnastic&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjt0ZSZvb7hAhW tm-AKHeZVBdAQ6AEIKjAA#v=onepage&q=Stebbins%20gymnastic&f=false. 3. Calisthenic Exercises (Kinesthetic): Find Catharine Beecher’s book of calisthenics at https:// babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiug.30112039722522;view=1up;seq=5. Create a sequence of exercises from the book, targeting a specific area of the body. If working in a group, have different students create sequences for other parts of the body. 4. Field Trip (Outreach): Is there a turnverein near your school? Arrange a visit and speak with someone there about current turner activities in the United States, or invite someone to come speak to your class. For a list of American turners, see http://www.americanturners. com/Districts. FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 8.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RoundHillSchool_ca1830s_ NorthamptonMA_byPendleton.png. Fig. 8.2: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vita-follen.jpg. Fig. 8.3: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Milwaukee_Turnverein_1866.jpg. 124 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Fig. 8.4: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Improved_Movement_Cure_ Institute.png. Fig. 8.5: Copyright © 2014 by Tekniska museet, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Zanders_mediko-mekaniska_gymnastikredskap.jpg. Fig. 8.6: Source: https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3b11290/. Fig. 8.7: Source: https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/bookviewer?PID=nlm:nlmuid-61360580Rbk#page/220/mode/2up. Fig. 8.8: Source: https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/bookviewer?PID=nlm:nlmuid-61360580Rbk#page/232/mode/2up. Fig. 8.9: Source: https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/bookviewer?PID=nlm:nlmuid-61430800Rbk#page/106/mode/2up. Fig. 8.10: Source: https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/510d47de-4d30-a3d9-e040e00a18064a99. Fig. 8.11: Source: https://www.loc.gov/item/2014707799/. Fig. 8.12: Source: https://www.loc.gov/item/2001703670/. REFERENCES Atkinson, P. (1985). Strong minds and weak bodies: Sports, gymnastics and the medicalization of women’s education. British Journal of Sports History, 2(1), 62–71. Barney, R. K. (1982). Knights of cause and exercise: German Forty-Eighters and turnvereine in the United States during the antebellum period. Canadian Journal of History of Sport, 13(2), 62–79. Beck, C. (1828). Treatise on gymnastics taken chiefly from the German of F. L. Jahn. Northampton, MA: Simeon Butler. Beecher, C. E. (1856/1860). Calisthenic exercises for schools, families, and health establishments. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. Retrieved from https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uiu g.30112039722522;view=1up;seq=5 Bennett, B. L. (1969). Reflections on Round Hill. 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Rivaling the gentleman in the gentle art: The authority of the Victorian woman angler. Sport History Review, 39(1), 99–126. Mechikoff, R. A., & Estes, S. G. (1998). A history and philosophy of sport and physical education: From ancient civilizations to the modern world (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: WCB/McGraw-Hill. Munrow, A. D. (1981). Physical education in the United States. In P. C. McIntosh, J. G. Dixon, A. D. Munrow, & R. F. Willetts (Eds.), Landmarks in the history of physical education (pp. 156–184). London, England: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Nissen, H. (1892). Gymnastic systems. Education, 13(3), 150–159. Park, R. J. (1987). Edward M. Hartwell and physical training at the Johns Hopkins University, 1879–1890. Journal of Sport History, 14(1), 108–119. Park, R. J. (1991). Physiology and anatomy are destiny!?: Brains, bodies and exercise in nineteenth century American thought. Journal of Sport History, 18(1), 31–63. Polidoro, J. R. (2000). Sport and physical activity in the modern world. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Putney, C. (2011). Luther Gulick: His contributions to Springfield College, the YMCA, and “muscular Christianity.” Historical Journal of Massachusetts, 39(1/2), 144–169. Rock, H. (2008). Roots of “activate America” run deep in our heritage. Perspective, 34(8), 19–22. Ruyter, N. L. C. (1999). The cultivation of body and mind in nineteenth-century American Delsartism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 126 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Sargent, D. A. (1890). The system of physical training at the Hemenway Gymnasium. In I. C. Barrows (Ed.), Physical training: A full report of the papers and discussion of the conference held in Boston in November, 1889. Boston, MA: Press of George H. Ellis (pp. 62–76). SHAPE America. (n.d.). Alliance history. Retrieved from https://www.shapeamerica.org//about/ upload/Alliance_History.pdf Shimon, J. M. (2011). Introduction to teaching physical education: Principles and strategies. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Taylor, G. H. (1860). Exposition of the Swedish movement-cure. NY: Fowler and Wells, Publishers. Retrieved from https://ia802701.us.archive.org/27/items/expositionofswed00taylrich/ expositionofswed00taylrich.pdf Welch, P. (1994). Dio Lewis’ Normal Institute for Physical Education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 65(3), 29–31. Westberg, J. (2018). Adjusting Swedish gymnastics to the female nature: Discrepancies in the gendering of girls’ physical education in the mid-nineteenth century. Espacio, Tiempo y Educación, 5(1), pp. 261–279. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.14516/ete.162 Winter, T. (1999). “The healthful art of dancing”: Luther Halsey Gulick, gender, the body, and the performativity of national identity. Journal of American Culture, 22(2), 33–38. Wosh, P. J. (1982). Sound minds and unsound bodies: Massachusetts schools and mandatory physical training. New England Quarterly, 55(1), 39–60. Zeigler, E. F. (1974). Clearing up some confusion about the first teacher training program in physical education in the United States. Canadian Journal of the History of Sport & Physical Education, 5(1), 38–46. 19th-Century Physical Education in the United States 127 C H APTER 9 AN OVERVIEW OF SPORTING ACTIVITIES: 1800–1950 KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. Work-sport: competition related to a particular occupation, such as lumberjack or cowboy • What is percussive dance, and how can Percussive dance: dance movements in which sounds are made by striking parts of the body against the floor or against other body parts; examples include Irish step dance and tap dance Caledonian games: a group of athletic games brought to North America by Scottish settlers; these include the hammer throw, stone putting (like shot put), and caber toss Shinty: a Scottish form of field hockey, similar to Irish hurling Hydropathy: “taking the waters” at a spa, including bathing in and drinking natural mineral water Amateur Athletic Union (AAU): formed in 1888 to define amateurism in sport, sanction athletic events Telegraphic meet: form of competition in which the participants compete at different campuses and send the results via telegraph to another location, where winners are determined Intramural sports: sports in which all competitors are from the same institution; literally, “within the walls” of a single college or university, for example Fleadh, oirachtas, or feis: types of Irish competitions at which one might see competitive dance, sport, and other events 128 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT • What opportunities for work-related sports activities developed in North America in the 1800s? it be used in physical education? • What are some examples of sports brought by immigrants during this time period? • What opportunities did African Americans have to participate in sports before and after the Civil War? • What are amateur athletics, and why are they important? • What types of professional sports were popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries? • How did society view women’s inter collegiate athletics during this time period? INTRODUCTION In Chapter 8, we considered the ways in which European and American systems of physical education were developed and disseminated in the United States during the 1800s. In this chapter, we will focus on the sports and recreational pastimes and institutions that gained popularity in the 19th and early 20th centuries, especially in North America. You may want to skim Chapter 6 for a quick review of colonial-era physical activities and sports in the United States because most of those activities simply continued into the 19th century. What changed? As we saw in the last chapter, German immigrants ignored the Sabbath (“blue”) laws prohibiting dancing, sports, and related activities on Sundays. For working people, the weekend literally had not been invented yet, so the only day off for recreational activities was Sunday. Effectively, that had limited competitions and active pastimes. The vast influx of Germans and their turner societies (see Chapter 8), which flouted the laws, rendered the restrictions ineffective: locally, the prohibitions were often ignored. Other immigrant groups brought new types of games, dances, and contests to North America, where traditions were either preserved or modified, or both. In different parts of the continent, rural agricultural economic bases gave way to industrial manufacturing centers during the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries, changing people’s work habits and providing a basis for socioeconomic changes as well. Naturally, these changes were reflected in the educational opportunities afforded to different groups of people. They also continued to stratify sports on a class-conscious basis. As in British society of the same era, the tensions between amateurs and professionals in sport were evident. Tensions between immigrants and among different ethnic groups also contributed to changes. An Overview of Sporting Activities: 1800–1950 129 The emergence of college sports, collegiate and professional sports leagues, and associations designed to regulate sports were all logical extensions of changes in attitudes toward physical fitness and recreation, especially for men. However, women continued to participate in sports and physical pastimes, though to a more restricted degree than their male counterparts. We will see that women’s suffrage and their activities during the wars of the 20th century would boost their opportunities. Overall, sports historians sometimes refer to the years between 1919 and 1930 as the “Golden Age of Sports,” in which Americans developed a deep love of sports along with the infrastructure to market them and profit from them (Polidoro, 2000). The late 19th and early 20th centuries were also a time of technological advances in media that would impact the participants and spectators of sports in myriad ways. Photography, newspapers and other periodicals, the telephone, the telegraph, the radio, film, and early television would all change the experiences of players, judges, and enthusiasts around the world. Once it was possible to enjoy competitions at a distance, more people could become part of larger fan bases, gamble on events, and appreciate athletics on a larger scale than had previously been possible (Shergold, 1979). FROM FAIRS TO FRONTIERS: COMPETITIONS AND WORK-SPORTS You may recall that from ancient times, sporting activities often took place during religious festivals, during which people had leisure time to participate. In the United States, games and competitions were often held at local and state agricultural fairs. Agricultural life was sometimes idealized in the 1800s by authors like Catharine Beecher, who saw farm work as healthy and robust. The workers themselves, however, sometimes perceived the toils as exhausting to the point that it was detrimental to their health, and many left that life to move to towns for work in mills and factories (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017). Figure 9.1 Engraving of famous mid-19th-century trotting horse Artaxerxes, from American Turf Register and Sporting Magazine (1839). 130 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Nevertheless, Americans did not lose their connection to the soil, and beginning in 1810, fall agricultural fairs drew people together to view advances in equipment, to see competitions of livestock, to dance, and to compete in events from plowing and driving draft teams of horses to horseracing, boxing and wrestling, and many more sports and games. Men and women were known to compete on horseback at these events. Women’s participation in agricultural fair competitions, however, was largely limited to events featuring more traditional women’s activities such as baking, canning, and needle arts (“New Haven County Agricultural Show and Fair,” 1843; Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017). Some fairs featured racing on horseback, while others had trotting (harness) races in which riders sat behind the horses in lightweight carriages called sulkies. During the mid-1800s, many aficionados of equestrian racing followed the sport in the monthly American Turf Register and Sporting Magazine, which had racing and trotting calendars, reports, and lists of winning horses for the United States and Canada. Similar periodicals of the time included the United States Sporting Magazine, the Farmer’s, Mechanic’s Manufacturer’s and Sportsman’s Magazine, and the Gentleman’s Magazine (Gee, 1971; Henderson, 1977). While agricultural fairs highlighted contests related to agricultural work, they were far from the only gatherings at which occupation-related competitions took place. With work on the transcontinental railroad as well as many other rail beds, track-laying contests motivated workers to complete their portions more quickly than competing teams. Firemen, stonecutters, typesetters, drillers, office workers, and lumberjacks also had their work-sport contests. Lumberjack competitions, sometimes called logging sports or timbersports, are still being held to this day, as are cowboy (and cowgirl) rodeos (Zarnowski, 2013). PERCUSSIVE DANCE Factory workers sometimes engaged in a different type of competition. To alleviate the tedium of long hours on the factory floor, workers would sometimes shuffle and stamp their feet, mimicking and dancing in rhythms that complemented the regular sounds of the machines. The striking of their hobnailed or heavy boots on the floors was a form of percussive dance. Other forms of percussive dance include American tap dance, Appalachian clogging, hambone (in which the hands strike the thighs and torso), Spanish zapateado, German Schuhplattler, some Native American dances, Lancashire and Cape Breton clogging, Argentinian malambo, South African gumboot dance, stepping (or step dance) of US historically black college and university fraternities and sororities, a form of Indian Kathak dance, and Tibetan step dance. Immigrants brought these percussive dances with them from abroad, and in some cases they influenced other dance forms. For example, the dances performed by slaves and freedmen were sometimes performed in proximity to the dances of Irish immigrants, in carnivals, medicine shows, riverboats, inner-city bars, minstrel shows, and variety shows, with dancers trading (not to say stealing) each other’s steps as the form now known as tap dance evolved. After the Civil War, migration of freed slaves toward the northern cities of Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, and New York City combined with national tours of minstrel shows, variety shows, and later vaudeville to popularize percussive dance across the continent. There was a downside, however. Racial stereotypes carried over into tap performances, with both black and white minstrel show performers working in blackface and perpetuating the myth of the happy, dancing African American. The stereotype was so pervasive that even An Overview of Sporting Activities: 1800–1950 131 Figure 9.2 Sprinter Jesse Owens (left) and tap dancer Bill “Bojangles” Robinson after Owens’s return from his success in the 1936 Olympics. black performers like Dewey “Pigmeat” Markham wore blackface well into the 20th century, even after it had fallen out of favor as being a racist practice. On the other hand, performers like William Henry Lane (Master Juba), Bill “Bojangles” Robinson, John Bubbles, Honi Coles, Jimmy Slyde, the Nicholas Brothers, and many others earned good salaries and brought percussive dance to a high art form through their energetic pursuit of tap dance excellence on stages and later through film and television (Tap LegacyTM Foundation, 2004). They created an art form that became known and admired around the world. In the United States, tap dancing in schools became a regular part of physical education classes in the early 20th century. Duggan (1932) begins the foreword to the book Tap Dances by writing that “Within the last few years, tap dancing has become established so firmly upon the physical education programs of our schools and colleges that its place there scarcely needs further defense” (p. vii). One of her contemporary leaders in physical education, Jesse Williams, wrote the introduction to her text, encouraging the place of tap dance in schools. “Whatsoever gives youth the idea that wholesome play in game, dance or other form is a legitimate, indeed, an imperative part of fine living is good education,” he noted (p. xii). IMMIGRANTS AND SPORT From the first colonists onward, immigrants had brought games and sports from their home countries to North America. We have seen how gymnastics competitions in the German system flourished in the US turnvereine (gymnastics clubs). Other European sports and games, including bowling, croquet, tennis, fox hunting, and cricket had crossed the ocean and become part of the culture on the North American side of the Atlantic. With the Scottish settlers came a group of athletic events known as Caledonian games, or Scottish games. So-called “heavy” athletic events in this group were (and remain) the hammer throw, stone putting (like shot put), and caber toss, in which a long tree trunk is thrown end over end and the result judged upon the angle at which it lands. At a Scottish festival or gathering, these games, as well as footraces, dance, archery, shinty (a sort of field hockey, similar to Irish hurling), and football competitions celebrated Scottish culture. In this context, they reinforced the pride in the emigrants’ ancestry, which had been wounded when Scottish rebels (Jacobites) were soundly defeated at the battle of Culloden in 1746, after which many had fled or been transported as prisoners across the Atlantic. During the Irish cultural revival of the 1890s and 1900s, nationalistic Irish diaspora immigrants in cities like Philadelphia promoted a masculine, militant identity of the Irish American as athlete. Clubs were formed for Gaelic football, hurling, and rifle drilling 132 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Figure 9.3 Stone putting at the Fergus (Canada) 2014 Scottish Festival and Highland Games. (Mullan, 2012). Retaining a sense of cultural identity through active traditions such as these was an important part of the immigrant experience for many of the millions who left their homelands for new opportunities. SLAVES AND SPORT Obviously, not all who came to the United States came willingly. Slavery brought millions of Africans to the southern United States as well as to the Caribbean and South America. Work schedules usually involved long hours with little time or energy for recreational activities. Religious holidays, weddings, anniversaries, and weekend days were times when slaves might have leisure to pitch quoits or engage in other recreational activities, work requirements permitting (Wiggins, 1977). However, the institution of slavery did not permit activities that would encourage the maintenance of African heritage among the workers. While work-related competitions, swimming, cockfighting, hunting, fishing, boating, horseracing, and certain dances were allowed, for example, overseers would not have allowed martial arts training or anything that would encourage male slaves to demonstrate their strength. A notable exception would be boxing or wrestling competitions. Sometimes fights would be used as informal conflict resolution or rituals of community building between slaves, but some fights were organized by plantation owners among slaves or between slaves of rival plantations. First-person accounts of fighting during the antebellum South were recorded as oral interviews An Overview of Sporting Activities: 1800–1950 133 of former slaves in the early 1900s through the Federal Writers’ Project, a part of the Works Project Administration (WPA) (Lussana, 2010). In the Western Hemisphere, remnants of other African sports such as stick fighting could be seen in the Caribbean kalenda (calinda) and N’golo, a predecessor of the Brazilian martial art/game/dance known as capoeira. Games and dances of African heritage were sometimes preserved by freed slaves in isolated locations like Georgia’s Sea Islands, and escaped slaves (known as maroons) who established hidden homesteads in remote mountainous regions of the south. Examples of physical activities harbored in this way include clapping games and preserved dances like the ring shout (Jones & Hawes, 1972). The history of slavery in the Western Hemisphere is tragic, and nothing can ever erase the suffering of the millions who endured it. The history of sports and physical activity in that part of the world is fundamentally impacted because it happened. The contributions made by African American athletes have been profound—but came at a great cost. Because of the biases of 19th- and 20th-century academic researchers (who tended not to be people of color), much of the history that should be recognized and honored has been lost. ORGANIZED SPORTS Figure 9.4 Known as “the father of physical culture,” Bernarr Macfadden (1868–1955) promoted health through hydrotherapy, fasting, fitness, and a healthy lifestyle. His magazine company, Macfadden Publications, published a number of fitness and sports magazines, often featuring his photograph in various poses. Some of his recommendations drew the ire of the medical community for his promotion of nonmedical “cures.” 134 The history of organized sports in the United States. during the time period of this chapter follows three pathways: amateur sport, collegiate sport, and professional sport. There are overlapping individual and group histories within each of these areas, but let’s take a look at some examples of each, contextualizing some events and highlighting others. Several technological advances changed the world of competitive sport during this time. The telegraph, for example, was patented in 1837 and telegraph lines had been installed worldwide by 1902. The rapid communication afforded by this device facilitated travel, gambling, and reporting of results of competitions. In the late 1800s, the telephone provided even more convenience. Rail, subway, and canal travel, all great innovations in themselves, were supplemented or replaced by automotive and plane travel, expanding opportunities for spectators and competitors alike to experience sports beyond their local facilities and teams. Society was changing, too. As early as 1908, a spinning mill in New England began operating on a five-day week to give Jewish workers their Sabbath on Saturday. Other manufacturers followed, and with the weekend established, more recreational time was made available. Leisure time allowed for more sporting HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT activities, but that alone is insufficient to account for the growth of sporting activity during this time; the situation was far more complex. For those not obliged to work, exclusive spas and sanitariums for relaxing vacations didn’t always encourage sports participation. For example, at Battle Creek Sanitarium (the “San”) in Michigan, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg went beyond the work of Sylvester Graham (who was mentioned in Chapter 8) and used unusual contraptions and practices, vegetarianism, and sometimes dubious science to increase vitality and help curb what he saw as unhealthy sexual impulses (Bullough, 1987; Whorton, 1981). The San did not provide facilities for billiards or bowling, though, which were common to sanitariums of the time. On the other hand, spas like that at Saratoga Springs in New York offered hydropathy (mineral waters for drinking and bathing) and the excitement of horseracing for society patrons. Priessnitz’s European “water cure” included pedestrian exercise, but refined ladies of the time did not wish to be seen jumping and skipping (Betts, 1968, p. 803). For those who wanted even more vigorous physical culture, amateur clubs were formed to meet their needs. AMATEUR ATHLETICS, 1800–1950 The British sports ideal found adherents in North America, and pastimes like cricket and rowing were among the first to have organized clubs in the United States. Cricket clubs were established from coast to coast, often in places where British immigrants worked. Copper miners in Montana, stone cutters in South Dakota, and steel workers in Wisconsin and upstate New York all had clubs. Many of these working-class clubs were organized by the industrial companies that hired them, through efforts to improve morale and labor relations. However, the descendants of these Figure 9.5 The New York Athletic Club four-oar senior crew of 1911. An Overview of Sporting Activities: 1800–1950 135 workers tended not to play that sport and often turned to the emerging sport of baseball (Sentance, 2006). Meanwhile, female cricket players were more likely to come from the upper classes, playing at places such as New Jersey’s Seabright Lawn Tennis and Cricket Club or at private girls’ schools (Melville, 1998). For upper class urban men, membership in a sports club offered exercise, relaxation, and social opportunities. In New York City, the Racket Court Club was formed in 1845 offering racket (or racquet) sports, reading, billiards, cards, and chess, all catering to the wealthy. Public courts followed. When the Racquet Court Club Building opened in 1875, an indoor tennis court was part of the facility, providing a place to play year-round to its members (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017). The New York Athletic Club (opened in 1868) offered boating and track and field. The New York Yacht Club, the Mobile Yacht Club in Alabama, the Myopia Polo Club of Salem, Massachusetts, and the Aiken Polo Club of South Carolina all catered to 19th-century elite athletes of means and leisure. The status and prestige of belonging to clubs such as these also gave families opportunities to socialize with others of the same class, encouraging what were considered suitable courtship opportunities and engagements for the children of the members. The origins of organized baseball are more convoluted. The same year as the Racket Court Club was formed (1845), Alexander Cartwright established the rules of baseball, and given the rising importance of New York as a metropolitan leader and the fact that the Boston version of the sport was played until 100 runs were scored, his rules were more widely accepted (Tyrrell, 1979). Earlier baseball clubs such as the Hoboken Turtle Club, the Washington, the Gotham Club and the New York Ball Club merged, coexisted, and competed with Cartwright’s Knickerbocker Club in the middle of the century. While clubs like the Knickerbocker were initially open only to gentlemen of breeding and social status (Tyrrell, 1979), it quickly grew with players as diverse as butchers and lawyers (Morris, Ryczek, Finkel, Levin, & Malatzky, 2013). By 1865, the National Association of Base Ball Players, originally an amateur club, included men from many walks of life in 91 clubs over 10 states (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017). Cycling was another sport that tended to be open to all classes, but with an interesting characteristic. From the sport’s US inception, beginning in Boston in 1878, there were clubs for different socioeconomic classes. Additionally, from the early 1900s onward, many cycling clubs tended to be formed by immigrants for others who came from the same country. Unione Sportiva Italiano, formed in New York City in 1908, opened a pathway to assimilation for Italians, who could be sponsored Figure 9.6 Cartoon showing a strong, defiant woman in breeches (not afraid of the mice at for work opportunities through her feet), surrounded by women riding bicycles in various roles and occupations. From Puck, a popular US humorous magazine of the late 1800s. their connection to the club. 136 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Unfortunately, racism tainted the sport with exclusion, too. The League of American Wheelmen excluded African Americans from their clubs in 1894, barring blacks from participating in bicycle races. Caricatures of Chinese riders exaggerated stereotypes. This pattern forced the development of cycling clubs along the lines of national origins and races (Friss, 2019; Goodman, 2010). Women wearing bloomers or divided skirts were able to ride bicycles, but the question of whether they should remained. In Nova Scotia, authors such as the editor of the Dominion Medical Monthly believed that sexual excitement and miscarriage were possible side effects of riding, and a reporter for the Acadian Recorder went so far as to say that “it appears to be generally agreed that overindulgence in bicycling will induce one of the most malignant forms of insanity, owing to the long continued pressure on the spine” (Smith, 1988, p. 130). The worries over riding astride did not necessarily seem to extend to horseback riding; at the exclusive Vassar Female College, young women were offered equestrian opportunities complete with a German riding instructor beginning in 1866 (Atkinson, 1985). During the Victorian era, some young unmarried men took part in urban masculine sports via what has been called “the sporting fraternity,” or “the fancy.” Some were Irish immigrants, who did not shy away from the bare-knuckle fights, gambling, competitive racewalking, and footraces (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017). The fraternity was not an organized club but rather a loose designation for a group of men who enjoyed sports, drinking, and other pleasure-seeking activities. The development of many amateur clubs of all kinds led to a desire for a governing body that could regulate amateur athletics. The National Association of Amateur Athletes of America was founded in 1879 but gave way to the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) in 1888 when William Buckingham Curtis combined several clubs together to define amateurism in sport, sanction athletic events, and disqualify athletes who competed in unauthorized meets from competing in AAU contests (Ricker, 1969). PROFESSIONAL ATHLETICS, 1800–1950 During the Victorian era, some young unmarried men took part in urban masculine sports via what has been called “the sporting fraternity,” or “the fancy” (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017, p. 105). Some (but by no means all) were Irish immigrants, who did not shy away from the bare-knuckle fights, billiards, cockfights, horseracing, drinking, gambling, and pedestrianism (competitive race walking and footraces) that characterized the sporting fraternity’s activities. Various events, organized by individuals such as famous race walker Mensen Ernst, through taverns or billiard halls, generated income for the athletes and those who gambled on them. Over time, the fancy favored mostly the wealthy, who were able to afford to keep and breed horses. They formed the American Jockey Club in Westchester in 1866 as an exclusive and luxurious establishment (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017), for instance. As we have seen, horseracing had been popular in the United States since colonial times. In the 1800s, racing became more organized—and more exclusionary. The first Kentucky Derby was held in May 1875; in that race, 14 of the 15 jockeys were African American. In fact, most of the best riders in the late 19th century were black, which caused some concerns among biased observers. Change came before the end of the century, when a new administrative arm of horseracing, the Jockey Club, was created in 1894. It kept (and still keeps) the registry An Overview of Sporting Activities: 1800–1950 137 Figure 9.7 Print of horserace from 1892. This predates the 1894 Jockey Club change that excluded African Americans from racing by refusing to reregister them as jockeys. of all Thoroughbred horses in the American Stud Book, a genealogy of horses. It also took on the task of licensing jockeys, and since they did not reregister blacks after the Jockey Club was founded, it effectively barred them from that sport (Zirin, 2008). Prizefighting (fighting for money or other benefits) was nothing new, and it could be brutal. Bare-knuckle fighting had been outlawed in many parts of the United States by the middle of the 1800s. Those modern gladiators, however, were assisted by the efforts of a P. T. Barnum–like promoter named Richard Kyle Fox, owner of the National Police Gazette. He was known for publicizing sports such as canoeing and archery, and the banner of the publication called it the “leading illustrated sporting journal in America” (Reel, 2001, p. 74), though its pages awarded prizes to dancers, egg-eaters, drinkers, and oyster shuckers as well as more athletic events. One unusual award was the belt given by Fox to Billy Wells because he was named “champion of allowing his head to be pounded through an iron block by means of a sledge hammer” (Reel, 2001, p. 74). Fox capitalized on boxing matches, especially those featuring John L. Sullivan, by sponsoring ring matches, with prizes, cash, and belts as incentives for the fighters. The National Police Gazette, in turn, sold more papers, and the increased circulation and related business ventures made him a millionaire and allowed Fox to award more costly belts and prizes. Along the way, he fought for the legitimization of bare-knuckle fighting through a court case and in his books on boxing (Reel, 2001). A more genteel sport, rowing nevertheless did not have a pristine history during the 19th century. Professional rowers had competed since mid-century, sometimes alongside amateur 138 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT competitors in various clubs and regattas. It was a sport that generated gambling revenue, and its popularity continued to swell throughout the latter part of the century. Unfortunately, its reputation suffered as cheating scandals plagued the professional circuit. Theodore Roosevelt praised amateur athletics, but denounced rowing in 1890. “[P]rofessionalism is the curse of many an athletic sport, and the chief obstacle to its healthy development. Professional rowing is under a dark cloud of suspicion because of the crooked practices which have disgraced it” (Roosevelt, 1890, p. 191). Professional sport was not exclusively male in the United States. Female professional swimmers, golfers, tennis players, basketball players, and ice skaters were celebrated in the early 1900s. Superb athletes such as Mildred “Babe” Didrikson Zaharias, who had earned track and field medals in the 1932 Olympics, made the women’s professional golf tour possible (Simri, 1981). She also pitched in major league exhibition games, played softball, was an excellent pool player, and could dive, roller skate, and bowl. While professional opportunities for women in sport remained limited, between 1943 and 1954, the AllAmerican Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL) was a breakthrough for women’s sports. The brainchild of Philip K. Wrigley (of chewing gum and Chicago Cubs/ Wrigley Field fame), the league began in response to the Figure 9.8 Mildred “Babe” Didrikson Zaharias (1911–1956), threat of the cancellation of Major League Baseball due to one of the 20th century’s most versatile and talented player shortages during World War II. The initial novelty athletes. aspect of the league was replaced by acknowledgment of the excellence and athleticism of the league’s players. Gender and racial issues continued throughout their history, however, as management preferred to hire only white women who fit feminine stereotypes (Kenow, 2010). While baseball was becoming a professional sport in the mid-1800s, some African Americans played professionally but were banned officially by the National Association of Base Ball Players in 1867. Relaxation of that part of the organization’s constitution resulted in unspoken agreements among club owners to refuse to hire black players. Hotel owners began forming professional all-black teams for these disenfranchised players in the 1880s, but it wasn’t until 1920 that the Negro National League was created. The country’s economic woes during the Great Depression forced the dissolution of that league, but another Negro National League was started by Pittsburgh Crawfords’ owner Gus Greenlee in 1934. The Negro American League was founded in 1937, allowing for a Negro World Series and All-Star games. After Jackie Robinson was signed to the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947, the two Negro leagues merged in 1948, and eventually interest waned when baseball became more integrated. During the 1960s, notably, the recent history of baseball integration was seen as an early triumph for civil rights in the United States (Heaphy, 2003). An Overview of Sporting Activities: 1800–1950 139 Figure 9.9 The Pittsburgh Crawfords, 1932. Leroy Robert Paige, aka “Satchel,” is third from left in the back row. He went on to pitch for the Cleveland Indians in 1948 and became the first African American inductee to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1971. The rise in professional sports from its amateur beginnings is thanks in large part to the efforts of sports promoters and entrepreneurs who built empires out of professional clubs, merchandise, stadiums, and equipment. By the middle of the 20th century, professional: • baseball (1869 first professional team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings/1871 National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (player-centered)/1876 National League (club-centered)), • boxing (1921 National Boxing Association), • football (1920, American Professional Football Association, became National Football League in 1922), • basketball (1925 American Basketball League/1949 National Basketball Association; 1978 Women’s Professional Basketball League/1997 Women’s National Basketball Association), • ice hockey (1917, National Hockey League, in Canada), and even • professional wrestling (a combination of sport and theater) were all well established. (Polidoro, 2000; Zeigler, 1988). It is important to note, however, that in many cases throughout history, players were paid openly or secretly, before professional associations were formed. This is especially evident in boxing, which was formerly known as prizefighting. Organizations were formed to regulate what was already happening to one degree or another. 140 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT INTERCOLLEGIATE SPORTS Students controlled the first college sports teams in the 1800s, forming clubs, buying their own equipment, maintaining fields, and organizing competitions. While history records indicate the first intercollegiate matches for sports like rowing (for which the first intercollegiate match was between Harvard and Yale in 1852), baseball, football, track and field, and swimming, it was also possible for postsecondary educational institutions to play against nearby high schools and clubs in a variety of sports. Limited budgets and time constraints limited travel in the late 1800s, leaving college athletes with few choices. Initially, students also took responsibility for developing standardized rules that would allow for intercollegiate competition, organizing governing bodies for rowing, football, and track and field, for example (Polidoro, 2000). Football provided an especially interesting complication, because early American football resembled soccer or was essentially rugby. In 1876, Rutgers, Yale, Princeton, and Columbia universities agreed to form the Intercollegiate Football Association (IFA). In 1879, led by Yale student and later football coach Walter Camp, rules were adopted that essentially established the sport that came to be known as football in the United States. Nevertheless, problems developed along with college athletics. Nonstudent players were often allowed on teams, absences from classes, and rising commercialization were some of the issues. Harvard actually banned football in 1885, citing demoralization and physical danger. One way to reduce demoralization caused by unequal teams as well as absences caused by longdistance travel for competitions was to institute league conferences. The first of these was the Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives (formed in 1895), now known as the Big Ten. Greater control of sports by faculty and administration, with input from student and alumni stakeholders, became more common in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The dangers of football, which had led to many injuries and a number of deaths (18 in 1905 alone), prompted the establishment in 1905 of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association Figure 9.10 Members of the 1913 Cornell University football team. This photo was taken long before helmets were mandatory in college football. An Overview of Sporting Activities: 1800–1950 141 of the United States. It was soon renamed the National Collegiate Athletic Association and revised rules to reduce the dangers of the game and to allow for the forward pass. In the era before helmets were worn, when players used long hair or hardened leather as protection, the risks continued, and in 1909, there were 33 deaths (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017). The plastic helmet would not appear until John Riddell invented it in 1939. That same year, helmets were declared mandatory in college football (the NFL would not require them until 1943) (Stamp, 2012). Women in colleges such as Smith and Vassar in the late 1800s participated in sports like tennis, basketball, archery, golf, and bicycling, but were discouraged from engaging in athletic competitions for medical and societal reasons. As the 20th century began, women were permitted to play more sports at the college level, but competition was still less acceptable than was mass participation. Their efforts were directed into play days, field days, indoor meets, open days, and telegraphic meets (Gerber, 1975). A telegraphic meet was an early form of intercollegiate competition in which races were run or other events were held, and the results were sent by telegraph to another location, where winners were determined. The emphasis remained on fun and social gathering for the competitors, but along with intramural sports (competitions within a single college or university), telegraphic meets broadened sporting opportunities for women somewhat during that era. There were exceptions. Women’s basketball intercollegiate play occurred in 1896 in California (Berkeley versus Stanford) and the University of Washington versus Ellensburg Figure 9.11 The Oregon Agricultural College (now Oregon State University) women’s basketball team, 1900. 142 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Normal School. Nonetheless, the Committee on Women’s Athletics (CWA, founded 1917), the women’s division of the National Amateur Athletic Foundation (NAAF, founded 1923), the Athletic Conference of American College Women (ACACW, founded 1917) and various sections on women’s athletics within the American Physical Education Association (APEA; Women’s Athletic Section founded in 1927 and National Section on Women’s Athletics founded in 1932) continued to promote women’s participation rather than competition in the early 1900s (Szady, 1987). These organizations and college administrators went along with the fears perpetuated by doctors and societal norms; e.g., that the strains of competition would be too much for women’s bodies and minds, that they might become “mannish,” and that they would become less virtuous or womanly if allowed to compete (Park, 1991; Pepper, 2015; Polidoro, 2000; Struna & Remley, 1973). Over time, with changes in societal norms brought about by women’s activities in two world wars during the early 1900s, participation in the modern Olympics, and examples set by female professional athletes, women gained more opportunities for intercollegiate competition. We will continue that discussion as part of the next chapter. SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • Some opportunities for work-related sports activities in North America in the 1800s included agricultural competitions at fairs, lumberjack sports, rodeos, and office work contests. • Percussive dance includes dance movements in which sounds are made by striking parts of the body against the floor or against other body parts. It can be used in physical education to teach rhythm, agility, coordination, balance, and sociocultural history. • Some examples of sports brought to North America by immigrants during this time period are Caledonian games like caber tossing and Irish sports such as hurling. • Before and after the Civil War, enslaved African Americans participated in swimming, horseracing, fighting, bicycling, and dancing, to name a few recreational activities. After the Civil War and well into the 20th century, freedmen and their descendants sometimes became professional jockeys, baseball players, and dancers, but regulations and unwritten rules severely limited their opportunities or denied them altogether. • Amateur athletics, strictly speaking, are events in which unpaid athletes compete for the love of sport rather than for money. They are important during the era covered by this chapter not only because they provided countless opportunities for participation in sports for all, but also because, in some cases, clubs established for amateurs formed the basis for professional athletic activities. • Among the most popular professional sports of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were rowing, prizefighting, baseball, and horseracing. • During this time period, society viewed women’s competitive intercollegiate athletics as unfit for women, potentially dangerous to their bodies and minds, and a threat to their morality and femininity. An Overview of Sporting Activities: 1800–1950 143 LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the history and philosophy of the time period covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or other research. 1. Popcorn and a Movie (Visual): Many popular films and excellent documentaries about the history of sports during this time period are available. Individually, in groups, or as a class, gather and watch a film such as A League of Their Own, 42, Life in the Negro Leagues: There Was Always Sun Shining Someplace. All are available for online streaming. Discuss reactions to the presentation. Popcorn is optional (but highly recommended). 2. War and Sports History (Research): War has had significant effects on sports throughout history. In the era covered by this chapter, reconstruction aides in World War I developed early methods of physical therapy, baseball pitcher Christy Mathewson served in the United States Army Chemical Development Unit in World War I and was exposed to chemicals that cut short his career, and the National Football League lost so many players to the World War II draft that the Steelers and Eagles had to combine to become the Steagles (the Phil-Pitt Eagles-Steelers Combine) in 1943. Research one of these topics and give a brief presentation to the class using classroom technology such as PowerPoint. 3. Try Tapping (Kinesthetic): If one of the students in your class knows how to tap dance, have him or her teach a short combination of easy steps to the class. Alternatively, invite a tap dance teacher to visit the class, or watch and learn from an online video such as https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=_FnNPHTpJ8Y 4. Caledonian Games or Irish Competitions (Outreach): If you live near a place that holds Scottish games or Irish competitions during the semester, arrange a field trip or invite someone who participates in Irish or Scottish athletic or dance competitions to visit your class. Lists of competitions can be found online. (Note: an Irish competition might also be known as a fleadh (pronounced flah), oirachtas (o-ROCK-tus), or feis (pronounced fesh.) FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 9.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Artaxerxesengravingamturfregister sportingmag.jpg. Fig. 9.2: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jesse_Owens_and_Bill_Bojangles_ Robinson_1936.jpg. 144 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Fig. 9.3: Copyright © 2014 by Angus Chan, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:2014_Fergus_Scottish_Festival_and_Highland_Games_IMG_9738_(14705591589).jpg. Fig. 9.4: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Harvard_Theatre_Collection_-_ Bernarr_Macfadden_TCS_1.2400.jpg. Fig. 9.5: Source: https://www.loc.gov/item/2014689577/. Fig. 9.6: Source: https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3b49127/. Fig. 9.7: Source: https://www.loc.gov/item/2018696426/. Fig. 9.8: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Babe_Didrikson_Zaharias_1948.jpg. Fig. 9.9: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1932_Pittsburgh_Crawfords.jpg. Fig. 9.10: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cornell_football_team_line-up_ LCCN2013646100.jpg. Fig. 9.11: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oac_womens_basketball_1900.jpg. REFERENCES Atkinson, P. (1985). Strong minds and weak bodies: Sports, gymnastics and the medicalization of women’s education. British Journal of Sports History, 2(1), 62–71. Betts, J. R. (1968). Mind and body in early American thought. Journal of American History, 54(4), 787–805. Bullough, V. (1987). Technology for the prevention of “Les maladies produites par la masturbation.” Technology and Culture, 28(4), 828–832. doi:10.2307/3105184 Duggan, A. S. (1932). Tap dances. New York, NY: A. S. Barnes. Friss, E. (2019). On bicycles: A 200-year history of cycling in New York City. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Gee, E. R. (1971). Early American sporting books: 1734–1844. New York, NY: Haskell House. Gems, G. R., Borish, L. J., and Pfister, G. (2017). Sports in American history: From colonization to globalization. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Gerber, E. (1975). Controlled development of collegiate sport for women, 1923–1936. Journal of Sport History, 2(1), 1–28. Goodman, J. D. (2010, January 19). The bittersweet history of bike clubs [Web log post]. New York Times. Retrieved from https://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/01/19/ the-bittersweet-history-of-bike-clubs/ Heaphy, L. A. (2003). The Negro Leagues, 1869–1960. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Henderson, R. W. (1977). Early American sport: A checklist of books by American and foreign authors published in America prior to 1860 including sporting songs (3rd ed.). Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses. Jones, B., & Hawes, B. L. (1972). Step it down: Games, plays, songs, and stories from the AfroAmerican heritage. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Kenow, L. J. (2010). The All-American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL): A review of literature and its reflection of gender issues. Women in Sport & Physical Activity Journal, 19(1), 58+. Lussana, S. (2010). To see who was best on the plantation: Enslaved fighting contests and masculinity in the antebellum plantation South. Journal of Southern History, 76(4), 901–922. An Overview of Sporting Activities: 1800–1950 145 Melville, T. (1998). The tented field: A history of cricket in America. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green University Popular Press. Morris, P., Ryczek, W. J., Finkel, J., Levin, L., & Malatzky, R. (Eds.). (2013). Base ball founders: The clubs, players and cities of the northeast that established the game. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Mullan, M. L. (2012). Sport, culture, and nation among the Hibernians of Philadelphia: Irish American civic engagement and cultural nationalism, 1880–1920. Journal of Urban History, 39(4), 579–600. doi: 10.1177/00961442124702246 New Haven County Agricultural Show and Fair. (1843). American Agriculturalist, 2(8), 227–229. Park, R. J. (1991). Physiology and anatomy are destiny!?: Brains, bodies and exercise in nineteenth century American thought. Journal of Sport History, 18(1), 31–63. Pepper, E. (2015). Gittings’ kittens: The development of women’s athletics at the University of Arizona from 1930–1949. Arizona Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(1), 26–41. Retrieved from https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/azjis/article/download/18594/18234 Polidoro, J. R. (2000). Sport and physical activity in the modern world. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Reel, G. (2001). Richard Fox, John L. Sullivan, and the rise of modern American prize fighting. Journalism History, 27(2), 73–85. Ricker, R. R. (1969). Nationalism and American sport, 1870–1900. In Proceedings of the First International Seminar on the History of Physical Education and Sport (April 9–11, 1968), Uriel Simri, Ed. Netanya, Israel: Wingate Institute for Physical Education, pp. 18-1–18-8. Roosevelt, T. (1890). “Professionalism” in sports. North American Review, 151(405), 187–191. Sentance, P. D. (2006). Cricket in America, 1710–2000. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Shergold, P. (1979). The growth of American spectator sport: A technological perspective. In R. Cashman & M. McKernan (Eds.), Sport in history: The making of modern sporting history (pp. 20–42). Queensland, Australia: University of Queensland Press. Simri, U. (1981). Development of women’s sport in the 20th century. Medicine and Sport, 14(1), 31–44. Smith, M. (1988). Graceful athleticism or robust womanhood: The sporting culture of women in Victorian Nova Scotia, 1870–1914. Journal of Canadian Studies, 23(1–2), 120–137. Stamp, J. (2012, October 1). Leatherhead to radio-head: The evolution of the football helmet. Smithsonian. Retrieved from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/ leatherhead-to-radio-head-the-evolution-of-the-football-helmet-56585562/ Struna, N., & Remley, M. L. (1973). Physical education for women at the University of Wisconsin, 1863–1913: A half century of progress. Canadian Journal of History of Sport & Physical Education, 4(1), 8–26. Szady, S. M. (1987). The history of intercollegiate athletics for women at the University of Michigan. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Tap LegacyTM Foundation, Inc. (2004). Tap legacy reference catalogue. New York, NY. Tyrrell, I. (1979). The emergence of modern American baseball c. 1850–1900. In R. Cashman & M. McKernan (Eds.), Sport in history: The making of modern sporting history (pp. 205–226). Queensland, Australia: University of Queensland Press. Whorton, J. C. (1981). Muscular vegetarianism: The debate over diet and athletic performance in the progressive era. Journal of Sport History, 8(2), 58–75. Wiggins, D. (1977). Good times on the old plantation: Popular recreations of the black slave in antebellum South, 1810–1860. Journal of Sport History, 4(3), 260–284. 146 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Zarnowski, F. (2013). American work-sports: A history of competitions for cornhuskers, lumberjacks, firemen and others. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Zeigler, E. F. (Ed.). (1988). History of physical education and sport (rev. ed.). Champaign, IL: Stipes. Zirin, D. (2008). A people’s history of sports in the United States: 250 years of politics, protest, people and play. New York, NY: New Press. An Overview of Sporting Activities: 1800–1950 147 C H APTER 10 PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN THE 20TH AND EARLY 21ST CENTURIES KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. The American Century: a vision for the responsibility of the United States in the 20th century, written as an editorial in 1941 by Life magazine editor Henry Luce The progressive era: from roughly 1890–1920, reforms and social activism efforts were made to address problems of immigration, industrialization, urbanization, and political corruption The New Physical Education: (sometimes called modern physical education, though that term has broader implications): emphasized more outdoor activities, individual-centered activities, natural exercises, physical examination, and separation of the sexes at age 12 Normal schools: training schools for teachers, at which the norms (current theory, practice, and educational expectations) of various subjects were taught Education through the physical: a philosophical component of the new physical education, this view promoted physical education as a way of life that would set high standards like courage and endurance along with imagination, play, pride, and joyful living Natural gymnastics: Thomas Wood’s alternative to European gymnastics; natural gymnastics used games, sports, dance, athletics, and modified gymnastics Pragmatism: a philosophy developed during the progressive era in the United States, in which education toward the service of lifelong goals and purposes was seen as more important than education for its own sake 148 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT • Who were some of the early-tomid-20th-century leaders in physical education in the United States? • What motivated the rise of leisure studies and outdoor education? • What laws address physical education gender equity and students with special needs? • How did amateur and professional sports change in the 20th century? (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) INTRODUCTION Henry Luce, the creator, publisher, and editor of Time and Life magazines, wrote an editorial in Life in February 1941, calling the 20th century The American Century (Luce, 1941). He argued that Americans had a responsibility for leadership on the world stage to use technology for good, to work toward world peace even if war was a necessary step toward peace, and to recognize that freedom and abundant living were within the reach of all humanity. His editorial was seen as controversial at the time, especially since the United States was not yet at war with the Axis powers in World War II, and some interpreted his words as imperialistic and warmongering (Boucher, 2015). Others, however, embraced the more altruistic elements of this viewpoint and considered its myriad ramifications in the years to follow, including its applications to the realms of physical education, recreation and leisure, and sport. In this chapter, we will consider the achievements and philosophies of 20th-century American leaders in physical education. We will examine the ways in which sports and physical activity opportunities for all were expanded through collegiate and professional sports, outdoor leisure and recreation, and K–12 educational settings. We will see how the amateur ideal and definition have been altered and look at some changes in professional athletics over the past century. As we skim the timeline of recent history, be sure to take a few moments to reflect on the big picture: the greater arc of physical education and sport history in the Western world from ancient civilizations to the present. Where have we been, and where are we now? What ideas and events have impacted you in your life? Whether it’s a memory of the way a physical education teacher approached learning that inspired you, or the joy you felt Education of the physical: a philosophy of physical education especially promoted by Charles McCloy, who believed that physical education did not necessarily need to promote aims and values beyond its own domain; physical education and health were sufficient justifications for the inclusion of the subject in schools FitnessGram®: the national test of the Presidential Youth Fitness Program, used to test physical and aerobic fitness in schoolchildren of the United States Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU): physical education model developed by British educators Thorpe, Bunker, and Almond, in which modified games are used to present strategic problems for students to solve; the process leads to deeper understanding of the games for application in full-scale sports Sport Education curriculum and instructional model (SEM): known also as the Sport Education Model, this philosophy of physical education was developed by Siedentop; it emphasizes the positive outcomes of competitive sports, such as cooperation, leadership, peer teaching, and shared responsibility The leisure society: the notion that as a society develops technology to replace human labor and efforts, humans will be able to work less and spend more time in leisure pursuits Intersectionality: people have multiple identities such as race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, gender, ability status, and sexual orientation; researchers should be aware of, and contextualize, this multidimensional complexity of identities Lifetime (carryover) sports: sports that can be played throughout life such as golf, tennis, and bowling National governing body (NGB): an organization responsible for sanctioning athletic competitions in a specific sport such as gymnastics or track and field Physical Education and Sport in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries 149 (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) Semiprofessionals: athletes who are paid but do not work as paid competitors full time or year-round Pro-am: athletes who compete for cash prizes at tournaments but are not fully employed as professionals or whose status fluctuates through time; could be classified in the professional amateur category; some events, like pro-am golf tournaments, combine professionals and celebrities for charitable causes Free agency: the ability of a professional athlete to negotiate their own contracts and solicit offers to change teams, with some restrictions Reserve clauses: under professional sports contracts, players could be traded, sold, released, or reassigned by the owners of a team with whom they signed a contract; these controls were known as reserve clauses and have largely been eliminated Title IX: an amendment to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, prohibiting discrimination in education against anyone on the basis of sex The 13 program areas: in Title IX, a list of program areas to be checked for compliance with the law; these include things like provision of equipment and supplies, publicity, and travel per diem allowance Individualized education plan (IEP): a document developed by schools in cooperation with parents of children with special needs to describe what programs or services will be provided to the student; the student may be involved, if appropriate Inclusion: placing a student with special needs into a classroom with peers and support services Individualized transition plan (ITP): a plan to help students with special needs transition from school to community living; this is a part of an IEP for students aged 16 and over Paralympics: founded by Ludwig Guttmann in 1960, these are elite athletic competitions for persons with disabilities 150 when your team won a championship, or the freedom you feel when you are engaged in physical activity, consider why those opportunities and events are part of your story and your place in the world, and how they connect you to the wider history and philosophy of sport and physical education. LEADERS IN 20TH-CENTURY PHYSICAL EDUCATION: THE PROGRESSIVE ERA In response to the problems of early-20th-century society such as urbanization, industrialization, immigration, and corruption at all levels of government, various reforms and efforts at social activism ushered in the progressive era (roughly 1890–1920) in the United States and Canada. Educational reform was part of these efforts. The direction taken by physical educators during that time and into the mid-20th century became known as the new physical education (or sometimes, modern physical education). The new physical education emphasized more outdoor activities, individual-centered activities, natural exercises, physical examination, and separation of the sexes at age 12. It deemphasized health as a main goal of physical education, and it downplayed—but did not eliminate—many of the artificial exercises and activities used in calisthenics and European gymnastics systems. Generally speaking, the goals were: corrective (overcoming postural defects with • assessment help from the Bancroft Posture Test, for example), educational (for motor, social, and expressive • skills as well as moral training), • hygienic, and • recreative (Barber, 1923). Spontaneous play, athletics, games, dancing, and sports were all part of the new programming, in which school activities were supplemented by the availability of playground facilities, the YMCA and similar associations, improvement in physical educator training through normal schools and higher HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) education programs, and the popularity of outdoor recreational camping. Thomas Wood (1865–1951), who had been a student of Delphine Hanna at Oberlin College in Ohio, was one of the first leaders in the new physical education. The philosophy he shared with Luther Gulick and others (see Chapter 8) was one of education through the physical. This viewpoint placed physical education squarely within the realm of modern education as part of idealistic comprehensive training for a full and fine life. Despite opposition, he championed the use of sports, dance, and games as well as modified European gymnastics and called his program natural gymnastics. The motivation for physical activity and its purpose, he believed, was to enhance the experience of living so that individuals and society would strive for excellence using values and lessons learned from physical education. Wood was also a health educator, but believed that health would be a natural byproduct of proper physical education (Davenport, 1984). He wrote The New Physical Education (1927) with fellow educator Rosalind Cassidy (1895–1980) as a guide to this philosophy. Many of the ideas of the “new” physical education were, in fact, taken from older ideas of naturalism that had influenced German gymnastics teachers from Johann Basedow onward. The key difference was the influence exerted on Wood and others by another educational philosophy from the early 1900s known as pragmatism (Kretchmar, 1984). Pragmatism will be covered in more depth in Chapter 13, but as it concerns us here, it was a belief in the importance of education for greater social and democratic purposes in life. Purposiveness in terms of physical education meant that activities were not only undertaken for their own sake, but also for the sake of wider life goals, in which cooperation, leadership, and teamwork, for example, would resonate throughout one’s existence. In some ways, this reflected back on the British sports ideal and muscular Christianity, but the work of American philosophers such as John Dewey (1859–1952) popularized this point of view. Jesse Williams (1886–1966), a colleague of Wood at Teachers College of Columbia University in New York City, affirmed the views put forth by Wood Special Olympics: begun by Eunice Kennedy Shriver in 1968, Special Olympics gives people with intellectual disabilities opportunities for athletic competitions in a supportive atmosphere Deaflympics: international athletic competition for people with hearing impairments; competitors must have at least 55dB of hearing loss in their better ear and may not use hearing aids or cochlear implants Tip: in square dancing, a set of two dances, often done to contrasting styles of calling Physical Education and Sport in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries 151 and Cassidy, but went even further in his belief that athletics, games, and dancing should all be organized and directed toward the function they can play in the lives of the participants (Williams, 1930, 1939). For him, the three aspects of life most affected by physical activities are “the biologic, the social, and the political” (Williams, 1926, p. 292). Proper and sufficient motor development, he believed, was the basis of physical education at the most basic neuromuscular level. However, some social goals such as the reduction of delinquency and maladjustment could be attained by teaching youth to use their leisure time wisely in wholesome recreational pursuits. Those habits would hopefully continue past the school years, with morals and good character instilled by physical education. Finally, the physical and moral development of students would contribute politically to national strength and safety while instilling lifelong habits of vitality and health (Williams, 1926). Clark Hetherington (1870–1942) actually coined the phrase New Physical Education in his 1910 article, “Fundamental Education” (Thomas, 1985). Like his contemporaries Wood and Williams, he was influenced by Rousseau’s Figure 10.1 The Bancroft Test: using a pole (such as naturalism, Friedrich Froebel’s views on play as those used to open high windows), the observer can see essential to child development, and G. Stanley whether a body is in correct alignment. Hall’s interest in childhood play. Hetherington believed in education as a socializing influence on children, which helped them to adjust to society’s expectations and demands. Through his work in various institutions of education across the United States, particularly at the Universities of Missouri, Wisconsin, and California (Berkeley), he advocated for the place of physical education in higher education as a requirement for graduation from secondary and postsecondary educational institutions and for the creation of undergraduate and postgraduate physical education teacher preparation programs (Bandy, 1985). His work was not always appreciated by his colleagues. After he had founded the Missouri Valley Conference for collegiate athletics in 1907 and worked as a representative to the Intercollegiate Athletic Association (now known as the NCAA), Hetherington’s strong views concerning intercollegiate athletics as play rather than as spectacle led him to propound strict ideas about the value of amateurism over professionalism. Those ideas were not in keeping with those of his fellow administrators at Missouri and led to his resignation from that institution in 1910 (Bandy, 1985; Thomas, 1985; Tipton, 2013). Another early-to-mid-20th-century leader, Charles McCloy (1886–1959), also found himself at odds with other physical educators from time to time. His education of the physical was seen by some, including Williams, as a retreat from what were then current views on physical education, in which athletics and games for the development of social, moral, and physical 152 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Figure 10.2 Jesse Williams believed that biological, social, and political aspects of life are affected by physical activity. These western square dancers are wearing traditional outfits, including crinoline petticoats for the women. Nowadays, some square dancers reject traditional gender roles and dancewear, and there are square dance clubs for the LGBT and ethnic minority communities. education were in vogue. This came about partly because he had called for more strength training and concentrated on the physical (psychomotor) side of physical education more than on the affective domain in his research and writing (English, 1983/2013). Arguably, the characterization of his work as education of the physical might have been due, at least in part, to his focus on the development and use of updated and improved measurements for physical fitness. He himself denied that classification: his belief in the power of physical education to promote mental and emotional health, for example, is clear in his writings (McCloy, 1933, 1937). That being said, tests such as the McCloy Strength Test, the McCloy Test of Present Health (a cardiovascular rating scale), a General Motor Capacity Test, and a General Motor Ability Test were only a few of the many instruments he designed. His textbook, Tests and Measurement in Health and Physical Education (1939), and his work with the Research Council of AAHPERD drove scientific research in kinesiology forward at a time when national interest in physical education tests was being driven by concerns for health and national security (English, 1983). AAHPERD’s successor organization, SHAPE America, continues the research work of McCloy in measurements of physical fitness in schoolchildren. In a lecture for SHAPE America, Welk (2017) credited McCloy for having laid the groundwork for such widely used testing instruments as Charles L. Sterling’s FitnessGram®. McCloy’s legacy of professional research in physical testing set a high standard for physical education and kinesiology studies, furthering the academic stature and credibility of the profession. Physical Education and Sport in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries 153 Figure 10.3 Students at an elementary school on a military base in Okinawa running a FitnessGram® pacer test. In the latter half of the 20th century, revisions to physical education pedagogy have often tended toward more student-centered and analytical models. Mosston’s 1966 textbook Teaching Physical Education helped instructors rethink teaching strategies. The possibility of allowing more student decision-making about their participation was considered revolutionary during an era of teacher-directed instruction. The British public school sports model found new life in the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) model, updated by three teachers at England’s Loughborough University in the 1980s. Thorpe, Bunker, and Almond modified game structures to create strategical problems for students to solve. This gave their students skills and a deep understanding of strategy to apply in actual games (Metzler, 2007). Griffin, Mitchell, and Oslin brought the use of games to teach skills to the United States in 1997 with their book Teaching Sport Concepts and Skills: A Tactical Games Approach. Further emphasis on the affective domain of physical education continued on the work of the British sports model and American pioneers such as Wood and Williams. Hellison’s Teaching Responsibility Through Physical Activity (2003) promoted purposive physical education via his Personal-Social Responsibility (PSR) model, and Siedentop’s Sport Education curriculum and instructional model (SEM), expounded in Sport Education: Quality PE Through Positive Sport Experiences (1994) emphasized the positive outcomes of competitive sports, such as cooperation, leadership, peer teaching, and shared responsibility (Metzler, 2007). LEISURE Throughout the history of the United States, a work ethic derived from religious and societal imperatives has often impeded the pursuit of leisure as a good or worthy objective. We have 154 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT seen how legal restrictions on leisure-time activities were challenged or ignored, and how humans have consistently exhibited a love of sport and games throughout history. With greater industrialization and automation, the Great Depression, and the advent of a 40-hour workweek by congressional amendment of the Fair Labor Standards Act in 1940, leisure time was becoming more abundant (Evans, 1969; Williams, 1939). John Maynard Keynes, an economist who had studied the causes and impact of the Great Depression, foretold of a leisure society and concluded that an era of abundance and leisure would arrive within his lifetime, with all necessary goods and services of the world capable of being produced using only one quarter of the human work that was needed in 1930 (Elliott, 2008; Keynes, 1930/1932). People would have far more leisure time, and the question arose as to how they would spend it. European universities in the 20th century began studying leisure as part of sociology, and universities in the United States began offering similar classes in the 1940s. Since around 1970, leisure studies as an academic discipline has developed into an area of study distinct from sociology and can now include topics such as tourism and outdoor education (also known as environmental education, sometimes integrated with ecological education) (Borland, 2011; Stebbins, 2018). The notion of a leisure society was revisited during the 1960s in response to computing technology and continues to be a periodic topic of popular and scholarly discussion, although the leisure society has never emerged, for a variety of sociological, economic, and political reasons (Veal, 2019; Vickerman, 1980). Currently, diverse research methods and theories for the study of race, ethnicity, intersectionality, and leisure are being developed and tested worldwide (Stodolska, Shinew, Floyd, & Walker, 2014). An important part of leisure and recreation, the building and maintenance of playgrounds continued in the 20th century. Luther Gulick and Henry Curtis founded the Playground Association of America (PAA) in 1906. The name was changed to Playground and Recreation Association of America (PRAA) in 1910, then to National Recreation Association (NRA) in Figure 10.4 Fishing has long been regarded as an excellent outdoor leisure activity. Physical Education and Sport in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries 155 1930. During the mid-1960s, the organization combined with other similar groups and became known as the National Park and Recreation Association (NRPA) (Frost, 2012). Two associations within the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD), the American Association for Leisure and Recreation (AALR, founded 1939) and the American Association for Active Lifestyles and Fitness (AAALF, founded 1949) merged to become the American Association for Physical Activity and Recreation (AAPAR) in 2005. In 2013, AAPAR was folded into AAHPERD, which became the Society for Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America) and essentially disappeared along with the recreational councils (the Council for Aquatic Professionals, for example) that had been founded under AAPAR (Katchmarchi & Lorenzi, 2016). One of the leaders in recreation studies in the 1900s was Jay Nash (1886–1965). Nash was a student under Clark Hetherington at UC Berkeley and before that had played football at Oberlin College, coached by Jesse Williams. As a recreation professional, he convinced the city of Oakland, California, to fund two camps in the Sierra Mountains and to open schools, community buildings, and parks for recreation during evening hours, weekends, and even holidays. One of the five original founders of the American Academy of Physical Education (AAPE), he became president of AAHPER during World War II. During his tenure, AAHPER used the theme National War Fitness in support of sports and games to teach physical conditioning, endurance, agility, team cooperation, courage, combat, ruggedness, and the will to win (Jable, 1985; Nash, 1943). While he acknowledged that this initiative was primarily directed at men, he also explicitly stated that it applied to females (Nash, 1928, 1943). The influence of John Dewey on Nash’s beliefs was evident in his pragmatic commitment to the preservation of democracy and individual freedoms through education. Athletics and productive use of leisure time (such as camping) would help Americans fight the scourges of Figure 10.5 Jay Nash favored so-called “carryover sports,” which participants could do throughout their lives. Golf, tennis, and swimming were examples of these types of sports. 156 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT inactivity (Nash, 1950). Among his many publications, his 1932 book Spectatoritis and his Philosophy of Recreation and Leisure (1953) were calls for active lifelong participation in lifetime (carryover) sports and recreational pastimes rather than passive viewing of films and listening to radio. In 1958 he proclaimed, “To use leisure intelligently and profitably is a final test of civilization” (Nash, 1958, p. 456), and he went on to call for more respect for leisure activities. He saw recreational time as a potential gateway to mental and physical health, creativity, volunteer service to communities, and relief of boredom (Nash, 1958). AMATEUR SPORT In 1909, Hetherington had described amateurism as “sport for sport’s sake” (p. 568), and he went on to form an Athletic Research Society to study amateurism and athletic program administration (Tipton, 2013). The question of what makes an athlete a professional goes beyond Hetherington’s belief that external motivations such as being paid and pleasing spectators are what determine professionalism. Even in his day, gray areas existed. Collegiate players were sometimes paid to play sports like football, and 1912 Olympian Jim Thorpe’s medals were rescinded (restored in 1983) when he was ruled by the International Olympic Committee to have violated the rules of amateur standing because he had played semiprofessional baseball. Since the beginning of the modern Olympics in 1896, founder Pierre de Coubertin and the International Olympic Committee had tried to restrict the Olympics to nonspecialists in sports to promote fairness in the competitions. This attitude of amateurism had been prevalent in British sports and was, to a large extent, a remnant of the aristocratic class privilege of the 1800s, when specialization and dedication to a sport were considered vulgar and worthy of disdain. Only people of a lower socioeconomic standing accepted money for athletic contests because they needed to be paid in order to have financial support while they trained for competition. However, when professionals competed against amateurs, the professionals were seen as having an unfair advantage due to their ongoing training regimens. As of 2019, the line between amateurs and professionals in the Olympics has all but been obliterated. Whereas at one time, even accepting money for teaching a sport qualified an athlete as a professional under Olympic Figure 10.6 James Francis Thorpe (Jim Thorpe, 1887–1953) standards, nowadays, professionals often was a member of the Sac and Fox Nation. He was the first compete along with amateurs. This is partially indigenous American to win gold medals in the Olympics, due to the late-20th-century practice of winning both the pentathlon and the decathlon in the 1912 Eastern Bloc countries (during the Cold War, Stockholm Olympic Games. Physical Education and Sport in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries 157 any who were under Soviet Union influence), which trained athletes year-round under a professional amateur state-sponsored model. The lines were blurred even further with corporate sponsorships of athletes and the general rise of commercialism in the Olympics. Particularly in the television age, the political importance allocated to nationalistic medal counts and the desire to see professionals in the competitions exerted pressures to satisfy spectators, thus selling more tickets to events and generating higher viewership ratings. The notion of fairness has gradually shifted away from an unfair advantage on the part of professionals to an unfair advantage of some amateurs over others; slowly, the myth of the amateur ideal is fading as reality sets in Figure 10.7 Venus Williams, professional tennis player, at the (Higdon, 1979; Llewellyn & Gleaves, 2016). French Open in 2012. Later that year, she and her sister, A desire to preserve American athletic Serena, earned Olympic gold medals in doubles competition, prestige abroad and the recognition of and Serena won the singles event. the Soviet dominance in the Olympics of the 1960s and 1970s were key factors in the passage of the 1978 Amateur Sports Act. The act centralized control of US athletic participation in international competitions and placed it in the hands of the US Olympic Committee and various sport governing bodies. The Amateur Sports Act has benefited mostly elite athletes and has been criticized for not providing more opportunities for mass participation, especially during the current obesity epidemic in the United States. Despite a 1998 revision specifically requiring that Paralympics be included, in practice funding and administrative efforts have not resulted in equal opportunities for athletes with disabilities (Hunt, 2007). On the other hand, opportunities for advanced kinesiology and sports medicine research eventually benefited elite athletes through national governing bodies (NGBs). Subsequent legislation and cooperation between sports medicine groups and NGBs has continued to benefit athletes (Burke, 1981). The Amateur Sports Act reduced the role of the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) and the NCAA in international competition qualification events but left them with authority in their spheres of national events. The AAU continues to provide amateur competitive opportunities and physical fitness. It still coordinates the AAU Junior Olympics and provides diverse sports opportunities for its 700,000 members of all ages. Dance, baton twirling, trampoline, sport cup stacking, and jump rope are also offered through the AAU. The NCAA, meanwhile, continues to require amateur standing for collegiate athletes. Their position on this has become problematic in an age of astronomical coaching salaries for some Division I revenue-generating sports such as football and basketball. Commercial sponsorship by corporations such as Nike and Adidas has allegedly led to some issues concerning payments for recruitment of players. International students who are recruited to play Division I have faced additional difficulties due to differences in regulations abroad. For example, the court case of Buckton v. NCAA (1973) 158 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT found that young Canadian hockey players who accept room and board and educational expenses in exchange for playing on a civic group team are penalized by the NCAA rules on amateurism if they want to play for a US college team. At that time, a typical American student who accepted a preparatory school scholarship as a hockey player would not have been considered to have violated amateur status (Kaburakis, 2007). Conversations about whether it would be fair to pay student athletes (beyond their athletic scholarships) continue, with debates surrounding questions of amateurism and exploitation. In fact, the possibility of having some college teams leave the NCAA to form a professional college league has been advanced (Staurowsky, 2011). Clearly, amateurism in sports is not what it once was. PROFESSIONALISM As the notions of amateurism have changed over the course of the 20th and 21st centuries, designations of various levels of payment for engagement in sport have been developed. Some athletes are paid but don’t play their sport full time or year-round. Semiprofessionals fall into this category. Junior ice hockey players in Canada, indoor American football players, lower-level baseball players, and American lacrosse players are among those competing in this economic category. Some short-term sporting events like charity golf tournaments in which celebrities are teamed with professional golfers are designated as pro-am (professional-amateur). Many in the dance world earn at least some of their annual income working in these categories, due to employment in part-time or short contracts for seasons, rather than year-round salaried positions. Professionals, generally speaking, have lives dedicated to the sport(s) in which they specialize. It is extraordinary for an athlete to achieve professional status in more than one sport. American Bo Jackson was the first professional of the modern era to compete in both football and baseball in the same year, earning him a contract with crossover Nike footwear in the Bo Knows marketing campaign. Others, like Dave DeBusschere (baseball, then basketball), Tim Tebow (football, then baseball), and Deion “Neon Deion” Sanders (football, then baseball), have had successful consecutive careers. In fact, Sanders was the only individual to have played in both a Super Bowl and a World Series. Such athletes are extremely rare. Most earn their salaries while they are still young enough to play and risk injuries (sometimes irreversible) or even death to compete while they can in their respective sports. These risks, combined with the relatively short Figure 10.8 Many dedicated professional dancers study dance career spans and market forces, are throughout their childhood and professional careers, investing their used to justify astronomical salaries money and time in their training, but are unable to secure year-round such as that contracted by Venezuelan paid dance employment. Physical Education and Sport in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries 159 baseball player Ronald Acuna. He signed an eight-year/$100,000,000 contract in 2019 with the Atlanta Braves. Salaries for professional athletes have risen steadily over the past century due to a number of factors, including things like changes to labor practices and commercial influences. Along with racial integration of professional sports, the changes in sports management have been among the most dramatic paradigm shifts in the sports history of the 20th and early 21st centuries. Figure 10.9 Deion Sanders, the only individual to have played in both a Super Bowl and a World Series. The ability of players to negotiate their own contracts and play on the teams of their choosing (known as free agency) was a hard-fought right. In baseball, basketball, football, and hockey, the team owners used to hold reserve clauses over players when their contracts were up. Players could be traded, sold, released, or reassigned without control over their careers. Rules have changed so that, with some restrictions, players are able to become free agents after a certain point in their contracts. In 2019, only Major League Soccer (MLS) still holds reserve clauses over players. Over the years, contract disputes between players and owners have led to work stoppages. A National Football League (NFL) strike in 1987 caused a shortened season. In 1994, baseball players on their eighth walkout in Major League Baseball (MLB) history effectively ended the season that year. The resulting strike was embarrassment for MLB, financial losses for broadcasters, and fan dismay. The National Hockey League lost an entire season, 2004–2005, to labor disputes. Professional athletes have had to fight for their employment rights, but they have been very successful in advocating for themselves. The situation for female professional athletes has improved over the past 100 years, but the rewards are far less lucrative. Women in professional sports have struggled to earn comparable salaries and infrastructure support, and opportunities in coaching and related professions 160 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT are not yet on a par with those of men (Schultz, 2018). For example, many rookie women in the WNBA in 2018 had a starting salary of $41,202, while starting salaries in the NBA were approximately $560,000. The WNBA spends around 25% of its revenue on player salaries compared to 50% of NBA revenues (Hill, 2018). In the Women’s Professional Soccer League (WPSL), until 2018, teams could call up amateur players without remuneration (apart from basic living expenses) to fill out their rosters when players were away on international competitions. The minimum salary for the WPSL in 2017 was $15,750, with a maximum of $44,000 (Goldberg, 2018). Women often play overseas to supplement their incomes, in many cases playing yearround, increasing the strain on their bodies and the risks for injuries. Overall, women face career time limits and risks just as men do, but the economic rewards and playing conditions are obviously far from equitable. One National Women’s Soccer League (NWSL) player, Cari Roccaro, describes the type of conditions faced by female professionals: Figure 10.10 Women’s soccer superstar Megan Rapinoe in the 2012 Summer Olympic Games, USA versus Japan. “Last year, my salary was below poverty level when I looked it up,” Roccaro said. “In terms of facilities, we don’t even have a locker room at our practice field and I do my own laundry. I have one pair of cleats that I’m trying to use during the offseason and make it through until I can get another pair, as opposed to college where you get five pairs at a time.” (Withiam, 2017, para. 18) In 2019, the US Women’s Soccer Team sued US Soccer for gender discrimination, and it is not the first lawsuit to have been filed by women against US Soccer and FIFA, the governing body of worldwide soccer (Das, 2019). To be sure, women in professional sports have come a long way since the days of Babe Didrikson Zaharias, but there is much room for improvement in terms of equality of pay. TITLE IX, AIAW, AND NAGWS: WOMEN IN SPORT If we consider the advances made in women’s physical education and sports opportunities in the past half century or so, we can point to federal legislation and the work of key organizations as drivers of change. Have you ever heard of the Patsy T. Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Physical Education and Sport in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries 161 Act (2002)? You may know it by its prior designation, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. It is part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and it covers discrimination in a wide variety of areas beyond sport, although that is the most widely known aspect of the law. The law applies to K–12 as well as postsecondary education. Here is the law: “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.” Whether public or private, unless an institution receives a waiver (usually for religious reasons), acceptance of federal money means the school must remain in compliance with the law. For athletics, three aspects of Title IX are critical: 1. Participation: equal opportunities for male and female participation in sports. The sports do not need to be identical, but the number of spots available needs to be equal 2. Scholarship money: where scholarships are granted, males and females must be granted proportional dollars according to their participation 3. Amenities, also known as the 13 program areas: facilities, medical services, scheduling of games and practices, coaching, publicity, recruitment, tutoring, and room and board are among the benefits that must be equitable between male and female athletes. Equitable does not mean equal, but implies a fair and just availability of benefits. These are listed in section 106.37 of the regulations. Since the law was passed in 1972 and the athletic implications went into effect in 1975, women’s participation in intercollegiate athletics rose over 700% overall, though participation rates vary across the United States by region, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity (Schultz, 2018). In order to ensure compliance, a three-prong test is used as a tool to measure equitable participation opportunities under Title IX. A school must only meet one of the prongs in order to qualify for funding. 1. Participation opportunities for male and female students are provided in substantially proportionate numbers, based on respective enrollments. For example, if 51% of the student body is female, then females would have to be provided roughly 51% of participation opportunities for intercollegiate athletics. 2. Demonstration of a history and ongoing practice of program expansion responsive to the changing interests and abilities the underrepresented sex. 3. Demonstration that the current athletic program fully and effectively accommodates the interests and abilities of the underrepresented sex. The underrepresented sex is not necessarily always female, but that has often been the case. Most schools use the first prong because it is the easiest to quantify. The methods and legitimacy of determining proportionality have been challenged, however. There is no requirement for male sports to be cut in order to accommodate women’s sports; in fact, that practice is considered by the Office for Civil Rights to be a “disfavored practice” (Schultz, 2018, p. 36). However, there have been cases in which that has happened, without violating Title IX (Carpenter and Acosta, 2005). Legal challenges have been brought by wrestlers and advocates for other men’s sports in which the validity of the three-part test has been questioned. The National Wrestling Coaches Association, along with athletes and alumni from Bucknell, Marquette, and Yale universities, sued the Department of Education in 2003. In another case, a suit was brought 162 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT against the Department of Education and James Madison University after a 2006 decision brought cuts to men’s and women’s teams. The courts sided with the universities in these lawsuits (Brake, 2010). The influence Title IX has had on women’s participation in sports has been remarkable, but it was not created in a vacuum. Support for the athletes’ desires and recognition of the proven abilities of females in athletic competition at all levels rose throughout the 20th century (Brake, 2010; Gerber, 1971, 1975). As society, educators, and the medical profession acknowledged the benefits and made more realistic assessments of risks, girls and women ventured into a wider variety of sports, eventually including those contact sports traditionally considered masculine, such as football and boxing. Girls are as likely to be found in martial arts classes as are boys now and enjoy mixed martial arts as well as rugby and wrestling. Traditional expectations of Figure 10.11 Iranian karateka (karate competitor) Nasrin Dousti (b. 1988), femininity still affect women, even at gold medalist in karate kumite -50kg, at the 2017 Islamic Solidarity the highest echelons of sport: skirts are Games. Women around the world in many diverse cultures have still standard attire for some sports, and benefited from the strides made in women’s sports in the 21st century. female athletes are often objectified no matter what they wear. Organizations founded to promote women’s participation in sports have not always favored competition because of the perceived threat to femininity and morals. For example, the Division for Girls and Women in Sport (DGWS) did not state that women may participate in intercollegiate competitions until 1957 and did not say that it was desirable for them to do so until 1963. In 1966, the DGWS founded a Commission on Intercollegiate Sports for Women to help organize competitions; that commission eventually became the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) in 1971. Still, the AIAW emphasized education and sports participation over winning, in contrast to the NCAA’s more competitive athleticism. Following the passage of Title IX and after losing an attempt to exclude athletic departments from Title IX, the NCAA formed a Women’s Committee and began to move toward more national control of women’s intercollegiate athletics. Halfhearted attempts to fold the AIAW into the NCAA failed. Eventually, using its wealth to promise scholarships and other incentives and using its power over broadcast coverage to promise media exposure, it swayed institutions to leave the AIAW and become affiliated with the NCAA. Consequently, the AIAW was forced to disband in 1982 (Bell, 2018). Physical Education and Sport in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries 163 The National Association for Girls and Women in Sport (NAGWS) began in 1899 as a committee focused on developing rules and guidelines for sports for female participation. As one of the associations under the umbrella of AAHPERD, NAGWS became a powerful voice for the importance of women in sport, providing awards, promoting leadership through sport, and working with Congress to establish a National Girls and Women in Sport Day in 1987. The day marks the struggles women have had, and continue to have, in sports. It also celebrates the achievements and progress made thus far. Celebrated annually on the Wednesday of the first full week of February, it is a time to reflect on the past and a time to envision the future (Wade, 2004). When AAHPERD was changed into SHAPE America in 2014, NAGWS was effectively eliminated as an organization. ADAPTED PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS Significant developments in physical education came about in the last quarter of the 20th century. For the first time, federal legislation was passed on behalf of persons with disabilities, to remove physical and institutional educational barriers. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (PL 93-112) requires that any institution accepting federal funding must be physically accessible to persons with disabilities. It also implicitly (without saying so outright) calls for physical education, intramural sports, and interscholastic sports to be open to all, with any necessary modifications. Going even further, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (EHA) (PL 94142) focused explicitly on the needs of individual students with disabilities, ages three through 21, including physical education as a mandatory educational component. The congressional committee responsible for the bill believed strongly that physical education is an integral part of education for all, and that parents should bear no additional cost for students’ access to programs. Revisions to the law, including the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (IDEA) (PL 101-476) and subsequent revisions, have not only changed the language of the legislation (handicapped was replaced by disability, for example), but also strengthened the rights of students and parents to demand appropriate special physical education. Under IDEA, physical education means the development of a) physical and motor fitness; b) fundamental motor skills and patterns; and c) skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and group games and sports (including intramural and lifetime sports), and includes special physical education, adapted physical education, movement education, and motor development (34 CFR 300.39, Ch. III, 1 July 2007). An individualized education plan (IEP), if needed, must be discussed between the parents and the school (and possibly the child) and written to clearly specify what services will be provided by the school to meet special needs for inclusion (Kelly, 2020). Since 1990, an IEP for any student aged 16 and over must include an individualized transition plan (ITP) to help the student transition from school life to community living. For students with disabilities attending colleges and universities, guidelines from the National Association for Sport and Physical Education call for college basic instruction programs (CBIPs) in physical activities to provide appropriate activities for all students, regardless of disabilities. Instructor knowledge of how to modify activities, and the use of games in structured teams (Siedentop’s Sports Education Model (SEM), for example) are helpful in these instances (Allar, Baek, & Taliaferro, 2014). The Amateur Sports Act of 1978, discussed earlier in this chapter, also had a provision incorporating the Paralympics and giving greater attention to integrating sports for athletes with disabilities. The Paralympics were founded by Sir Ludwig Guttmann (known as the “father 164 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Figure 10.12 Runner in the 2016 Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. of wheelchair sports” (Horvat, Croce, Pesce, & Fallaize, 2019, p. 476). Begun in 1960, the Paralympics are specifically for elite athletes with disabilities. Such athletes sometimes compete in the Olympics as well. This has led to some controversy. For example, when Oscar Pistorius competed in the London 2012 Olympics running the 400-meter and 400-meter relay races on carbon-fiber Flex-Foot Cheetah blade prostheses, the question arose as to whether his adaptation gave him an unfair advantage. No definitive conclusion has yet been reached (Greenemeier, 2016). Adaptive accommodations for competitors with mobility impairments have been added to events such as the TCS New York City Marathon (sponsored by Tata Consulting Services), the Boston Marathon, and even the X Games (Sagert, 2009). Athletes who compete in the Paralympics do not compete in the Special Olympics, which were founded by Eunice Kennedy Shriver in 1968 specifically to provide people with intellectual disabilities opportunities to compete in athletics in a supportive atmosphere. However, certain disabilities have their own international competitions. The Wayfinder Paralympic Games used to be known as the Junior Blind Olympics when they began in 2005. Athletes in those games are restricted to ages six to 22 and may be blind, visually impaired, or multi-disabled. The International Games for the Deaf (sometimes called the International Silent Games) are now called the Deaflympics. Competitors in the Deaflympics must have at least 55dB of hearing loss in their better ear, and may not use hearing aids or cochlear implants. Other sport organizations for people with disabilities include Adaptive Sports USA, Disabled Sports USA, the National Wheelchair Basketball Association, the United States Association for Blind Athletes, BlazeSports America, Inc., National Sports Center for the Disabled, Dwarf Athletic Association of America, and International Federation for Athletes with Intellectual Impairments (Horvat et al., 2019). Physical Education and Sport in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries 165 Figure 10.13 A Special Olympics athlete receives a balloon and welcome from Kadena Air Base Special Olympics volunteers in Okinawa, Japan (2016). The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) (PL 101-336) prohibits private sector businesses and agencies that do not receive financial assistance from the government from discriminating against individuals with disabilities. Prior to the ADA, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 had only applied to institutions and agencies receiving federal money. Pursuant to the ADA, recreational facilities must be accessible to people with disabilities. For example, swimming pools open to the public must include lifts, and bowling alleys need to have bowling ramps so that bowlers may roll the ball into the lane while seated if needed (Horvat et al., 2019). SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • Some of the early-to-mid-20th-century leaders in physical education in the United States were Thomas Wood, Jesse Williams, Clark Hetheringon, Charles McCloy, and Jay Nash. • Greater industrialization and automation, the Great Depression, the advent of a 40-hour workweek, and the experience of two world wars were among the factors that motivated the rise of leisure studies and outdoor education in the 20th century. • The main law prohibiting discrimination against women in sports is Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, an amendment to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Students with special 166 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT needs are covered under laws including the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990, and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. • The distinction between amateur sports and professional sports became less clear over the course of the 20th and early 21st centuries. Professional salaries and negotiating freedoms in major professional sports rose significantly, at least for men. Women’s professional sports salaries and opportunities for coaching continue to lag behind those of men. LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the history and philosophy of the time period covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or other research. 1. The Legislative Effect on International Competition (Visual): Create Excel charts showing the effects of legislation on athletic participation and/or competition. For example, for the Amateur Sports Act of 1978, list the Olympic medal counts for the United States and other top scoring countries beginning in 1972 compared with 1988, for example. Be aware that political conflicts caused the USA to boycott the 1980 Summer Olympics; the USSR and Eastern Bloc countries boycotted the 1984 Summer Olympics. You could also chart participation in the Paralympics pre- and post-1978 (Amateur Sports Act influence). Another possibility could be to chart female participation in the Olympics pre- and post-1972, the year Title IX was passed into law. Be aware that implementation took several years; you might look at numbers of participants and/or numbers of sports in which women competed. 2. College Sports and the Sanity Code of 1946 (Research): Research the Sanity Code proposed to the NCAA membership in 1946. What was it? What effect did it have? What was its nickname? Why was it repealed? What have been major subsequent rules concerning regulation of student athlete scholarships and payments? 3. Traditional Square Dance (Kinesthetic): American GIs returning home from World War II had had square dances on bases all over the globe. Many started clubs and popularized the traditional squares or invented new patterns at various levels of difficulty in Modern Square Dance Clubs. After seeking permission from the organizers, attend a beginner square dance to try a tip (a set of two dances, often done to calls of contrasting styles), or invite a caller to teach your class some traditional square dances. 4. Special Olympics Experience (Outreach): Does your school have a Special Olympics club? If so, attend a practice session or better yet, go to a competition. Consider gathering classmates to participate in an event to raise money for Special Olympics, such as a Polar Plunge, if one happens nearby. The motto for Special Olympics is “Let me win, but if I can’t win, let me be brave in the attempt”—can you see that in action? Here is a list of programs: https://www.specialolympics.org/programs Physical Education and Sport in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries 167 FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 10.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_posture_of_school_children,_ with_its_home_hygiene_and_new_efficiency_methods_for_school_training_(1913)_ (14592018098).jpg. Fig. 10.2: Copyright © 2006 by Dierdre, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Western_Square_Dance_Group.jpg. Fig. 10.3: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:USMC-13883.jpg. Fig. 10.4: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/fisherman-man-fishing-water-sport-1439699/. Fig. 10.5: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/swimmer-floats-river-summer-sun-251031/. Fig. 10.6: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Photograph_of_Jim_Thorpe_-_ NARA_-_595347.jpg. Fig. 10.7: Copyright © 2012 by Yann Caradec, (CC BY-SA 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Venus_Williams_(7305501948).jpg. Fig. 10.8: Copyright © 2016 by Dancermorgan, (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Modern_dancer_1.jpg. Fig. 10.9: Copyright © 1993 by Jim Accordino, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Deion_Sanders_Braves_1993.jpg. Fig. 10.10: Copyright © 2012 by Joel Solomon, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Women%27s_Soccer_-_USA_vs_Japan_(6).jpg. Fig. 10.11: Copyright © 2017 by Mehdi Marizad/Fars News Agency, (CC BY 4.0) at https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nasrin_Dousti_2017b.jpg. Fig. 10.12: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/action-adult-paralympics-prosthetic-1867014/. 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(1930). Education through the physical. Journal of Higher Education, 1(5), 279–282. Williams, J. F. (1939). Health and physical education. Journal of Higher Education, 10(9), 491–496. Withiam, H. (2017, April 15). Why are women’s soccer superstars fleeing the U.S.? New York Post. Retrieved from https://nypost.com Wood, T. D., & Cassidy, R. F. (1927). The new physical education. New York, NY: Macmillan Company. Physical Education and Sport in the 20th and Early 21st Centuries 171 C H APTER 11 INTERNATIONAL SPORT AND DANCE IN THE 21ST CENTURY KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. The global North: in the philosophy of Boaventura de Sousa Santos, this is metaphorical, not geographical; it refers to the colonial and capitalist powers of nations and groups who hold power over discourse and socioeconomic structures • What programs and services does the The global South: unlike the global North, this refers to societies that have endured inequalities imposed by colonial and capitalist powers, and also implies progressive thinking about time, relationships, and cross-cultural communication (intercultural translation) Positionality: understanding your social and political place in the world, along with your biases and the influences at work on your identities; the concept is used in research ethics to acknowledge and address the power dynamics that are present in all inquiries Youth Olympic Games (YOG): held every four years, the YOG provide elite athletes ages 15–18 with international competition experience alongside a Culture and Education Program (CEP) Competition manipulation: intentionally losing an athletic competition Olympism: the International Olympic Committee (IOC) defines Olympism in their charter: 172 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT • What are some sociological issues to be aware of when studying international sports? International Olympic Committee offer aside from the Olympic Games? • What other international sports organizations work toward improving physical education worldwide? • What organizations promote understanding of international dance? • Apart from ballet, what are some examples of classical dance traditions around the globe? (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) INTRODUCTION This chapter will help to raise and answer some of the “Where are we now?” questions of physical education and sport. In Chapter 4, we covered some of the history of ancient non-Western sports. In this chapter, we will look at key events and organizations in international sports and physical education as we take a more global view of physical activity and culture. As you will see, the history of international competitions is often complicated by politics and various interests, but interest in international physical education opportunities continues to grow. Metaphorically speaking, in reading this chapter, you might also consider another way of looking at the world of sport: imagine a world divided into the global North and the global South, as proposed by the philosopher Boaventura de Sousa Santos. In his view, the world was not divided so much into eastern and western hemispheres as into northern and southern worldviews. Laboring under capitalism and colonialism, the global South has also had the mindset of resistance and overcoming. The power and traditions of capitalism and colonialism, on the other hand, hold sway in the global North. There are also voices of the global South in the north, in the form of marginalized groups such as unemployed people or those of lower socioeconomic status, or silenced ethnic and religious groups (De Sousa Santos, 2012). What does this have to do with sport? Everything. Think about the Olympics, for example. Which countries get the most medals? When you watch the games on television, do you see every heat or event, or only those in which a more wealthy country has a contender? How does the International Olympic Committee (IOC) decide which sports are included in the games? Moreover, who has the power to finance the athletes’ training, pay for Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy found in effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles. (“Promote Olympism in Society,” 2019, para. 1) Female athlete triad: physical conditions of low energy, amenorrhea (stoppage of menstrual cycle), and osteoporosis, brought on by eating disorders combined with high levels of physical activity Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD): a condition in which someone obsesses about a real or perceived body flaw Clean athletes: athletes who do not use performanceenhancing substances or procedures to improve their athletic performances Classical ceremonial ritual dance: dance performed in a highly esteemed ritual setting, often using costumes, masks, and music, possibly with mime or storytelling Created dance: any choreographed dance made by amateur or professional dance creators for the entertainment of an audience; may include elements of traditional or ritual dance Cultural imperialism: when a politically or economically dominant culture overpowers another culture; used in colonization Cultural appropriation: inappropriate use of another culture’s ideas, customs, arts, etc., by a dominant culture Concept mapping: concept maps are visual representations of the interrelationships between concepts; concept mapping is the process of creating such representations International Sport and Dance in the 21st Century 173 sponsorships, and decide who gets to sit on the IOC? Are indigenous sports necessarily forgotten when political and economic colonialism invade a country? There have been recent developments toward addressing these issues, and we will see where some efforts are being made to identify and address international concerns for justice and equity in international sports and physical education. If you consider the training, support, and facilities needed to prepare international athletes for competition, you will see significant disparities in opportunities for participation that go beyond mere geography. A global consciousness should lead to questions of access to physical education and athletic training. It should also lead to questions of environmental concerns. Who contributes to pollution via travel to competition? What chemicals and water resources are used to maintain golf courses? Where are the guidelines for sustainable stadium buildings? The benefits of competition are not equally distributed across all countries in the world—while we appreciate the gathering of the world’s elite athletes and their quests for glory, we must acknowledge that the playing fields are not level. They never have been. Positionality means that you understand your social and political place in the world, along with your biases and the influences at work on your identities. In considering intercultural translations, you cannot change who and what you are. If you keep an open mind, you may find that it is more educational to consider the sports in this chapter as expressions of humanity’s love of active competition, regardless of geographical origin. It may be difficult to understand them because they are unfamiliar, and the people who play them are different from you in some ways. You are an outsider, most likely, raised in a different culture. That does not mean that the sports of other cultures are less worthy than yours, or that their merit should be judged on whether or not they are included in the Olympics, for instance. In this chapter, we will also introduce several important dance traditions from non-Western cultures. History, arts, social customs, and religious traditions combine in many of the world’s dances in ways that are unique and highly valued in their societies. While it is beyond the scope of this text to do an in-depth dance ethnography, we can gain a better (if limited) awareness of and appreciation for the artistry, physicality, and deeper meanings of dances from other cultures through education and awareness of resources for further study. INTERNATIONAL SPORTS ORGANIZATIONS For many North Americans, the most visible international sports events are the Summer and Winter Olympic Games. The modern Olympics began in Athens in 1896, and the Winter Olympics began in 1924. From then until (and including) 1992, the Summer and Winter Olympics took place in the same year. The Winter Olympics were also held in 1994, and have continued on a four-year cycle, alternating even-numbered years with the Summer Olympics. Most people do not realize that there are a number of other aspects to the Olympics, however. An overarching goal of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is the promotion of Olympism, which is defined as follows in the IOC Charter: Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy found in effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles (“Promote Olympism in Society,” 2019, para. 1). 174 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Every four years, youth ages 15–18 can participate in the Youth Olympic Games (YOG) as athletes, reporters, ambassadors, and role models. The attendees take part in a Culture and Education Program (CEP) to learn “Olympism, Social Responsibility, Skills Development, Expression and Well-being and Healthy Lifestyles” (“What is YOG?,” 2009, para. 1). Youth who cannot attend the YOG can learn about citizenship, health, social interaction, respect, and more through the free Olympic Values Education Programme (OVEP). Educational programs to combat abuses of athletes, doping, and competition manipulation (a form of cheating in which the athlete intentionally loses an event) are in place to preserve the integrity of the games. One of the fundamental goals of the Olympic ideal is peace, and toward that end, the IOC has a number of social development initiatives to provide funding for developing countries. They also have created a refugee team for athletes who have had to flee their countries. Their sport and active society program serves all ages, promotes gender equality, and provides resources for sport and physical activity in urban settings. Figure 11.1 The Olympic Rings are the symbol of the Olympic Games. They represent (left to right) the continents of Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceania (including Australia), and the Americas (considered as one continent). The logo was designed by the founder of the modern Olympic Games, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, in 1913. They were first used for the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. In several ways, the promotion of healthy living through sport is an ongoing concern of the IOC. They have a healthy body image program to combat eating disorders and help females avoid the female athlete triad of low energy, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis that can occur when high activity levels and insufficient caloric intake are combined. This aspect of the IOC works to fight body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), a condition in which a person obsesses about a real or perceived body flaw. A program to combat homophobia and harassment is in place. An IOC certification course to combat doping and encourage clean athletes has been created, as have diploma courses in sports medicine, sports nutrition, and sports physical therapies. The IOC works with world governments, the International Council of Sports Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE), the International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport, and Dance (ICHPER-SD), International Sports Federations, National Olympic Committees, and many associations worldwide (“Recognized Organizations,” 2019) to respond to international issues in sports, lifelong physical activity, and physical education. Their International Sport and Dance in the 21st Century 175 International Olympic Academy and their Athlete365 Career+ programs provide educational opportunities and also help athletes transition into post-competition life. What becomes clear from a close examination of the scope of activities conducted by the IOC is that it is a multifaceted organization responsive to a broad range of issues related to sport and physical education. The actual Olympic Games are only the most visible part of a structure that continues to adapt to scandals, challenges, and socioeconomic needs to provide services and support around the world. It is part of the global North and is firmly connected to capitalist frameworks, but we can see evidence of the progressive influence of the global South in the adaptations it has made over the years. Whether such influence can withstand increasing commercialization and professionalization of international athletics remains to be seen. Research has shown that for the municipalities hosting the Olympics, short-term economic gains are often followed by losses over time. Preuss (2004) has developed general and specific economic models showing the cost-benefit analysis and impact of the games on host cities and their regions. Locations are chosen by competitive bids, and the IOC helps to fund the selected cities’ development of infrastructure such as stadium buildings or renovations to accommodate the games. However, host cities must have sufficient lodging and nearby competition facilities suitable to the events as well as utilities grids that can support the influx of athletes, media, and spectators, not to mention strong political approval for the proposed location. For example, downhill skiing requires 8,000 feet of well-maintained surface steeps, located close enough to a town big enough to make it viable as a tourist ski attraction in the years following the Winter Olympics. Facilities such as stadiums or waterfront structures constructed for the Summer Olympics need sustainable plans for maintenance. Over time, the countries best able to provide the funds needed for bids, investment in the chosen location, and post-Olympics maintenance tend to be from the global North, even with IOC subsidies. Sometimes, other international competitions are able to use Olympic facilities after the games (and sometimes host cities like Beijing host again), but many venues, especially in economically strapped countries, are simply abandoned or demolished (Grebey & Shaw, 2018). The Fisht Olympic Stadium in Sochi, Russia, was used for several of the 2018 Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) World Cup soccer matches. However, its location well outside the city center makes it unattractive to organizations that might want to use it (“Sochi’s Empty Stadium,” 2018). As when governments lose interest in preserving and maintaining facilities for international sports, decreased government funding for international preservation of traditional sports and their cultural importance also takes a toll on historic preservation attempts. In some cases, corporate donations can make up the difference. For example, in 2003, the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) published a World Sports Encyclopedia of traditional sports and games and has worked with a Chinese IT company, Tencent, to develop an interactive open digital library of traditional games (“UNESCO and Tencent Partner,” 2015). Since 2010, UNESCO has had a listing of sports considered “examples of intangible heritage” (“Traditional Sports and Games,” 2017, para. 1). Some of these cross geographical barriers, with special importance to a region or group of countries. An example would be tugging games, which are listed in UNESCO as important to Cambodia, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, and Vietnam. Others have crossed from one country to another and retained a different country’s identity, such as the horsemanship of the Spanish Riding School of Vienna (Austria), home of the Lipizzaner stallions. 176 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT In 2015, UNESCO cosponsored a unique international competition with the Indigenous Games in Brazil. Two thousand athletes representing 30 nations and 24 ethnicities participated in traditional games and sports (both competitive and demonstrations), as well as one Western sport: soccer. In terms of promoting peace, cultural preservation, understanding, and appreciation of indigenous people and their traditions, the work on these games reinforced the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007) and the Declaration of Punta del Este (1999). Figure 11.2 The XIX Winter Olympics (2002) were held in Park City, Utah (USA), near Salt Both of those declarations call for Lake City. The facilities are still used by recreational and elite athletes. This photograph of USA Luge Junior National Team athlete Matt Wolbach was taken in 2010 at the Utah nations to value their indigenous Winter Games. sports, games, and performing arts (such as dance). The Declaration of Punta del Este is of particular interest to students of physical education because it was crafted as Annex 1 of the Final Report of the third International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for Physical Education and Sport (MINEPS III) specifically to urge governments, organizations, and individuals worldwide toward “North-South dialogue and cooperation” (1999, para. 3). Articles 2 and 3 of the declaration specifically stated the ministers’ call for recognition of the importance of physical education and sport as Human Development indicators at the same level as health, education, and the environment: [T]he importance of physical education and sport as an essential element and an integral part in the process of continuing education and human and social development. These activities can also contribute to social cohesion, mutual tolerance and the integration of different ethnic and cultural minorities at a time when migration concerns all continents. They underline the importance of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as a focal point for sport and physical education in the United Nations system (Third International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for Physical Education and Sport (MINEPS III), Declaration of Punta del Este, 1999, para. 2–3). Figure 11.3 The Lipizzan, or Lipizzaner, breed of horse originally came from Lipica in Slovenia in the 16th century. The horses have traditionally been trained at the Spanish Riding School in Vienna, Austria, to be able to perform difficult and complex dressage maneuvers. International Sport and Dance in the 21st Century 177 Other declarations call for • girls and women to be better represented as athletes, “coaches, officials, and decisionmakers” (para. 5), • a provision for anti-doping efforts and commitment to ethical behavior (para. 7), • recognition of the importance of media in improving awareness of the socioeconomic benefits of sport and physical education (para. 14), and • the need for sufficient funding and human resources to support the efforts of MINEPS (para. 10). In the document, they endorsed the Berlin Agenda for Action for Government Ministers (1999) that had been created at the ICSSPE World Summit on Physical Education, which called for all schools to include physical education with well-qualified instructors. Recognizing the potential benefits of sport and physical education toward achieving “social cohesion and democracy” (para. 13) toward a “Culture of Peace,” (para. 15), the authors of the Punta del Este declaration also noted that financing physical activity could save medical costs and aid socioeconomic development (para. 4, 9). International meetings and policy resolutions concerning physical education were watched closely by the World Health Organization (WHO). In cooperation with ICCSPE (which has associate status with UNESCO), WHO has released reports such as An Up-date on the Status of Physical Education in Schools Worldwide: Technical Report for the World Health Organization (Hardman, n.d.) and Global Action Plan on Physical Education 2018–2030: More Active People for a Healthier World (2018). UNESCO has published World-Wide Survey of School Physical Education (Hardman, Murphy, Routen, & Tones, 2014) and a host of survey reports, regional studies, directories, and proceedings of conferences. The conclusions reached in these types of documents indicate a number of ongoing issues. 1. Policies and implementation are often far different: legal provisions for physical education are often unmet in actual practice. 2. The legal and perceived status of physical education instructors and classes are lower than those of other subject areas. 3. While quality physical education is receiving more acceptance worldwide, competitive sports and track and field activities are used most often, resulting in increasing numbers of students rejecting those activities; this leads to inactivity and obesity. 4. Insufficient numbers and quality in physical education teacher training programs, combined with gaps in oversight, diminish the overall level of quality physical education worldwide. 5. The availability of facilities and the maintenance of facilities for physical education and sports varies significantly. 6. Barriers to inclusion based on gender and disability continue to impede efforts toward quality physical education for all. 7. Partnerships between schools and communities to provide pathways to lifelong physical activity are not always in place, often due to economic pressures. It should be noted that improvements have been made in some of these areas, but they still rate concern from the international physical education community. 178 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT In July of 2017, MINEPS VI moved from a policy declaration toward the Kazan Action Plan, focusing on inclusion, cooperation with various entities, and sustainable development goals. However, in October of 2017, due to political disagreements with the United Nations concerning the inclusion of Palestinians in UNESCO, the United States withdrew its voting membership and its $80 million annual support from UNESCO, costing them roughly 22% of their budget (Beauchamp, 2017). This has resulted in cuts to educational programming and could seriously impact the international physical education work of MINEPS. However, for now, UNESCO continues to promote sport and physical education through various programs, publications, and peer-led quality physical education (QPE) online resources (“Promoting Quality Physical Education Policy,” 2017). WORLD DANCE TRADITIONS A number of international organizations serve as professional associations in support of dance at all levels, from informal recreational dance through professional theatrical performance. Since 1973, UNESCO has had an International Dance Council (Conseil International de la Danse, or CID) based in Figure 11.4 A female dancesport competitor in the Latin dance Paris, France. Its projects include a global directory category at the Blaues Band der Spree competition in Berlin, of members and former members, an International Germany, 2016. Certificate in Dance Studies, promotion of an annual international dance day, and regional and international conferences. World dance, tap dance, and dancesport (competitive ballroom dance) are represented in the International Dance Organization. There is an International Association of Blacks in Dance, an International Dance Entrepreneurs Association, an International Association for Dance Medicine and Science, and even an International Sacred Dance Guild. National service organizations like the National Dance Society, based in the United States, often include members from around the world. To promote recreational international folk dancing, many local community centers, ethnic organizations, colleges and universities, dance camps, and online services offer classes, lecture/ demonstrations, and occasional open dances. The Lloyd Shaw Foundation, the National Folk Organization, and the Country Dance & Song Society are all prominent US organizations providing resources and education toward the goal of preservation of traditional dances and music. Sometimes, dances bearing similar steps, music, and characteristics of one country’s traditions are apparent in another nation due to immigration and resettlement. International Sport and Dance in the 21st Century 179 For example, American square dance is derived from earlier British and French dances. In the Philippines, many folk dances bear evidence of influences from Spain because of the Spanish colonization of the Philippines (which were named after King Philip II of Spain) (Friese, 1980). Bugaku, famous as a form of Japanese court dance, is believed to have come from other nearby countries and is only preserved in Japan, its traditions having been lost in its countries of origin (Ikema, 1981). In Israeli folk dance, the pioneers (chalutzim) from eastern and central Europe, Russia, and the Baltic States brought their dances to Israel. Gurit Kadman was one of the first organizers of Israeli folk dance teacher training. Her dance films and her work teaching around the world helped to popularize a melding of various dance traditions, heavily influenced by religious references in the Bible and the Talmud (Berk, 1972). Many new Israeli folk dances such as Mayim and Goren were created in the middle of the 20th century and were added to the growing repertoire. Some were choreographed by modern dancers interested in contributing to the vibrant folk dance genre. Some were influenced by Yemeni dance. Formal Figure 11.5 Bugaku dancer in Ryouou, a dance based on a Chinese performance groups were formed in Israel and in legend. Bugaku was traditionally only performed for nobility at the places like New York City’s 92nd Street Y, where Japanese Imperial Court but became available to the public after World War II. Fred Berk established the Jewish Dance Division and worked with the Hebraica Dancers and other groups (Kisselgoff, 1985). The case of Israeli folk dance proves that traditional dances are not necessarily fossilized remains of earlier times. Traditions begin somewhere. Similarly, maintaining traditions does not have to imply that dancers perform perfectly preserved museum pieces of culture. Between moribund respect for historical accuracy and ignorance of that which is worth preserving, there is space for living, breathing dances of the people. This philosophy appears in Cheska (1987), in reference to the dance heritage of West Africa: “Traditional” pertains to tradition or that which is handed down from the past and still utilized in the present. It often connotes such meanings as authority, truth, pristine, or unchanged; however, the tenure and tenor of the past is never static, for the past has been as subject to change as the present. Tradition is not a passive state, but a dynamic process. (p. 67) In her classification system of dance in West Africa, Cheska uses three main categories. Classical ceremonial ritual dance, popular dance, and created dance. All three categories may 180 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT be designated as traditional if they meet the definition set forth above. However, some people might take a more narrow view and perceive only the ceremonial dances such as • • • • • • acrobatic dance, agrarian (planting and harvesting) dance, animal (imitative) dance, ecstatic (mystic communication with deities) dance, life-cycle (initiations, courtship, funeral) dance, and social relations dance (friendship, courtship, and fertility) as being traditional. (Cheska, 1987, pp. 67–69) Many ceremonial dance traditions may be used in created dance, although usually they are altered when they are performed. For example, on a large Western-style proscenium stage, presentation for the audience requires the performers to face the audience for much of the dance, whereas in its original setting, a dance might be performed within a circle of onlookers, musicians, or other dancers. Figure 11.6 Masai dancers of Kenya: the traditional adumu jumping dance. Dancers compete to see who can jump the highest, and the winner earns respect and admiration. In the Western world, the classical tradition of ballet developed as a dance form meant to be seen from one side of the stage. Its history is hundreds of years old, and it is a prime example of Western theatrical art. However, there are dance instructors from that tradition who maintain that its technique is the best means in the world for developing dancers and that even those who are trained in other dance forms should study ballet in order to improve their dance abilities. International Sport and Dance in the 21st Century 181 This point of view places ballet at a global North pinnacle, ascribing powers to it that cannot be achieved using methods from the global South. An element of colonialism and privilege pervades this stance, with an implication that a non-Western classical form, or a modern popular form of dance such as hip hop, will always offer less than whatever strength, presence, balance, agility, and grace one could derive from the study of ballet. Such cultural imperialism can be a by-product of a narrowly focused education in dance. The notion of difference need not call for value judgments of any form of dance, however. Appreciation of different cultures’ dance traditions need not threaten anyone’s belief in their own traditions. On the other hand, it can also be offensive to participate in cultural appropriation, in which elements of a culture are borrowed and used in dance productions, often without deep understanding of their meanings and cultural resonance. In fact, there are classical dance traditions around the world that are older than that of ballet, are physically and theatrically demanding, and are equally deserving of respect. Indian classical dance has a number of classical forms, including Bharata Nātyam (dating from around the 2nd century CE), Manipuri (also known as Jagoi), Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Mohiniattam, and Odissi are among them (“Dances of India,” n.d.; Gaston, 1982). Balinese dance-theater, Javanese Tari Kraton, Sundanese Figure 11.7 A Kuchipudi dancer. Originating in the dance, and Cambodian Khmer classical dance are time-honored district of Andhra Pradesh, Kuchipudi is one of the traditions (Daniel, 1981). In terms of arduous traditions and most prominent classical dance forms of India, training, students of the Beijing Opera and Sri Lankan Kohomba tracing its religious beginnings as far back as the Kankariya ritual performance and Kandyan dance must meet 10th century. rigorous standards over many years of education, requiring intense devotion to the art of dance (De Zoete, 1957; Reed, 2010). Dance is an essential part of comprehensive physical education. When international dances are presented to students in respectful, culturally appropriate ways, much can be learned about the cultures from which they come. Moreover, the privilege of being able to reach out to other cultures and their traditions through dance can be a fascinating, exciting part of learning about the international history and philosophy of physical education. SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • When studying international sports, students should recognize their own positionalities and the ways in which their background might bias their ability to comprehend the customs, games, dances, and sports of other cultures. 182 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT • Aside from the Olympic Games, the International Olympic Committee has programs for youth, education, health, protecting the integrity of sport, prevention of harassment, and research. • The United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE), and the World Health Organization (WHO) are other international sports organizations working toward improving physical education worldwide. • Organizations that promote understanding of international dance include UNESCO’s International Dance Council (CID), the International Dance Organization, the Lloyd Shaw Foundation, the National Folk Organization, and the Country Dance & Song Society (CDSS). • Many classical dance traditions exist around the globe in addition to Western theatrical ballet. Some examples are Indian classical dance techniques, Cambodian Khmer dance, and Sri Lanka’s Kandyan dance. LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the history and philosophy of the time period covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or other research. 1. Concept Mapping (Visual): The connections and overlaps between the activities and programs of different international sports and physical education organizations can be confusing. Using Internet searches of organizations and concept mapping, diagram the relationships between the following organizations in terms of their priorities and activities: the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the International Council of Sports Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE), and the International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport, and Dance (ICHPER-SD). For an explanation of concept mapping, see the University of Waterloo’s Centre for Teaching Excellence at https://uwaterloo.ca/centrefor-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-tips/educational-technologies/all/ concept-mapping-tools. 2. Non-Western Sports and Games (Research): Research and write a paper on a nonWestern sport or game. Watch a video of the activity because it is likely to be unfamiliar to you. Describe the basic rules of the sport or game, its history, and any religious and/ or cultural significance. Some examples are sepak takraw, bo-taoshi, sumo wrestling, buzkashi, kabbadi, and tahtib. International Sport and Dance in the 21st Century 183 3. Experience Israeli Folk Dance (Kinesthetic): Download the cue sheet for the Israeli dance Mayim and music to accompany it (available through lloydshaw.org or other sources). Alternatively, watch a video of the dance instruction and download the music. Have a group of students practice and perform the dance for the class, giving a short explanation of its history and importance for Israelis as a brief lecture/demonstration. Here is a teaching video URL for the dance, which is sometimes called Mayim, Mayim: https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Mxo-7gD_T1o 4. Global Dance Practitioners (Outreach): Does your community have an African dance ensemble? Taiko drummers (not strictly dance, but very physical rhythmic movement)? Non-Western classical dance specialists? Folk or ethnic dancers? Visit a practice session (arrange permission beforehand) and/or attend a performance. If possible, meet the performers and instructor(s). Ask about the training and traditions involved: how many years have they studied? Who taught them? Why did they first start doing what they do? In some cases, you may be invited to try a dance or a few movements. If so, don’t be shy! This is a wonderful opportunity for an unforgettable cross-cultural experience, and you will better understand the dance even if it is unfamiliar or difficult for you. FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 11.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:640p-Olympic_Rings_depicting_ the_five_continents.png. Fig. 11.2: Copyright © 2010 by Gwolbach, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Matt_Curve-6.JPG. Fig. 11.3: Copyright © 2008 by Tom Hammer, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Lipizzaner_Stallion.jpg. Fig. 11.4: Copyright © 2016 by Thomas Quine, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Pleading_(24587664927).jpg. Fig. 11.5: Copyright © 2011 by Kazuyoshi Yura, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Ryouou_in_Bugaku_(Hokkaido_Gokoku-Jinja)_3.jpg. Fig. 11.6: Copyright © 2011 by David Racher. Reprinted with permission. Fig. 11.7: Copyright © 2017 by Nmvs, (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Kuchipudi_1.jpg REFERENCES Beauchamp, Z. (2017, October 12). Here’s what UNESCO is—and why the Trump administration just quit it. Vox. Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/world/2017/10/12/16464778/ unesco-us-withdrawal-trump 184 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Berk, F. (Ed.). (1972). Ha-Rikud: The Jewish dance. New York, NY: American Zionist Youth Foundation. Berlin Agenda for Action for Government Ministers. (1999). Retrieved from International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE) website: http://www.icsspe.org/about/ structure/declarations-about-sport Cheska, A. T. (1987). Traditional games and dances in West African nations. Schorndorf, Germany: Verlag Karl Hofmann. Dances of India. (n.d.). Retrieved from Cultural India website: https://www.culturalindia.net/ indian-dance/index.html Daniel, A. (1981). Bali: Behind the mask. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf. De Sousa Santos, B. (2012). Public sphere and epistemologies of the South. Africa Development, 37(1), 43–67. De Zoete, B. (1957). Dance and magic drama in Ceylon. London, England: Faber and Faber. Friese, J. S. (1980). Philippine folk dances from Pangasinan, Vol. I. New York, NY: Vantage Press. Gaston, A.-M. (1982). Śiva in dance, myth and iconography. Delhi, India: Oxford University Press. Global action plan on physical education 2018–2030: More active people for a healthier world. (2018). Retrieved from World Health Organization website: https://apps.who.int/iris/ bitstream/handle/10665/272722/9789241514187-eng.pdf Grebey, J., and Shaw, G. (2018, February 26). 30 eerie pictures that show what happens to Olympic venues after the games end. Insider. Retrieved from https://www.thisisinsider.com/ abandoned-olympic-venues-current-day-pictures-2016-5 Hardman, K. (n.d.). An up-date on the status of physical education in schools worldwide: Technical report for the World Health Organization. Retrieved from International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE) website: https://www.icsspe.org/sites/default/files/ Kenneth%20Hardman%20update%20on%20physical%20education%20in%20schools%20 worldwide.pdf Hardman, K., Murphy, C., Routen, A., & Tones, S. (2014). World-wide survey of school physical education: Final report. Retrieved from https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/ bitstream/2134/27642/1/UNESCO-NWCPEA-%20world-wide%20survey%20of%20 school%20physical%20education-final%20report.pdf Ikema, H. (1981). Folk dance of Japan. Tokyo, Japan: Masashi Yoshida. Kisselgoff, A. (1985, November 24). One man’s contribution to the history of modern dance. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com Preuss, H. (2004). Calculating the regional impact of Olympic Games. European Sport Management Quarterly, 4(4), 234–253. doi:10.1080/16184740408737479 Promote Olympism in society. (2019). Retrieved from IOC website: https://www.olympic.org/ the-ioc/promote-olympism Promoting quality physical education policy. (2017). Retrieved from UNESCO website: http://www. unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/physical-education-and-sport/ policy-project/ Recognized organizations. (2019). Retrieved from IOC website: https://www.olympic.org/ ioc-governance-affiliate-organisations Reed, S. A. (2010). Dance and the nation: Performance, ritual, and politics in Sri Lanka. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. International Sport and Dance in the 21st Century 185 Sixth International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for Physical Education and Sport (MINEPS VI). (2017, July 13–15). Kazan Action Plan. Retrieved from UNESCO website: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000252725 Sochi’s empty stadium reflects Russian sports struggles. (2018, June 6). New York Post. Retrieved from https://nypost.com Third International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for Physical Education and Sport (MINEPS III). (1999, November 30–December 3). Final report. Retrieved from UNESCO website: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id= p::usmarcdef_0000119812&file=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/ attach_import_bd3a79c9-2cb2-4da0-b5d3-7ed2c1112f9a%3F_%3D119812engo. pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000119812/PDF/119812engo.pdf#%5B%7B %22num%22%3A1046%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22 %7D%2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D Traditional sports and games: Examples of intangible cultural heritage. (2017). Retrieved from UNESCO website: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/ physical-education-and-sport/traditional-sports-and-games/intangible-cultural-heritage/ UNESCO and Tencent partner to create an open digital library on traditional games. (2019). Retrieved from UNESCO website: https://en.unesco.org/news/ unesco-and-tencent-partner-create-open-digital-library-traditional-games United Nations General Assembly. (2007). Declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples. Retrieved from UN website: https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/wpcontent/uploads/sites/19/2018/11/UNDRIP_E_web.pdf What is YOG? (2009, August 1). Retrieved from International Olympic Committee website: https://www.olympic.org/news/what-is-yog 186 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT C H APTER 12 EPISTEMOLOGY IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. Metaphysics: the branch of philosophy dealing with issues such as existence, identity, and knowledge of things (among other concepts) Epistemology: the study of how people know and learn things • How can we know and learn about physical education and sport? • What can different philosophies teach us about learning in physical education? • Can sports have meaning? • How are philosophies applied in physical education and sport? Idealism: a philosophical position in which reality consists of things that can be experienced through the intellect rather than through the body and its senses Dualism: conceptual division of the mind and body, as opposed to a holistic, integrated entity Realism: the belief that reality may be known through direct experience Naturalism: educational philosophy encouraging direct experience of nature and/or the education of youth according to developmental principles (presenting experiences and concepts when the student is developmentally ready to receive them) Pragmatism: a philosophical viewpoint in which experimentation and human experience define reality Instrumentalism: belief that experiential learning is necessary for the purpose of achieving goals in life Experimentalism: belief or attitude that life should be a continuous learning process through experience 188 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) INTRODUCTION Have you ever wondered how it is possible to know something, or how people can learn things? Some of the most basic (not to say simple!) questions philosophers ask concern the nature of reality, both external and internal. Such questions often fall into the realm of metaphysics, the branch of philosophy dealing with issues such as existence, identity, and knowledge of things. Epistemology, or the study of how we can know and learn things, logically needs to be part of a future educator’s scholarly preparation to teach. Students enrolled as physical education majors will be exposed to specific philosophies of learning and teaching as part of their curriculum, directly through student teaching experience and specific studies, or indirectly as students in general education and physical education classes and activity courses. However, other kinesiology professions also need an understanding of knowledge acquisition. Physical and occupational therapists, fitness development specialists, and coaches need to know about different ways people can learn, and researchers sometimes devote entire careers to motor learning and behavior, to name just a few examples. The study of philosophy in physical education and sport provides an important piece in the overarching study of kinesiology: the ability to identify unifying principles and characteristics of various disciplines and subdisciplines within kinesiology (and between kinesiology and other academic domains) is a special province of kinesiological philosophers (Hopsicker & Hochstetler, 2016). In the years before the founding of the Philosophical Society for the Study of Sport (PSSS, founded in 1972, now known as the International Existentialism: generally, the belief that subjective personal existence is the basis of each person’s experience of reality Phenomenology: the essence and context of sport and physical activity Implications approach: taking a philosophical system and applying it to problems in physical education Epistemology in Physical Education and Sport 189 Association for the Philosophy of Sport, or IAPS) and the creation of their academic journal, the Journal for the Philosophy of Sport, kinesiologists studied philosophical texts and applied them to the study of physical education and sport. That approach had advantages and disadvantages. Advantages to that approach included the excitement of interdisciplinary studies and the potential for bridging the long-standing perceptual academic divide between the physical education department and the humanities. The accumulated thought of thousands of years could be applied to studies in human movement. Questions of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics in sport could be viewed through a different lens. Theoretical studies could complement and inform policy and educational philosophy in kinesiology. Disadvantages loomed, however. The nearly exclusive reliance on Western academic philosophical thought limited inquiry from non-Western perspectives. Furthermore, the application of schools of thought such as idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism (Lumpkin, 2017; Zeigler, 1968) to physical activity has not necessarily been the best or most effective way to philosophize about movement and movement education. Attempts to shoehorn the experience of physical educators into philosophical pigeonholes can sometimes be confusing or counterproductive. However, a basic understanding of certain elements of Western philosophical thought still undergirds this scholarly study and cannot be ignored. As the subdiscipline of sport philosophy continues to grow and change, and more trained philosopher kinesiologists contribute to its literature, the prestige of this avenue of inquiry within kinesiology is increasing, and the nature of the domain is changing to become more comprehensible, relevant, and applicable to the practitioners and scholars of movement studies (Hopsicker & Hochstetler, 2016). Hopefully, this chapter will help you begin to understand and refine your personal philosophy of physical education and sport, with help from philosophers within (Zeigler, 1988) and beyond the realm of kinesiology. METAPHYSICS IDEALISM AND DUALISM At a fundamental level, we start with the question of the nature of reality and our ability to perceive it and act within it. The ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427–347 BCE) proposed the notion of idealism, a form of substance mind/body dualism in which reality exists, but humans cannot truly grasp it because of the limitations of the physical body’s sensory organs, which are likely fallible and subject to deception. True understanding is only possible through the intellect (Plato, 360 BCE/1988; Thomas, 1983). Kinesiologists who believe that there are truly perfect ways to execute movements or plays in sport, or who adhere to an ideal conception of any given physical activity in their teaching or performance of movements, may be said to be aligned with the philosophy of idealism. This is not always best for humans, who are notoriously imperfect beings. For example, the ideal turned-out first position in classical ballet has heels together and feet in a perfect 180 degree line. However, due to the human anatomy, very few people can achieve that position and be able to perform dance technique skills such as pliés (knee bends) correctly. 190 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT The notion of dualism was famously explored by the French philosopher Descartes (1596–1650 CE) (Descartes, 1641/1901/2001; Morgan & Meier, 1995). However, like the Dominican theorist St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 CE) before him, Descartes also believed in a supreme being outside of himself. Therefore, neither philosopher could be said to hold to a strictly dualistic philosophy. A tension between beliefs in the nature and supremacy of the mind or the body nevertheless persists throughout history. Some of this cultural unease is due to the influence of religion: in the Western world, the human body has, at times, been viewed as unclean, in need of abasement, and a reservoir of animalistic impulses that are at war with the loftier impulses of the intellect. As in some parts of the Eastern world, the infinite quest of the mind toward enlightenment has often been seen as a more worthy goal than is the quest for the perfect body. It should be noted that exceptions in which holistic mind/body unity is the goal are also to be found at other places and times, such as in the ancient Greek notion of aretē (ideal virtuous, active, and intellectual man) or in the practice of yoga, to name just two examples. We can see echoes of dualism throughout physical education history, often directly or indirectly attached to a third entity: the spirit. The YMCA ideal of mind/body/spirit finds its echo in Bloom’s Taxonomy of cognitive/psychomotor/affective domains as educational objectives. In the early 20th century in the United States, we find a familiar tension in the “new physical education” of Williams (1930) and the debate between two opposing philosophies: education through the physical (in which social and academic educational objectives are achieved in part through physical education), and education of the physical (in which physical culture and movement education of the body is sufficient unto itself) (McCloy, 1936; Ross, 1988). Williams argued for a unity of mind and body through physical education, and McCloy believed that no ulterior purpose for physical education was needed. He considered its focus on the body and its benefits in health and quality of life to be an essential, equally important part of education. In women’s sports history in the United States, dualism took on a slightly different role. It was used as part of the justification against female sports competition, as opponents to women’s athletic competition simultaneously encouraged mass participation in sport while fearing that women’s mental health could be harmed by competition (Lumpkin, 2017). Plato Aristotle More recently, the concerns of LGBTQ student-athletes have been addressed World of Forms by the NCAA Sport Science Institute, in terms of transgender students (for Ideal World of Form whom the mind disagrees with the Form and Matter body) and issues of identity across the queer-spectrum and the trans-spectrum (Rankin & Weber, 2014). World of Matter REALISM Aristotle’s philosophy of realism, in which reality may be known through direct experience of examples, stands in contrast to Plato’s idealism. Aristotle Form Matter Things Things Figure 12.1 Comparison of Plato’s idealism with Aristotle’s realism. Epistemology in Physical Education and Sport 191 (384–322 BCE) acknowledged the existence of a soul in human beings, which guides them throughout life in their process of achieving all they do. Meanwhile, the mind and body are unified: they must be, in order for the sensory organs to function and inform the intellect. Logically, by extension, he recognized that experiencing the world around us via the sensory organs does not turn us into the things we perceive—therefore, we exist as distinct beings within the world. We may be shaped and influenced by the soul and our lifelong experimentation and interaction with the world, but ultimately, our source of direct knowledge is dependent upon our abilities as thinkers and sensory realists. Physical education philosophies throughout history have often been based on variations of realistic principles. European gymnastics systems contained varied opportunities for multiple ways of experiencing activity, sometimes incorporating manual labor as part of their curriculum. Modern-day preschool philosophies such as those of Montessori, Reggio Emilia, HighScope, and Bank Street strongly encourage children to learn through direct experimentation (Brown, 2018). If we return to our example of a ballet dancer executing a knee bend in first position, the realist would perceive that human anatomy and function are generally more efficient if the dancer works within the range of his or her own turnout abilities. Those are found through repeated experimentation, sensory proprioception, engagement of different muscle groups, and visual feedback via video or outside (teacher) assessment following visual perception. From the standpoint of the athlete, realism represents lived physical experience leading to skills and technical development. This stands in contrast to idealism, in which understanding of skills and technique come to the athlete from outside the body and may only truly be understood through the mind. That is not to imply, of course, that idealism has no place in sports. For example, without ideals, judges in gymnastics would have no basis on which to evaluate the performances of athletes. There must be a conception of perfection against which to compare the physical reality of a routine. EPISTEMOLOGY NATURALISM If we acknowledge that our understanding of physical activity depends upon our interaction with the environment and the sum of our experiences, we must inquire what types of experiences we should have if we are to achieve a state of physical education. For Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778 CE), who drew heavily upon Aristotle’s precepts, the education of the physical body was an essential part of upbringing for both boys and girls. Using the principles of naturalism, he recommended different types of physical experiences for different sexes, but recognized that the experience of nature in activity was preferable to life without such experiences (Rousseau, 1762/1921). Physical educational naturalism has two strains: interaction with and experience of nature during physical activity, and student-centered educational progress based on the natural physical, cognitive, and emotional development of students, which can vary between individuals. In his treatise on education entitled Émile, Rousseau also details the need for children to be exposed to different types of education using what we now think of as developmental principles, such that their education naturally followed their physical and mental development. Since the first experience children have is the interaction between their bodies and their environments, 192 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT physical education should precede moral and intellectual, for example. Eventually, as a child grows, different aspects of their education should work together as a comprehensive education. Naturalism in physical education has influenced many programs throughout the years. The early German gymnastics systems encouraged outdoor exercise and were the basis of the first US school to include physical education in its curriculum, Round Hill School. Early-20th-century physical educators returned to the theme of naturalism, with leaders such as Hetherington (1922) following Rousseau’s theories closely (Lumpkin, 2017). Modern-day Waldorf preschools hold classes outside to the extent possible, encouraging a close relationship between students and the natural environment. How might naturalism be applied to physical education and sports? Many sports and recreational activities take place in natural settings: cross-country running, open-water swim, winter outdoor sports, recreational boating, and other outdoor activities (camping, hiking, etc.). Playgrounds, fitness trails, backyards, parks, and recreational facilities can host activities with natural elements. Figure 12.2 Physical challenges are fun for children in outdoor playgrounds. Overcoming obstacles increases their physical abilities and helps build confidence, while fresh air and sunlight also provide healthy benefits. Developmentally, playground structures are often designed to encourage children to climb, crawl, push, swing, and jump: all are natural activities for healthy developing children. In designing Pre-K–12 physical education and sporting activities, specialists should consider natural developmental stages when crafting curricula to encourage self-awareness, self-confidence, and self-esteem by presenting moderate physical challenges at every level. Russell (1926) strongly encouraged play as an important part of childhood, with “anything that gives them new muscular facilities, such as jumping, climbing, or walking up a narrow plank” to be promoted by parents and educators (p. 98). However, the other end of life’s journey should not be ignored, as senior citizens also need developmentally appropriate physical activity opportunities. Epistemology in Physical Education and Sport 193 Naturalism influences youth sports in myriad ways. One example is the issue of specialization. When is it developmentally appropriate for a young athlete to specialize in one sport to the exclusion of others? The trend today is toward specialization at younger and younger ages. Yet natural development suggests that, generally speaking, a variety of physical activities would be healthier for a growing body and mind during adolescence, and specialization can and should be delayed until the mid-teen years. Another developmental issue in the realm of naturalism as philosophy concerns girls who want to play on traditionally male sports teams such as football. Some females are naturally larger and stronger than their male peers and have an advantage both on the field and in the weight room. Physically and mentally, girls tend to mature faster than boys. Since league membership is usually determined by age, it is possible to have larger females on teams playing against smaller boys and girls. At the high school level, however, coaches will sometimes discourage females from participation, when boys are expected to become bigger and stronger, on average. One emerging solution is the evolution of women’s football leagues. However, for serious and passionate female football players who aspire to football coaching careers, scholarships and coaching opportunities can be elusive, and losing a chance to play in high school can be devastating. High school football coaches who discourage female players may be following a philosophy that urges caution due to natural changes in male and female maturation processes, but should they? PRAGMATISM For a coach who believes in pragmatism as an educational philosophy, or perhaps more correctly an educational method, a female could certainly try out for a high school team, and if the results of the tryout were promising, a spot on the team would be the logical result. Peirce (1903), James (1907), Dewey (1916), and Lewis (1930) were among the early-20th-century educational philosophers to whom the term has been applied. Dewey’s (1859–1952) influence on education in the United States was particularly widespread, with his belief that engrossing play and handson educational experiences prepared students to become productive members of society, able to work independently and in groups (Dewey, 1916). Related philosophies of experimentalism and instrumentalism contributed to the theory of pragmatism, refining and defining its aims and limitations. Experimentalists believe in education as a lifelong learning process of experience (a posteriori), rather than the acceptance of an a priori (prior and predetermined) set of facts to be learned or ideals to be grasped. Instrumentalists are concerned with the ends to be achieved by experimentation and learning: do we try out different ways to throw a ball for the sake of knowing how to do so, for example, or because that skill is essential to playing games involving balls? Dewey’s experimentalist pragmatism was sometimes called instrumentalism, though that term had started to fall out of favor by the early 1930s (Childs, 1931). “Method,” Dewey wrote (as cited in Archambault), “in any case is but an effective way of employing some material for some end” (1964, p. 389). In other words, we learn technique in order to be able to do something. As a philosophy, the word instrumentalism carried two connotations: one was that the brain is the instrument of learning, and the second was that learning was useful only when practical, or pragmatic, life goals were achieved. Grounding educational philosophy in real-world applications offered an attractive option to the more esoteric studies of philosophy for its own sake, especially during the Great Depression, an era 194 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Figure 12.3 Military units use pragmatic teamwork and problem-solving strategies in training, developing leadership skills, and encouraging cohesiveness. of economic stress. The notion that learners are striving toward a greater purpose has not always been encouraged in physical education, though. Germany banned German gymnastics in the early 19th century when it became obvious that overt nationalism was driving physical culture to such a degree that it became a threat to the country. Still, both the Danish and Swedish gymnastics systems openly espoused nationalistic goals. In Great Britain, sports were played with the goal of developing moral values and leadership skills, and in the United States, Dewey (1940) believed all education must serve as a bulwark against European fascism, and Zeigler (1968) has argued for the role of physical educators in opposition to totalitarianism and excessive nationalism. In the United States, where pragmatism is sometimes called ethical naturalism or progressivism, the physical education community appreciates the problem-solving experiential aspect of learning that is at the heart of this philosophy. Whether encouraging children to find their own solutions to problems encountered in youth sport (Meredith, 2016) or acknowledging the carryover of team problem-solving skills to the workplace, Americans appreciate a willingness to try things out individually or in teams to find the best solutions (Zeigler, 1973) rather than always depending on a metaphysical ideal to guide them. EXISTENTIALISM In the decades following World War II, philosophers looked backward to the writings of 19th-century thinkers Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche for ideas about how individuals exist in an age of potential nuclear annihilation. Kierkegaard (1813–1855) was Epistemology in Physical Education and Sport 195 Danish and is considered the father of existentialism. His views on a way of life dedicated to individual initiative and choice find their ultimate expression in which a person’s freely chosen actions can have heroic meanings that transcend time (Kierkegaard, 1971). The implications for sport are evident, as we can see from the examples of sports heroes and heroines including Babe Didrikson, Roberto Clemente, Cal Ripken Jr., and Jesse Owens. Nietzsche’s (1844–1900) theme of the superman, or Übermensch, has been associated with German Nazi Figure 12.4 Existentialists believe we have the freedom of choice, but that we must hypernationalism at its most unfortunate also accept the consequences of our decisions. extremes; he viewed power as good and weakness as evil. In a somewhat milder perspective, Nietzsche also valued play and athletic endeavors as the perfect realm of human freedom and individual achievement (Nietzsche, 1966). Nowhere is the opportunity for self-expression more evident than in the free play of children. A virtuosic basketball player can perform near-superhuman feats of play through individual acts on the court, exhibiting characteristics of bravery and leadership via his or her choices in the competitive arena. Another prominent existentialist philosopher who valued play was Frenchman Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980). He, more than any other thinker, brought the ideas of existentialism into the 20th century. His importance in kinesiology relates to the value he placed on play and athletics: only in play are humans truly free. “What is play indeed if not an activity of which man is the first origin, for which man himself sets the rules, and which has no consequence except according to the rules posted?” (Sartre, 1965, p. 380). Zeigler (1968) echoes Sartre’s emphasis on play, but expounds his existentialist ideals in modern dance, health, and recreation in his call for opportunities for individual expression in addition to other sorts of group recreation. He modifies the Nietzschean notion of the Übermensch by calling for individuals to be free to select the values each wishes to derive from activity, and calling into question the emphasis on winning in competitive sports. As may be expected of a philosophy based on individual experience, there are many versions of existentialism. Some are atheistic, some are spiritual but reject organized religion, some accept religious belief as part of their philosophy, some emphasize a form of conscious reality unlimited by physical dimensions, and others emphasize immediacy of action in a unified body and mind (Mihalich, 1988). What connects them is a shared view of personal experience as reality and the acceptance of personal responsibility for actions. PHENOMENOLOGY As kinesiologists search for understanding of the essence of sport and physical activity, we recognize that subjective experience is as important as objective, descriptive analysis. Edmund 196 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Husserl (1839–1938), the father of phenomenology, concerned himself with questions of mind and consciousness, of the direct experience of the moment (Thomas, 1983). For example, is it possible to know if our experiences in sport are similar to those of other people? What can we ultimately really know about the true nature of a sport? Phenomenologists do not take shared experience for granted. Using this type of philosophical analysis, discrete main components of an activity are described, analyzed, and placed in context to determine the essential nature of an event. For example, a diver’s attempt can be broken into several moments of activity using objective analysis via observation and memory or using some form of video analysis (using the program Dartfish, for example) to capture the ephemeral moment of the event. The diver can perform phenomenological analysis on the attempt and provide the added information of subjective moment-to-moment experience. Alternatively, the philosopher could conduct an objective analysis without the second component of the diver’s input, but nowadays, that is considered unduly limited. Different perspectives may lead to disagreements about the nature of the event, which may be resolved only through a return to examination of the actual phenomenon, from outside or inside the diver’s body and consciousness. In attempts to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the essence of the experience of a sport, kinesiological phenomenologists recognize that external experience of an event is not sufficient to true understanding. Anyone who has ever listened to sports commentary during a broadcast has experienced a form of phenomenology in real time. The description of plays as seen from the announcers’ booth makes the experience of spectatorship via radio broadcast possible. Sometimes a Figure 12.5 Sportscasters practice a form of phenomenology when they describe the actions of athletes as they are happening. Epistemology in Physical Education and Sport 197 former professional athlete is on hand to provide additional insight using their memories and kinesthetic understanding of different experiences, and often athletes are asked to comment on their experiences to help the audiences gain a deeper understanding of events. Are the people making their statements noticing that they are practicing phenomenology? They probably are not, and perhaps would not care if they found out. But now you, as an aspiring kinesiologist, have discovered a way that philosophy touches your life in a way you may not have realized. WAYS OF USING PHILOSOPHY Concurrently with the interest in existentialism and phenomenology, theorists such as Zeigler (1964, 1968) began to use the theories delineated above and apply them to sports and physical education as the subdiscipline of philosophy began to develop more intensively within kinesiology. The implications approach formed a natural bridge from philosophy departments to physical education departments by examining different philosophies in the context of their application to sport and physical education. Using this approach, a philosophic system (such as pragmatism) is selected, and then its precepts are applied to problems and questions in physical education. Similar approaches are known as theory building, construct analysis, structural analysis, concept analysis, and system analysis. For example, Osterhoudt (1973) used construct analysis to examine Hegel’s ideas about art to see how they could be applied to sport and athletics; we will take a closer look at that in the chapter dealing with aesthetics and sport. Concept analysis, by contrast, does not take a whole philosophical system but instead looks at parts of a philosophy, or a single aspect of a philosophy, to draw conclusions (Thomas, 1983). While there are limitations to these approaches, since sport and physical activity may involve questions that cannot easily be examined using historical philosophical systems, for kinesiologists, they have served as a historical underpinning and mode of entry into a realm of study that is still relatively new to the scholarly domain of Figure 12.6 This statue by French sculptor Auguste Rodin is now kinesiology. We have used some of them in this known as The Thinker. Notice, however, that the figure is well muscled chapter and will continue in a similar vein in the and physically fit: he is a man of action as well as thought. Philosophy upcoming chapters. and kinesiology are compatible realms of study. 198 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • We can study metaphysics and epistemology to develop conceptual understanding of our beliefs about physical education and sport. • Different areas of philosophy such as idealism, realism, naturalism, pragmatism, and existentialism can be studied to address different problems in physical education and sport. • Modern sports philosophers often use phenomenology to consider the question of objective and subjective meanings in sports. • Philosophies can be applied using methods such as the implications approach and related methods to conduct research in physical education and sport. LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the philosophical concepts covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or other research. 1. Mental Mapping (Visual): Figure 12.1 provides a visual representation showing a basic difference between the metaphysics of Plato and Aristotle, and Figure 12.4 is an illustration of a basic idea of existentialism. Create diagrams or images for the concepts of naturalism and pragmatism and philosophers associated with those ideas. You may also diagram the different philosophers and their main ideas to help differentiate them in your mind. 2. Difference Between Play and Sport (Research): When does a game stop being a game and become a sport? Are all sports competitive games? Is the difference in the intention of the athlete, or in the eyes of the spectators? Research the nature of sport and the nature of play to find out where they intersect and diverge. 3. Experience Phenomenology (Kinesthetic): This is a fun way to learn about phenomenology. Take a video recording of a student performing a physical activity such as pushups (or a combination of activities) for 30 seconds, fully describing the actions and the sensations of the activity or activities while s/he is doing it/them. Simultaneously, record another student (at some distance away, to avoid sound overlap) who is describing the actions of the active student like a sportscaster. The more vivid the descriptions, the more fun you can have with this exercise. Play both videos for the class, and discuss the differences in the descriptions of the activity/activities. How are the realities of the experience of the performer and the viewer different, and how are they similar? Can there be one reality for both? Epistemology in Physical Education and Sport 199 FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 12.1: Copyright © 2018 by Chiswick Chap, (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Platonic_and_Aristotelian_Forms.svg. Fig. 12.2: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/playground-child-kid-active-boy-2457320/. Fig. 12.3: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/boat-teamwork-training-exercise-606187/. Fig. 12.4: Source: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/shield-directory-right-false-away-492987/. Fig. 12.5: Copyright © 2010 by kougar, (CC BY-SA 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Dave_Hodge_-_Sportscaster.jpg. Fig. 12.6: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/art-auguste-rodin-bronze-famous-1301872/. REFERENCES Archambault, R. D. (Ed.) (1964). John Dewey on education. New York, NY: Modern Library. Brown, L. L. (2018). Comparing preschool philosophies: Montessori, Waldorf and more. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/parents/education/going-to-school/choosing/comparingpreschool-philosophies-montessori-waldorf-and-more/ Childs, J. L. (1931). Education and the philosophy of experimentalism. New York, NY: D. Appleton-Century. Descartes, R. (1641/1901/2001). Meditations on first philosophy (J. Veitch, Trans.). Retrieved from http://www.classicallibrary.org/descartes/meditations/ Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org/ ebooks/852?msg=welcome_stranger Dewey, J. (1940). Education today. New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. Hetherington, C. W. (1922). School program in physical education. Retrieved from https://archive. org/details/cu31924014464543/page/n3 Hopsicker, P. M., & Hostetler, D. (2016). The future of sport philosophy in higher education kinesiology. Quest, 68(3), 240–256. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00336297.201 6.1181556 James, W. (1907). Pragmatism (a new name for some old ways of thinking). Retrieved from http:// www.authorama.com/pragmatism-1.html Kierkegaard, S. (1971). Either/or (D. Swenson & L. M. Swenson, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Lewis, C. I. (1930). Pragmatism and current thought. Journal of Philosophy, 27(9), 238–246. Lumpkin, A. (2017). Introduction to physical education, exercise science, & sport (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. McCloy, C. H. (1936). How about some muscle? Journal of Health & Physical Education, 7(5), 302–303, 355. Meredith, J. (2016, February 15). Teach your child to solve youth sports problems by himself [Web log post]. Retrieved from https://blogs.usafootball.com/blog/1134/ teach-your-child-to-solve-youth-sports-problems-by-himself Mihalich, J. C. (1988). Existentialism and the athlete. In P. J. Galasso (Ed.), Philosophy of sport and physical activity: Issues and concepts (pp. 100–113). Toronto, Canada: Canadian Scholars’ Press. 200 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Morgan, W. J., & Meier, K. V. (1995). Philosophic inquiry in sport (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Nietzsche, F. (1966). Beyond good and evil (W. Kaufman, Trans.). New York, NY: Random House. Osterhoudt, R. G. (1973). An Hegelian interpretation of art, sport, and athletics. In R. G. Osterhoudt (Ed.), The philosophy of sport (pp. 326–359). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Peirce, C. S. (1903). Pragmatism as a principle and method of right thinking: The 1903 Harvard lectures on pragmatism (A. Turrisi, Ed.). In P. L. Campbell (Ed.) (2011), Peirce, pragmatism, and the right way of thinking. Retrieved from https://fas.org/sgp/eprint/peirce.pdf Plato. (360 BCE/1988). The separation of body and soul (excerpt from Phaedo). In W. J. Morgan & K. V. Meier (Eds.), Philosophic inquiry in sport (2nd ed.) (pp. 68–69). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Rankin, S., & Weber, G. (2014). Harassment and discrimination—LGBTQ student athletes. In G. T. Brown (Ed.), Mind, body and sport: Understanding and supporting student-athlete mental wellness (pp. 78–83). Indianapolis, IN: National Collegiate Athletic Association. Ross, S. (1988). Cartesian dualism and physical education: Epistemological incompatibility. In P. J. Galasso, (Ed.), Philosophy of sport and physical activity: Issues and concepts (pp. 164–176). Toronto, Canada: Canadian Scholars’ Press. Russell, B. (1926). On education. London, England: George Allen & Unwin. Rousseau, J.-J. (1762/1921). Emile, or Education. B. Foxley (Trans.). London, England, & New York, NY: E.P. Dutton. Retrieved from http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/ rousseau-emile-or-education Sartre, J.-P. (1965). Being and nothingness (H. Barnes, Trans.). New York, NY: Philosophical Library. Thomas, C. E. (1983). Sport in a philosophic context. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. Williams, J. F. (1930, May). Education through the physical. Journal of Higher Education, 1(5), 279–282. doi: 10.2307/1973984 Zeigler, E. F. (1964). Philosophical foundations for health, physical education and recreation education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Zeigler, E. F. (1968). Problems in the history and philosophy of physical education and sport. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Zeigler, E. F. (1973). The pragmatic (experimentalistic) ethic as it relates to sport and physical education. In R. G. Osterhoudt (Ed.), The philosophy of sport (pp. 229–274). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Zeigler, E. F. (1988). Introduction to philosophic self-evaluation in sport and physical education. In P. J. Galasso (Ed.), Philosophy of sport and physical activity: Issues and concepts (pp. 83–99). Toronto, Canada: Canadian Scholars’ Press. Epistemology in Physical Education and Sport 201 C H APTER 13 ETHICS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. Ethics: the study of morality and the principles that guide human behavior Axiology: the study of value; as a branch of philosophy, it encompasses ethics and aesthetics kalon: Greek term for the highest good, beauty, and nobility arete: ˉ the quality of the ideal virtuous person, whose excellence may be demonstrated in athletic prowess as well as in intellectual pursuits and good judgment bushido: a collection of moral codes, supposedly of the Japanese Samurai warriors Humanism: the doctrine that takes human welfare, interests, and needs as fundamental Moral reasoning: the use of critical, logical analysis to determine right and wrong in a situation Categorical imperative: in Immanuel Kant’s philosophy, an absolute moral necessity; something that supersedes a group or individual’s desires or purposes. Sometimes called the ethical imperative Deontological reasoning: a method of moral analysis based on the categorical imperative rather than the will or need of the majority Non-consequentialism: implies that the consequences of an action are of less importance than the inherent good or bad quality of an action; see Deontological reasoning and Categorical imperative 202 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT • What are the studies of ethics and axiology? • Who are some of the prominent European and non-European philosophers whose works on ethical questions are used as a basis for understanding this branch of philosophy? • How will an understanding of ethics be important to your professional career? (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) INTRODUCTION What do we mean by fair play? How should opponents treat each other? When faced with decisions about right and wrong in sports and physical education, how do people know what they should do? These are some of the questions that face coaches, physical education teachers, referees, administrators, athletic judges, athletic trainers, parents, and players on a daily basis. Sports scandals and controversies can be viewed as ethical situations gone wrong, and the consequences can be severe. Therefore, ethics is one of the most important philosophical areas of study for sports and physical education. Ethics is the study of morality and the principles that guide human behavior. It can include studies in character and values. Sometimes it is tied to theology, in which moral authority comes from religious belief. Other times, it is more of a humanistic study. In either case, it concerns decisions we make about our human relationships and actions, and the results of those decisions. For most of us, our earliest ethical sports and play questions arose with our playmates on playgrounds, during recess, and in neighborhoods where we grew up. Was the ball out of bounds? Is it fair to have all the biggest kids on one team? Do we need to share? Do we take turns? Is hitting another player allowed? Children learn among themselves and with the assistance of older siblings and adults that everyone has more fun if rules are followed and the game seems fair to all concerned. Utilitarianism: belief espoused by John Stuart Mill that happiness, or goodness, is a consequence of whatever achieves the greatest good for the greatest number of people; sometimes known as Consequentialism Consequentialism: implies that the consequences of an action are of more importance than the inherent good or bad quality of an action; see Utilitarianism and Teleological reasoning Teleological reasoning: a method of moral analysis based on the will or need of the majority, rather than absolutes of moral necessity (the Categorical imperative) Ethics of Physical Education and Sport 203 Figure 13.1 Without rules, games and sports are not fair, understandable, or fun. As we grow up, the notion of fairness and justice becomes even more important with participation in physical education classes and competitive sports (individual or group). While we depend on our teachers and coaches to teach and enforce the rules of sports, we sometimes see parents or participants acting in ways that seem wrong or harmful. We may even get advice from coaches or parents to cheat a little if it helps us to win a sporting event! It can be confusing, and we begin to wonder how anyone can really know what is good and bad. Who gets to decide? How are decisions made? How can we know if they are truly good? Rather than the usual learning activities, this chapter provides discussion questions at the end to provide opportunities for interactive learning to deepen understanding of the concepts presented. AXIOLOGY Axiology is the study of value. As a branch of philosophy, it encompasses ethics and aesthetics (the study of beauty, which is the topic of the next chapter). Both ethics and aesthetics involve studies in judgment of situations and objects. Sometimes they overlap. For example, a judge at a figure skating competition may be expected to judge fairly and with an expert eye for the graceful athletic performance of the skaters and to render a score (evaluation). We will first consider historical approaches to ethics before considering ethical dilemmas and professional ethics. 204 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT ANCIENT GREECE Plato’s dialogue, Meno, concludes with his teacher Socrates’ assertion that virtue comes to people from the divine (Warmington & Rouse, 1956). In terms of physical conditioning, in The Republic (Book III), Socrates further says that good souls create good bodies. For Plato, even virtuous play among children was important for the development of “law-abiding and serious men.” Children receive their notions of law and order through play and the sense of good order grows with them (Warmington & Rouse, 1956, pp. 203, 222–223). Good education and divine intervention, therefore, are the keys to ethical understanding, and those begin in childhood. After Plato, Aristotle regarded ethics in light of virtue and the virtuous person, who is able to understand value and seeks to act in ways that promote happiness, or as some would have it, “flourishing” (Lear, 2013, para. 3). In his opinion, living virtuously is a choice, informed by good education and reasoning (Bambrough, 1963). Reason also dictates a sense of balance, or finding the “mean” in life. For example, a physical therapist who wants to help a client should prescribe enough exercise and therapy to assist in recovery from injury: not too little, and not too much. A baseball coach who insists that a pitcher continue pitching beyond reasonable arm fatigue is acting unethically because he has gone beyond the intermediate (and therefore, optimal) number of pitches in a game or training session, and the possibility of harm to the athlete is drastically increased. Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, Eudemian Ethics, and parts of his Politics describe the goal of achieving the kalon, which is the highest good, beauty, and nobility. This reflects the idea of aretē, the quality of the ideal virtuous person, whose excellence may be demonstrated in athletic prowess as well as in intellectual pursuits and good judgment. In fact, Aristotle believed that moral virtue was essential to wisdom (Lear, 2013). The last of the great classical Athenian schools of philosophy was that of Zeno of Citium. Teaching in a marketplace rather than in a gymnasium, Zeno’s basic tenet of Stoicism was his belief that our sensations give us our knowledge of the world, and that we can trust our senses (Zeyl, 1997). Living in harmony with nature yields happiness. The students of Zeno became more concerned with ethics, especially after his death, and his ideas presage the work of the British empirical philosophers such as Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. Aristotelian ethics, Stoicism, and Neoplatonism also influenced medieval European philosophers. However, medieval philosophers were increasingly concerned with individual actions and divine law. Peter Abelard, a Christian monk, went so far as to declare that sin (violation of the laws of God) was in the intention of the doer, rather than in the act itself (Osborne, 2017). For example, if a runner trips another runner during a race, it is only an immoral act if the runner intended to cheat by tripping an opponent. Whereas Plato’s four cardinal virtues were prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude, during the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church prioritized faith, hope and charity as central virtues. Thomas Aquinas mixed Aristotelian ethics with moral theology in his Summa Theologiae, stating that “happiness is attained through the exercise of moral and theological virtues” (Osborne, 2017, para. 4). In other words, by combining reasoning with natural law, humans can understand what is good and right. Ethics of Physical Education and Sport 205 Figure 13.2 At first, the study of ethics can seem like a word cloud of names and ideas. It takes time, review, and study to understand and remember philosophical concepts. NON-EUROPEAN ETHICS A worldwide overview of ethical philosophy is beyond the scope of this textbook. Still, a brief (if oversimplified) glimpse into some non-Western viewpoints will contribute to a more comprehensive idea of ethical understanding. In the Middle East, due to trade and travel, the philosophies of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Zeno influenced Islamic ethics. However, some philosophers (Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina) believed that intelligence and wisdom led to happiness, whereas Al-Ghazali said that the greatest happiness was only open to mystics (those who have direct experience of the divine). Ibn Rushd contended that either knowledge or religion could be equal paths to happiness (Leaman, 2001; Christopoulos, 2010). It is in the writings of Ahmad Ibn Miskawayh (c. 932–1030 CE) that we see the sense of duty to one’s superiors, to the divine, and to one’s ancestors as a guiding principle. If a soccer player 206 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT behaves in a way that is dishonorable, that is a failure of duty and therefore unethical, regardless of who is harmed or not harmed by the player’s behavior (Leaman, 2001). Miskawayh taught that physical health needed to be taught along with moral health, for balance (Leaman, 2006). Early Chinese philosophers generally sought balance and equilibrium in their ethical discussions. In Mohist philosophy (from Mo Tzŭ, c. 479–c. 381), only the consequences of actions and their benefits matter (Feng, 1952). This was in contrast to Confucianism, in which the outcome of actions was less important than the inherent rightness or wrongness of an action. Both of these were contrasted by Zhuangzi’s Taoism (Daoism), in which right and wrong do not exist as such, since nothing is absolutely right or wrong. Figure 13.3 The Taoist (Daoist) symbol of yin (dark swirl) and yang (light swirl) symbolizes interconnectedness, balance, interdependence, and interrelationship in nature and life. Notice that each swirl contains a circle of its opposite: nothing is absolute. From the fourth century BCE onward, Buddhism was influential in India, China, and Korea (Finn, 1988). In Buddhism, karma, or good works in thought, speech, and conduct, are valued (Kim, 2001). While violence is contrary to Buddhist compassion, martial gods inspire warrior monks such as those of the Shaolin Monastery in China (Shahar, 2008). Since the 1300s, Korean culture displayed strong influences of Confucianism, stressing four essential virtues: humaneness, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom (Kim, 2001, p. 187). Since the 1700s, Christianity has brought a more individualistic, theocentric ethical approach to some Korean people. Ethics of Physical Education and Sport 207 In Japan, some people believe that ethics in martial arts were embodied in bushido, a collection of moral codes of the Samurai warriors (Corcoran & Farkas, 1983). However, more recent scholarship (Friday, 1994) has questioned whether bushido was truly the ancient code of Samurai ethics or rather a glorified version of history used to bolster Japanese nationalism, as exemplified in Nitobe Inazo’s early-20th-century book Bushido: The Soul of Japan, which was originally written in English for a Western audience. As with Asian cultures, the diversity of experience in African cultures cannot be easily generalized. However, according to Ghanaian philosopher Kwame Gyekye (2010), some common themes emerge across ethical discussions in Africa. Character, acquired through actions and habits, is not inborn, but is nurtured. While scholars differ as to whether morality is a religious or humanistic question, Gyekye contends that “Humanism [emphasis added]— the doctrine that takes human welfare, interests, and needs as fundamental—constitutes the foundation of African ethics” (Gyekye, 2010, sect. 5, para. 14). Furthermore, African ethics is “weighted on duty, not rights” (Gyekye, sect. 9, para. 9), meaning that everyone is entitled to happiness (in the Aristotelian sense), justice, dignity, and respect (Gyekye, sect. 7, para. 3). For a sporting application of this ideal, we would expect all participants to be treated with humanistic respect, regardless of whether they are part of the home or away team and regardless of national origin. Figure 13.4 Good sportsmanship is ethical: as Gyekye would advise, all competitors must be treated with respect. 208 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT MORAL REASONING: IMMANUEL KANT AND THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE How can we know what is good (or best) to do when facing an ethical question? Moral reasoning is the use of critical, logical analysis to determine right and wrong in a situation. In the study of European philosophy, we often turn to the philosophies of Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill for guidance. Moving from the ideals of character, morality, and virtue to duties and practical ethics, in Kant’s Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (Kant, 1785/1998), the duties to perfect oneself and to contribute to the goals of others are obligations we owe to ourselves and to humanity. We owe it to ourselves to perfect our athletic abilities, if that is what we want to achieve. We owe it to others not to use them solely as a means to our ends (Gressis, 2013). Beyond those duties, Kant postulates the categorical imperative, an absolute moral necessity. The categorical imperative exists beyond any potential benefit or harm to anyone involved in a decision and is the cornerstone of deontological moral reasoning. For example, if intentionally harming others is always morally wrong, then a pitcher who aims a baseball pitch at a batter is deontologically in the wrong because it is always wrong to intentionally harm someone. Kant’s ethical philosophy is sometimes called non-consequential because the consequences of an action are of less importance than the inherent good or bad quality of an action. In the literature of physical education, a strong case for the implementation of non-consequential ethics comes from Elizabeth Halsey, a mid-20th-century philosopher of physical education. In her book Inquiry and Invention in Physical Education, she wrote that “Mutual understanding, mutual acceptance of difference, the Ethical Imperative as stated by Kant, and even certain difficult religious teachings must be carried beyond lip service into action if reliable peace is to be secured. Physical education is a fruitful laboratory for putting such teachings into action” (1964, p. 100). Figure 13.5 What do we owe to each other? Moral reasoning is a form of critical analysis using logic to make ethical decisions. Ethics of Physical Education and Sport 209 MORAL REASONING: JOHN STUART MILL AND UTILITARIANISM Suppose we reject the idea that there are external categorical imperatives? What if, instead, we judged actions based on their effects on others and the outcome of our decisions? John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism (1863) was a defense of Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarian theories. Utilitarians believe that happiness, or goodness, is a consequence of whatever achieves the greatest good for the greatest number of people (the central principle of utility). Also known as consequentialist or teleological ethics, the decisions arrived at through this philosophy can be surprising. If, for example, a star player is known to be ineligible to play on a team, but benching the player would lead the team to losing a state championship, it could conceivably be argued that the morally correct decision would be to ignore the restriction and let the ineligible player play! However, if we consider the benefit of maintaining respect for the game and the rules for the good of all players in the state, more people would be benefited by a decision to keep the star player off the roster. The scope of effect (that is, how many people are affected), therefore, can conceivably be manipulated to rationalize ethical decisions under utilitarianism. That does not mean it is not a useful tool in moral reasoning. What it means is that there are times when people make questionable moral decisions that can be explained by an understanding of the possibility of reaching decisions that might be considered morally wrong under Kantian deontological theory. Consider, for example, a group of scientists performing medical research on a population without getting informed consent from the participants. Many lives may be saved by the research. Teleologically, that may be considered good, but deontologically, the failure to get informed consent means that the scientists acted immorally. What we learn from this contradiction is that philosophy does not give us all the answers. Instead, it gives us insight into moral decision-making. PROFESSIONAL CODES OF ETHICS IN KINESIOLOGY: WHAT WILL BE EXPECTED OF ME? In your career, you will be expected to belong to one or more professional societies, and those societies usually publish codes of ethics that can help to remind you of your obligations (that is, ethical duties) to your profession, other professionals, and people with whom you work. A happy, flourishing career depends on many things, and prudent judgment in ethical matters is an important part of your success. The codes are often helpful guides, but while some points may seem blatantly obvious, others will probably seem novel or possibly confusing to you. On one hand, you may find contradictions or inconsistencies within and between various codes. They are written by humans, after all, and they are periodically revised. On the other hand, the punishments for violating these codes can vary widely, from no punishment at all to professional dishonor, career-ending sanctions, and even legal repercussions. Since ethical violations can be serious, it is worth studying and adhering to the code(s) of whatever profession you enter. Here are some professional organizations that provide online codes of conduct. Look up one or more to see what will be expected of YOU in your future career using this list or your own search. 210 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT • American Chiropractic Association: http://ccodc.org/ethics.html • American College of Sports Medicine: http://www.acsm.org/membership/membershipresources/code-of-ethics • American Massage Therapy Association: https://www.amtamassage.org/About-AMTA/ Core-Documents/Code-of-Ethics.html • National Alliance for Youth Sports Coaches’ Ethics: http://www.nays.org/CMSContent/File/ Code_of_Ethics_Coaches.pdf • National Education Association: http://www.nea.org/home/30442.htm • National Council on Strength and Fitness: https://www.ncsf.org/governance/conduct/ ethics.aspx You can also visit the home pages of organizations such as the American Athletic Trainers’ Association or state chapters of professional groups to find codes of conduct or codes of ethics. For researchers who study human subjects, The Belmont Report (by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research) is a foundational document. You can find it at https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/ index.html. IMPLICATIONS OF ETHICS Life presents us with ethical decisions every day; many are so minor that we barely notice we are making them. Studying ethics helps to prepare us for the larger issues that confront players and people in positions of responsibility or authority. Knowing what is good and right is often difficult or clouded by self-interest or competing points of view. Figure 13.6 Being a competent professional implies in part that you understand and accept your ethical responsibilities. Ethics of Physical Education and Sport 211 Looking out for number one while pursuing your career goals does not necessarily mean ignoring the needs of others, treating others with disdain, discriminating against people who are different from you, giving less than your professional best, cheating to get ahead of the competition, or neglecting your professional duties. Basically, ethical behavior means treating others with respect, decency, and care. You can see that those basic behaviors form the roots of ethical ideals across the world and throughout history. While morals may be informed by religion, they may also be based in humanitarian precepts. Learning about morals and moral reasoning helps us to understand how people can arrive at different conclusions to dilemmas. It can teach us to consider different approaches to ordinary and extraordinary problems in personal and professional lives, helping us to live well and to find happiness. SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • Ethics is the study of morality and the principles that guide human behavior, and axiology is the study of value (which can include elements of both ethics and aesthetics, the topic of the next chapter). • Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Ahmad Ibn Miskawayh, Mo Tzŭ, Confucius, Zhuangzi, Kwame Gyekye, Immanuel Kant, and John Stuart Mill are some of the prominent European and non-European philosophers whose works on ethical questions are used as a basis for understanding this branch of philosophy. • An understanding of ethics will be important to your professional career as a guide to your obligations (that is, ethical duties) to your profession, to other professionals, and to the people with whom you will work. LEARNING ACTIVITIES Discussion: The following are situations calling for ethical decisions. As we have seen, differences of opinion may arise in discussions of ethics, so there may be different conclusions reached by different people. Using respectful academic dialogue (no personal attacks and you must respect the opinions of others even when disagreeing), choose one or more for discussion as a class or in small groups. You may wish to refer to the websites above for help. 1. 212 You have signed on as a volunteer coach for a youth cross-country running program. You studied first aid years ago but have not recertified because the running program does not require current skills certification. Should the program require that coaches be certified at their own expense? Who might be harmed if you don’t know first aid skills and a runner is injured at practices or at a meet? HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 2. You are a high school physical education teacher. You believe that different students respond to different types of motivation, sometimes including brutal honesty and tough talk about your students in class. Is it okay to embarrass students if you truly believe it will make them try harder? After all, your physical education teacher did that all the time when you were in school. 3. You are working as a chiropractor in a rural town and business has been slow. A nearby medical group has offered to give you a small sum of money for referring patients to them for treatment beyond the scope of your practice. You consider accepting their offer because without it, you might have to close your practice and the town would be left without any chiropractic services. Is it ethical to accept? 4. In your work as a personal trainer at a local fitness center, you have found that many people benefit from using Supplement X to reach their goals, so you convinced your manager to sell it at the center, with a deal to give you part of each sale. Having researched the product thoroughly, you recommend it to your clients, and you tell them that you make a little money on each sale. Is that ethical business dealing? 5. You have a thriving career in massage therapy. Occasionally, a client will ask you to engage in massage of a sexual nature. Some of them ask you to go out with them. You are tempted by one person in particular, with whom you feel a special attraction. What should you do? 6. There is a doctor on television telling viewers about the fantastic benefits of a new weight loss supplement made of all natural ingredients. There is some scientific evidence that the supplement might have some benefit, but the research is questionable. You are a physical educator, and students have been telling you about this new breakthrough and how it has already helped some people they know. What are your obligations to them and to the community? 7. A young basketball player has caught the attention of some talent scouts as a result of his phenomenal play, but he has gotten caught up in his success and his teammates are not happy about his monopolizing the ball and focusing on his point totals, all with the encouragement of the coach. Is there an ethical issue at stake here? Are there several issues? 8. Discuss the similarities and differences between deontological and teleological moral reasoning. Do you know which philosophers were known for non-consequentialism and utilitarianism? Can you give examples of each? Ethics of Physical Education and Sport 213 FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 13.1: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/competition-ball-game-squad-3314734/. Fig. 13.2: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/ethics-wordcloud-virtue-new-fonts-947569/. Fig. 13.3: Source: https://pixabay.com/vectors/yin-yang-asian-harmony-symbol-2024615/. Fig. 13.4: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/soccer-sportsmanship-playing-young-1341849/. Fig. 13.5: Source: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/ethics-wordcloud-kant-message-947572/. Fig. 13.6: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/competence-experience-hand-2741773/. REFERENCES Bambrough, R. (1963). The philosophy of Aristotle. (A. E. Wardman & J. L. Creed, Trans.). New York, NY: New American Library. Christopoulos, L. (2010). Early combat sport rituals in China and the rise of professionalism (475 BC to 220 AD). Nikephoros, 23, 19–41, quoted in R. Edelman & W. Wilson, (Eds.) (2017). The Oxford handbook of sports. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Corcoran, J. & Farkas, E. (1983). Martial arts: Traditions, history, people. New York, NY: Gallery Books. Feng, Y. (1952). A history of Chinese philosophy: Vol. I (2nd ed.). (D. Bodde, Trans.) Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Finn, M. (1988). Martial arts: A complete illustrated history. Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press. Friday, K. F. (May, 1994). Bushido or bull? A medieval historian’s perspective on the Imperial army and the Japanese warrior tradition. History Teacher, 27(3), 339–349. Gressis, R. (2013). Kantian practical ethics. In H. LaFollette (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of ethics (pp. 2896–2903). doi:10.1002/ 9781444367072.wbiee618. Gyekye, K. (2010). African ethics. In The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/african-ethics Halsey, E. (1964). Inquiry and invention in physical education. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. Inazo, N. (1908). Bushido: The soul of Japan. Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org/ files/12096/12096-h/12096-h.htm Kant, I. (1785/1998). Groundwork of the metaphysics of morals. (M. Gregor, Trans). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Kim, Y.-C. (2001). Ethics in Korean philosophy. In Encyclopedia of Asian philosophy (pp. 186–188). London, England: Routledge. Leaman, O. (Ed.) (2001). Ethics in Islamic philosophy. In Encyclopedia of Asian philosophy (pp. 184–186). London, England: Routledge. Leaman, O. (Ed.) (2006). The bibliographical encyclopedia of Islamic philosophy (Vol. 2) (pp. 96–100). London, England: Thoemmes Continuum. Lear, G. R. (2013). Aristotle. In H. LaFollette (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of ethics (pp. 348–362). doi: 10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee650 Mill, J. S. (1863/1987). Utilitarianism. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus. Osborne Jr., T. M. (2017). Medieval ethics. In H. LaFollette (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of ethics. doi: 10.1002/9781444367072.wbiee686 Shahar, M. (2008). The Shaolin monastery: History, religion, and the Chinese martial arts. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press. 214 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Warmington, E. H. & Rouse, P. G. (1956). Great dialogues of Plato. New York, NY: New American Library. Zeyl, D. J. (Ed.) (1997). Encyclopedia of classical philosophy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Ethics of Physical Education and Sport 215 C H APTER 14 AESTHETICS: WHAT IS BEAUTY IN SPORT AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY? KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. Aesthetics: branch of philosophy dedicated to the study of beauty Aesthetic perspective: the ability to consider an object or action using aesthetic analysis Ontology: the study of the nature of being or of the relationships between concepts Purposive: sport in which the aesthetic qualities of performance matter less than the scoring of points, goals, etc. Intention: in a sporting context, the degree to which an athlete attempts to do something in a certain way Intentional fallacy: the idea that the intention of an athlete is a means by which s/he can and should be judged agon: ˉ Greek term for struggle or contest 216 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT • What do we mean by aesthetics? • Why study aesthetics? • Is sport art? • What can we learn from philosophers about aesthetics and physical activity? • Can sports have meaning? INTRODUCTION In the early years of the modern Olympics, its founder, Pierre de Frédy, Baron de Coubertin, wanted to bring art and sport together and award medals for artistic achievement in sports-related art, as he said the practice had been in ancient Greece (Lowe, 1977; Stromberg, 2012). He eventually convinced the members of the Olympic committee to add competitions in architecture, literature, music, painting, and sculpture, and from 1912 to 1948, 147 medals were awarded to artists. In fact, Pierre de Coubertin won the first modern Olympic gold medal for literature in Stockholm, Sweden, with his bilingual poem, Ode to Sport, which he entered under the pseudonyms Georges Hohrod and M. Eschbach (De Coubertin, 1912). In it, he declared, “O Sport, you are Beauty” (De Coubertin, 1912, pp. 3 and 6). The practice of including the arts in the Olympics was stopped because of the perception that artists were professionals and therefore violated a basic premise of Olympic competition in those days. The vestiges of artistic competition remain only in the nearly invisible Cultural Olympiad, which nowadays awards money instead of medals (Conway, 2017), and the performances at the opening ceremony. In the years of Olympic arts competitions, only two athletes ever earned medals in both sporting and arts. However, the inspiration of the athletes and architecture of the Olympics led to the creation of posters, postage stamps, postcards, and many artworks, well after the arts competitions stopped granting medals. There is something about the power, grace, passion, control, effort and glory of athletes and athletics that cries out for artistic recognition. An investigation into the sport-art relationship should be included in the comprehensive study of physical activity and sport. Aesthetics: What Is Beauty in Sport and Physical Activity? 217 The branch of philosophy that corresponds to this type of study is called aesthetics, the study of beauty. However, as you will learn, aesthetics goes far beyond mere outwardly pleasing beauty to discussions of meaning, nature, performance, and function, to name just a few elements. There are two primary sides to this study: the subjective and the objective. The subjective study includes what renowned sports sculptor R. Tait McKenzie called “the joy of effort” (Lowe, 1977, p. xiv). We can discuss the motivations behind this joy and whether athletic effort is measured by its intent as well as its performance. On the objective side, we consider whether sport is a form of art or not, and whether that depends on the type of sport. We know that certain gestures in sport have meaning, whether we consider the actions of a football referee using their arms in emblematic gestures to indicate decisions, or the finger gestures baseball catchers use to suggest certain pitches. However, there are many other ways sport may be infused with meaning, often in layered experiences on the field and in the stands. The interplay between fans and athletes forms part of an aesthetic experience: we may not always perceive a sport as exactly beautiful; nonetheless, we can appreciate the aesthetics of competition. THE BEAUTY OF THE HUMAN BODY Figure 14.1 A stamp from the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen), in celebration of the 1968 Mexico City Cultural Olympiad and the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, USA, in which the painting by Murillo is located. 218 The ideal of the human physique has varied across the world and across time. We see a distinct difference between the artistic renditions of males in ancient Greece, ancient Egypt, and ancient India. Representations of females have also varied across cultures and centuries. Except in times and places where the body has been seen as unclean and unworthy, what persists is an artistic homage to the ideal athletic body through painting and sculpture. From Myron’s Discobolus through Leonardo da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man, Edgar Degas’s ballerinas, R. Tait McKenzie’s The Athlete, Roberto Salas’s baseball photography, televised and filmed athletics, even to the commercially popular Fathead wall decal visual representations of famous athletes, the human body in action has been a favorite subject of artists HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT and photographers. It seems that humans love to look upon and contemplate idealized representations of themselves. One question arises immediately: what is so fascinating about watching athletes in motion or in still images and sculptures? A possible answer lies in the ephemeral nature of sport and dance. The experience of an athletic or dance event is fleeting, though nowadays at least a visual representation may be captured. We see, in a moment or in a series of moments, a human being seemingly in control of space, time, and force. We see someone who has used self-discipline and hard work to hone their body into peak physical form in order to achieve amazing, sometimes nearly superhuman, feats. Figure 14.2 Polish National Ballet dancer Vladimir Yaroshenko as Petruchio in John Cranko’s The Taming of the Shrew, based on Shakespeare’s play. This alone does not quite answer the question. We all form subjective responses to the bodies of different athletes in different sports, but those responses do not automatically give us an aesthetic perspective. For example, do you derive a sense of enjoyment from looking at female bodybuilders? Male power lifters? Gymnasts? Swimmers? MMA fighters? In order to achieve an aesthetic perspective, you need to acknowledge—but then delve beyond—a simple visceral response of “I like it,” or “I don’t like it.” Everyone is entitled to opinions, so in order to engage in meaningful philosophical discussion, we also need to be able to discuss physical phenomena such as formal elements (symmetry, asymmetry, balance, flow, speed, power, grace, efficiency, timing, and strength, for example). Aesthetics: What Is Beauty in Sport and Physical Activity? 219 You may not feel entirely comfortable discussing the notion of athletic beauty. While ancient Greeks appreciated the beauty of athletes competing in the nude, many spectators nowadays would be less likely to condone, let alone appreciate, such a display. Interestingly, male and female nudity in dance performance is not uncommon. However, while gazing at women as physically fit models in Sports Illustrated is (more or less) culturally acceptable, it is likely to be many years before a male swimsuit edition of that magazine is published, if ever, though both male and female nudes are seen in ESPN’s annual Body Issue magazine. While we should discuss the objectification of athletes as physical bodies, that discussion is also appropriate to sociological studies in sport. In order to have any sort of meaningful discussion of aesthetics with regard to physical activity, we must be prepared to deal with the possibility that pleasure may be derived from viewing the human body and to recognize that such pleasure does not necessarily impinge on aesthetic contemplation. In the United States, our puritanical society frowns upon that type of pleasure, but we accept artworks in a spirit of appreciation of artistic beauty. In other words, it’s okay to look. It is true that the value of contemplating male or female bodies in physical activity collides with cultural feelings about homosexuality, body image, and objectification. This is one reason physical educators such as MacKenzie (1969) saw the need to overcome our reservations. “Few think of sport as a medium for the expression of beauty [and] it may be that those involved in teaching sports have been insensitive or tend to minimize its importance” (as cited in Lowe, 1977, p. 18). What a loss for our society, if we teach our youth to be afraid to appreciate the beauty of the human body in sport and dance, once they are mature enough to do so. In doing so, we teach them to be ashamed of their own bodies and athleticism and their natural inclinations toward appreciation of the sculpted bodies of athletes. SPORT AS ART? Figure 14.3 It’s okay to look at and appreciate the human body as something beautiful. 220 It has been said that sport is applied art (Friedenberg, 1967), and there are many philosophers who have pointed out the similarities between sport and art from various aesthetic viewpoints (Aldrich, 1937; Beardsley, 1958; Lowe, 1977; Munro, 1949; Weiss, 1971). Some see competition as a HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT form of drama (Keenan, 1973; Kreft, 2012; Zenenga, 2011). Some, like Best, concede that there are aesthetic elements to sport, but deny that sport can be considered art (Best, 1995). When we consider the relationship between play, sport, athletics, competition, and art, we encounter the branch of philosophy known as ontology. Ontology may refer to a metaphysical study of the nature of being, but in terms of aesthetics, it refers to the study of relationships between concepts. You might already have a strong opinion as to whether sport is art or not, or you might be asking yourself at this point, “What is the correct answer?” Here is where the essence of philosophy comes forward and responds that there is no single correct answer. All may contain pieces of truth, but the point of philosophy is not so much to learn one correct answer as to learn to ask and consider possible responses to questions. For thousands of years, philosophers have tried to answer the question, “What is art?” and found that as soon as they thought they knew, an artist challenged their conceptions and caused a reassessment of the whole notion of art. It follows that since the very definition of art changes over time, we cannot hope to pin sport to it with any hope of permanency. It is an open concept. Some of you will find this frustrating: after all, you are paying for a college education so that you can learn the truth of things. Others will revel in the freedom this ambiguity allows in thinking about physical activity and enjoy the fact that philosophy is not mathematics: you don’t necessarily have a solution to every problem, so the joy lies in considering aspects of questions. Let us return to the question at hand, and consider one viewpoint from a person who is a philosopher but not an athlete. Like an artist, the athlete is occupied with producing something with which he can live for a while, and which, so far, enables him to be self-sufficient. He does not make and is not interested in making something that is beautiful, or in grasping the very being of space, time, or energy; instead he holds himself away from everything else to give himself wholly to a game. (Weiss, 1969, p. 245) Weiss seems to be linking professional athletes with artists in terms of production of items/ events that allow for some profitability. From this perspective, sports are simply a way to make a living, and there is no meaning beyond that for professionals. The immediate objectives are scoring points or achieving the best score in an event, and the overarching objective is the ability to support oneself financially. The world of college athletics differs in that way from professional sports. As one Las Vegas betting director put it, “In college, the athletes play for fleeting moments, but in the pros, if you don’t have the motivation to give your best performance for your next contract or paycheck, I don’t know where that motivation comes from” (Rood, quoted in Plaschke, 2012, para. 21). We can accept that some athletes, like artists, want to make a living. However, that motivation cannot be said to drive all athletes (or even all artists). After all, children playing on a youth soccer league are not usually in it for the money. So we can accept that sport activity which is purpose driven (i.e., undertaken with the aim of making a living) has a link to art, but may not be artistic in itself. What about Weiss’s other assertion, that athletes do not make or intend to make anything that is beautiful? Aesthetics: What Is Beauty in Sport and Physical Activity? 221 THE INTENTIONAL FALLACY There are, of course, some sports in which the athlete tries to move in ways that display grace, pleasing lines, exquisite timing, strength, power, and form. Examples include figure skating (in the post-1968 Peggy Fleming era), ice dancing, snowboard big air, rhythmic gymnastics, gymnastics, dressage, diving, synchronized swimming, bodybuilding, skateboarding, and dance sport. These athletes are judged, at least in part, on the way they complete their routines. Style matters. These sports have obvious aesthetic considerations. What about other sports? Sports such as bicycling, handball, boxing, hockey, and track and field events are not judged on the performers’ form. Goals, points, speed, and the ability to throw farther or jump longer or higher than opponents constitute the criteria for winning in these activities. However, it is possible to admire the strength and grace of a pole vaulter or the speed and grace of opponents in a boxing match. That possibility is beside the point, according to Best (1985), because those sports are purposive by nature: the athletes are striving toward a purpose that is independent of the way in which they achieve their purpose. If that is so, then we should ask whether it makes a difference whether or not an athlete is intentionally attempting to create something beautiful in motion. For some sports, that intention seems to be a central component, but we can easily envision cases in which an athlete moves in an unintentionally beautiful way. Does intention matter, if we are considering sport as art? Let us take an example from the world of baseball. Fans are familiar with an event in the first game of the 1954 World Series, in which center fielder Willie Mays caught a ball hit by Vic Wertz. Mays caught the ball while running away from the infield toward the center field wall in a historic play that baseball aficionados simply call the Catch. It was a moment of undeniable grace and beauty, expressing the epitome of baseball perfection. It is doubtful that Mays was Figure 14.4 A rhythmic gymnast competing in the ball event. Sports like this are partially scored on aesthetic thinking about his self-expression through fielding or how presentation. This sport developed out of the European he was being perceived: his sole objective in that moment gymnastics traditions; however, there are few males in was catching the ball. Yet baseball lovers still watch that play competition, and men are not allowed to compete in this with a sense of awe. American football fans experienced a sport in the Olympics. similar moment with Franco Harris’s so-called Immaculate Reception in the 1972 AFC divisional playoff game. Both of these examples raise this question: can we have an aesthetic experience as spectators if the athlete does not intend to provide us with one? Wimsatt and Beardsley (1946) explored the idea of intention in terms of art, coming to the conclusion that the product of the artist stood independent of the process and intention of the artist. For example, if an abstract artist painted a work that s/he considered to express ecstatic dance movement, but which appeared to a critic to evoke a rugby scrum, the work should not 222 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT be judged on whether or not the critic sees what the artist intended. Rather, a work should be judged on its own merits, partially because the artist cannot control how every viewer will perceive the artwork. Judging a work based on whether or not it fulfills the intention of the creator (or athlete) leads the spectator into an intentional fallacy. In the realm of sports philosophy, the question of intention has been a topic of passionate debate, with luminaries such as Wertz (1984) (no relation to Vic) on one side and Best (1985) on the other. Best divides athletics into aesthetic (in which style contributes to outcome) and purposive (in which style is irrelevant, so long as rules are followed) sports, according to the intention and context of the activity (Best, 1995). For him, intentionality is at the heart of categorizing sport, so a play like the Catch should be considered purposive and its aesthetic qualities irrelevant. Figure 14.5 Former Minnesota Vikings running back Adrian Peterson in a purposive play of the 2008 Pro Bowl in Hawaii. He was named MVP for that game for his achievements but was later involved in controversies in his private life. Do spectators view players differently when they know about the players’ issues off the field? Should they? Wertz, on the other hand, argues for a creative, playful impulse in athletics which can be perceived as art, regardless of the intention of the athlete. He is anti-intentionalist in his writings, asserting a “criterion of independence” (Wertz, 1985, p. 512) that denies that the athlete(s) alone can determine (or intend) whether or not a movement, play, action, or event can or should be interpreted or experienced as an aesthetic experience. In contrast, Fraleigh (1973b) believes that intention is indivisible from sport, and one of its hallmarks is the ability of an athlete to project his or her intentions during the game. The role of the athlete’s will in this view has less to do with aesthetics in the sense of beauty, in this viewpoint, and more to do with the sense of its meaning for the participant. Aesthetics: What Is Beauty in Sport and Physical Activity? 223 THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PLAY, SPORT, AND ART Although the terms athletics and sports have been used interchangeably throughout this text, different philosophers may disagree on whether or not they are the same and what function play has in each. Fraleigh (1973a) ascribes a more competitive element to the word athletics, but views sport as more of a recreational diversion. Some thinkers, like Morgan (1973) and Slusher (1967), have conceptualized sport as a religious experience, or an expanded form of play framed by ritual and prone to ecstatic participation by spectators and participants, whose identities become subsumed into the event within the greater force of the arena, racetrack, course, or stadium. The relationships between play, sport, and art correspond to what Wittgenstein (1953) called “family resemblances” (p. 32e). We may choose take for granted the notion of play as being intrinsic to athletics, but we can sense an instinctive divide between young stickball players in a sandlot of the Dominican Republic and the grown-up versions of those players as professionals in US Major League Baseball. Is it only money that divides them? Or do elite athletes lose the sense of play over time? If so, at what point does play become athletics, in Fraleigh’s sense of the word? After all, Von Schiller (1979) declares that “man only plays when in the full meaning of the word he is a man, and he is only completely a man when he plays” (p. 319). We should first enumerate some of the characteristics of play. When we are engaged in a game of lacrosse, for instance, we have to maintain a sense of openness in order to respond to the actions on the field. We need to have spatial awareness of other bodies, sticks, the ball, and the goal. Our ability to participate in the game depends on responding to the actions of others and being able to improvise as well as perform practiced movements within a framework of rules, much as a jazz musician is able to improvise and play, or a contact improv dancer responds to the weight and balance of other dancers, gravity, and the dance environment, or a comedy improv performance group plays off each other’s imaginations, words, and actions. Some play is free-form, as when a lone child engages with action figures or builds something out of interlocking plastic pieces. Some play has rules, but the rules can change depending on circumstances. For example, players in an informal softball game might move second base a little bit outward, into center field if a puddle has formed on the infield, or the distance and location of bases in an informal kickball game may change from day to day. Some play is more rigid, with referees on hand to maintain adherence to rules, as in volleyball or Figure 14.6 We may play a game or tournament of golf. Is it a tennis. Is the division between play, sport, and athletics a game? A sport? Does the classification depend on who is question of degree? Or, once again, does the intention of participating, whether they are being paid, who is watching, the participants determine categorization? and/or their state of mind regarding competition? 224 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Pieper (1979) calls play a “non-meaningful act” (p. 243), while Slusher (1967) agrees that play is nonproductive, but sport is work oriented toward a productive end. Hyland calls it the link between sport and art (1990). The common denominator in all forms of play and sport and art is, and must be, freedom, according to Slusher (1967). Rules may or may not frame the game, but in each passing moment, the choices available to the athlete are his or her own responsibility and privilege. For many players, this freedom drives their participation in sport, as they play for the sake of escape from coping with the demands of everyday life (Metheny, 1968). Effort, drive, ability, and ability to focus may play their parts, but ultimately, a player decides on a certain course of action at each moment of play or competition. The expression of freedom may be manifest in different ways. In some cases, the player’s decision is to argue a call or simply to stop playing, as Vontae Davis did when he retired from the Buffalo Bills at halftime during a football game in 2018. In some cases, players violate unwritten rules, such as running up the score during a ball game against an opponent who is clearly too far behind to win. Sometimes it is the ritual of a game that is violated, as when players kneel during the national anthem. Still, in each case, free will is exercised in actions. Is all physical activity a creative expression of freedom, and is all decision-making necessarily conscious? Of course not, as any coach, physical therapist, physical educator or fitness development specialist knows. Metheny (1975) recognizes a distinction between exercise, sport, and dance, and asks, Do any educators—or physical educators—think that moving children leave their senses, their feelings, their emotions and their thoughts in the classroom? Do any educational “authorities” think that the processes of action interfere with the processes of thought, feeling and emotion? (1975, p. 156) Or, as the great baseball player, manager, and coach Lawrence Peter “Yogi” Berra said, “How can you think and hit at the same time?” (Blount, 2014). Perhaps the right question is not whether sport is art. Perhaps it is better, as Arnold (1979) suggests, if the percipient is capable of choosing to view any sport as though it were art. This stance allows us to look beyond the question of beauty into the purposes and meanings of sport and physical activity, from the perspectives of participant and spectator. This brings us to our final aesthetic consideration in this chapter. If we treat sport as though it were art, can we ascribe meaning to it? Does it need to have a purpose? CAN SPORT HAVE MEANING AND PURPOSE? Important as sport is to our society—and it is very important—on some level we maintain the perspective that, win or lose, it’s just a game. When urgent international strife called for athletes to enlist in the armed forces during World War II, they did not refuse to serve so that they could stay stateside and maintain their places on their teams’ rosters. On the other hand, there is something to be said for the natural human affinity for agōn, or struggle. That Nietzschean determination, the will to be the best at something, to conquer oneself and one’s opponents, drives athletes to compete for glory, respect, self-esteem, and fame, according to the Olympic motto of Citius, Altius, Fortius (Faster, Higher, Stronger) and philosophers like Holowchak and Reid (2011). Perhaps there is a greater meaning to competition after all. Aesthetics: What Is Beauty in Sport and Physical Activity? 225 If so, what could it be? For spectators, we know that a variety of emotions and memories are connected with their vicarious experiences of different games. With sports like ice dancing, we may experience a sense of romance, with a kinesthetic response to the tenderness with which movements are executed. A strong sense of shared identity links fans with the players on their teams. There are special connections that are formed between family members as a parent or sibling watches a child compete or takes him or her to a sporting event. Families and friends gather for tailgate and Super Bowl parties. Alumni get together to watch their college teams compete in national championships. Soccer fans sing songs to belittle the opposing team. Citizens around the world celebrate with spontaneous street gatherings and cars honking horns or fans blowing vuvuzelas when their country wins the World Cup. Figure 14.7 Young fans of the “Bafana Bafana,” or South African national football team. Fans often paint their faces in team colors to show solidarity and identification with “their” team. Our families, friends, cities, and countries bond together over sporting contests. The sense of being part of something greater than oneself gives feelings of satisfaction, regardless of the outcome of an event. Fans don’t even need to watch or attend actual competitions to be part of the action, with fantasy leagues and gambling opportunities in abundance. Professional sporting events have become similar to arena-type musical performances in the use of video, pyrotechnics, and music. Energy and excitement fill the stands. Concessions vendors hawk programs, beer, and food. Stadiums have fountains, luxury boxes, kiddie playgrounds, and swimming pools. Nobody is expected to sit quietly and observe a game continuously from beginning to end. The experience of a sporting event is a centerpiece, but fans now expect far more for their money. 226 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT The rituals and traditions of sport give us another spiritual connection to athletic competitions. While not connected in any real way to the competitions themselves, these bits of pageantry become entwined with our experience of sport. Examples include the running of the Olympic torch or the Special Olympic torch, the calling out of starting lineup players, the playing of national anthems for Olympic medalists, the throwing of salt by Sumo wrestlers, the placing of a garland of roses on the winner of the Kentucky Derby, and the seventh inning stretch. These elements provide a sense of prestige and continuity, comforting us with their familiarity and imparting feelings of pride and goodwill. Not all such rituals are viewed as positive, however. Some people object to the role of NASCAR “trophy girls,” whose ritualistic job is to kiss the winners of the races, for example. Whatever our feelings toward them, in some ways, these types of rituals provide prologues or frame competitions, and the experiences would feel incomplete without them. Their very significance has sometimes made them into opportunities for social, cultural, or political statements. A notable example would be the raised fists of Tommie Smith and John Carlos at the 1968 200-meter Olympic medal ceremony, as a statement calling for international human rights. That silent gesture, a controversial moment in sports history, gave additional symbolic meaning to a ritual ceremony and drew attention to larger issues. “[A] gesture captures … a critical moment in a dramatic narrative. Gestures, with their freeze-frame effect, make the pathos associated with these dramatic moments more visible and more memorable” (Gumbrecht, 2006, p. 79). SPORT AS DRAMA It is tempting, given the spectacle and nature of competitions, to compare them to dramas. In youth sports, parents may come to blows over decisions. In professional sports, the drama can take place in the bleachers between unruly and/or intoxicated fans, but the bigger performance is in the contests. Professional wrestling offers an extreme version of dramatic storytelling, with wrestlers choosing “good guy” or “heel” personas and performing scripted fights in and out of the ring. Boxers and MMA fighters will often taunt opponents in advance of fights to whip up spectator interest in matches. The narrative might follow traditional patterns of dramatic confrontation: wo/man versus wo/man (singles table tennis), wo/man versus society (marathon racing), or wo/man versus nature (bullfighting or its less bloody cousin, the course landaise). The armies that meet in battle in Shakespeare’s Richard III have their counterparts in the NCAA basketball final four; bitter rivalries fuel the contests, and plot twists and turns abound. Once the games or matches begin, the opponents drive the narrative, play by play, punch by punch, mile by mile. An unexpected injury or crash heightens the arousal level of the fans, and a goal scored releases cheers or groans. We see players at their best or at their worst, performing superhuman feats or cheating. A close contest can be excruciating and exciting, giving a cathartic release when the final point is scored. The fans’ feelings of aggression may have been sublimated by the action in the athletic struggle, or they may express joy over a win by hooliganism, or by rioting and setting fires. In any case, the sense of engagement with the drama is complete. Kupfer (1975) refers to the “temporally extended opposition” (p. 88) of competition, which hones and places the skills and abilities of athletes to the test. Superior athletes, like superior warriors throughout history, are honored and given medals, rings, and monetary rewards (sponsorships, contracts, and prize earnings). Only through the struggle of competition, the Aesthetics: What Is Beauty in Sport and Physical Activity? 227 agōn, can they find out where they stand in relationship to other athletes. When the contest is over, unlike the actors who bow as they receive applause, the winners stand tall and proud, accepting acclaim for their courage, skills, and prowess. In that moment of affirmation, perhaps fatigued and elated, an athlete is not merely someone who has completed a physical activity. The athlete has gone through a journey and been transformed into a hero, a symbol of hope, and a champion. Figure 14.8 Lightweight boxer Robson Conceição, the first Brazilian to win Olympic gold in boxing, accepts the acclaim of the crowd at the 2016 Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) Summer Olympic Games. SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • Aesthetics is the study of beauty, but within its study we consider relationships of various aesthetic elements, including meaning and purpose of artistic works and events. • Kinesiologists study aesthetics to achieve a deeper appreciation of the human body in motion and a more comprehensive understanding of the ways play, athletics, and sport complement human experience. • While sport is not art, some sports have important artistic components, and all sports can be experienced through an aesthetic point of view. • Philosophers of aesthetics in sport consider many issues, including intentionality, the nature of play, sport and competition, and the subjective experience of sport participation and spectatorship. • Sports can and do have meaning; however, those meanings can vary between individuals, so we cannot determine their symbolic nature with any degree of precision. 228 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. Students may do one or more to deepen their understanding of the history and philosophy of the time period covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the text and resources provided or other research. 1. Sports Photography (Visual): In Figure 14.5, above, Adrian Peterson is the center of attention. However, the defender to his left, caught in a horizontal diving position, and the player beneath him on a different angle, give this photograph a strong contrast to the upright players. Another player on the left is balanced on one leg, caught in the act of running. Yet another player, on the right, stands in a squatting defensive pose, balanced on the fronts of his feet for lateral mobility. The photograph is dynamic, filled with energy and aesthetic elements. Find other action photographs of purposive sports, and examine them for aesthetic properties, creating a PowerPoint presentation in which you can present five photographs while pointing out the formal elements The elements might include the use of light, shadow, lines, composition (symmetry/asymmetry, for example), and spatial elements. Include the physical arrangement of body parts that can be viewed as an aesthetic object in terms of muscularity, pose, balance/off-balance stance of the athlete(s), evidence of effort, and any other notable characteristics. 2. Aesthetic Distance and Sports Film (Research): One of the most impressive sports films in cinematic history is Leni Riefenstahl’s Olympia, which documents events of the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, Germany. Her use of editing and techniques of filming this film were groundbreaking. Watch Part 2 of Olympia, known in German as Fest der Schönheit (Festival of Beauty), with particular attention to the famous diving sequence. Notice the naturalism of the opening sequence (warning: some nudity is seen in this part) and the open-air men’s gymnastics competition (in the tradition of German gymnastics). Consider the drama of the boating sequence, in which the athletes contend with the forces of wind and water in their competitive drama. How does she present the struggle of man versus man in the boxing competition? Research why her work might be considered controversial, given that it was produced under the auspices of the Third Reich. Is it possible to watch the film with an aesthetic point of view, recognizing but seeing past its propagandistic elements? Does it change the way you view the aesthetic elements of sports? 3. Precision Ball Passing (Kinesthetic): Choreographer Charles Moulton grew up playing sports and became interested in the possibilities of competitions in which there would be three opposing teams on the field instead of two. He went on to become a dancer and dance creator, with his most famous series of works involving people passing balls. In a group, watch his Nine Person Ball Passing video online at http://ballpassing.org/video/ original-nine-person-ball-passing-1980/ and see if you can mimic this type of activity and create your own ball passing dance, set to music. Have someone available to record your dance, to share with the class online or in a class presentation. You may wish to costume the performance with matching (preferably dark) T-shirts so that the balls will stand out more clearly. Aesthetics: What Is Beauty in Sport and Physical Activity? 229 FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 14.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:YAR_1969_MiNr1000_pm_B002.jpg. Fig. 14.2: Copyright © 2015 by Ewa Krasucka, (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Poskromienie_z%C5%82o%C5%9Bnicy,_choreografia_John_Cranko,_Polski_ Balet_Narodowy,_fot._Ewa_Krasucka_TW-ON.jpg. Fig. 14.3: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/fitness-beach-man-boy-muscular-2398421/. Fig. 14.4: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/gymnast-gymnastics-1958324/. Fig. 14.5: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/football-american-professional-nfl-622873/. Fig. 14.6: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/golfer-golfing-club-ball-swing-660605/. Fig. 14.7: Copyright © 2007 by Octagon, (CC BY 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:2010_FIFA_World_Cup_Fans.jpg. Fig. 14.8: Copyright © 2016 by Boxing AIBA, (CC BY-SA 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Rio_2016_Olympic_Games_-_Medal_Ceremonies_(28416521753).png. REFERENCES Aldrich, V. C. (1937). A theory of ball play. Psychological Review, 44, 395–403. Arnold, P. J. (1979). Meaning in movement, sport and physical education. London, England: Heinemann. Beardsley, M. C. (1958). Aesthetics: Problems in the philosophy of criticism. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace. Best, D. (1985). Sport is not art. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 12, pp. 25–40. Best, D. (1995). The aesthetic in sport. In W. J. Morgan & K. V. Meier (Eds.), Philosophic inquiry in sport (2nd ed.) (pp. 377–389). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Blount Jr., R. (2014, September 16). Yogi: What did Berra say, when did he say it, and what does it all mean? Sports Illustrated. Retrieved from https://www.si.com/mlb/2014/09/16/ yogi-berra-si-60-rou-blount-jr Conway, R. (2017, December 6). The curious history of Olympic art competitions. Retrieved from https://www.huffingtonpost.com/richard-conway/history-of-olympic-art-competitions_b_ 1705248.html De Coubertin, P. (1912). Ode au sport. Retrieved from http://www.olympic-museum.de/art/ ode_au_sport.htm Fraleigh, W. P. (1973a). The moving “I.” In R. G. Osterhoudt (Ed.), The philosophy of sport (pp. 108–129). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Fraleigh, W. P. (1973b). Some meanings of the human experience of freedom and necessity in sport. In R. G. Osterhoudt (Ed.), The philosophy of sport (pp. 130–141). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Friedenberg, E. Z. (1967). Foreword. In H. S. Slusher, Man, sport, and existence: A critical analysis (pp. vii–xiii). Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. Gumbrecht, H. U. (2006). In praise of athletic beauty. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University. Holowchak, M. A., & Reid, H. L. (2011). Aretism: An ancient sports philosophy for the modern sports world. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. Hyland, D. A. (1990). Philosophy of sport. New York, NY: Paragon House. 230 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Keenan, F. W. (1973). The athletic contest as a “tragic” form of art. In R. G. Osterhoudt (Ed.), The philosophy of sport (pp. 303–309). Kreft, L. (2012). Sport as a drama. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 39(2), 219–234. doi: 10.1080/00948705.2012.725898 Kupfer, J. (1975). Purpose and beauty in sport. Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 11, 83–90. Lowe, B. (1977). The beauty of sport: A cross-disciplinary inquiry. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. MacKenzie, M. M. (1969). Toward a new curriculum in physical education. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. In B. Lowe (1977), The beauty of sport: A cross-disciplinary inquiry. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Metheny, E. (1968). Movement and meaning. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Metheny, E. (1975). Moving and knowing in sport, dance, physical education. Author: Peek. Morgan, W. (1973). An existential phenomenological analysis of sport as a religious experience. In R. G. Osterhoudt (Ed.), The philosophy of sport (pp. 78–107). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Munro, T. (1949). The arts and their interrelations. New York, NY: Liberal Arts Press. Pieper, J. (1979). Play: A non-meaningful act. In E. W. Gerber & W. J. Morgan (Eds.), Sport and the body: A philosophical symposium (2nd ed.) (pp. 243–244). Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. Plaschke, B. (2012, February 9). For the pro athlete, it’s just a job. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.com Slusher, H. S. (1967). Man, sport and existence: A critical analysis. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. Stromberg, J. (2012, July 24). When the Olympics gave out medals for art. Retrieved from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/when-the-olympics-gave-out-medals-forart-6878965/ Von Schiller, F. (1979). Play and beauty. In E. W. Gerber & W. J. Morgan (Eds.), Sport and the body: A philosophical symposium (2nd ed.) (pp. 318–320). Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger. Weiss, P. (1969). Sport: A philosophic inquiry. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Weiss, P. (1971). Philosophy in process (Vol. V). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Wertz, S. K. (1984). Context and intention in sport and art. Southwest Philosophical Studies, 8(5), pp. 144–147. Wertz, S. K. (1985). Artistic creativity in sport. In D. L. Vanderwerken & S. K. Wertz (Eds.), Sport inside out (pp. 510–519). Fort Worth, TX: Texas Christian University Press. Wimsatt, W. K., & Beardsley, M. C. (1946). Intentional fallacy. Sewanee Review, 54, pp. 468–488. Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical investigations (G. E. M. Anscombe, Trans.). New York, NY: Macmillan. Zenenga, P. (2011). Aesthetics and performance in Zimbabwean soccer. African Identities, 9(3), 323–336. Aesthetics: What Is Beauty in Sport and Physical Activity? 231 C H APTER 15 MY HISTORY, MY PHILOSOPHY KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. Turnvereins: local German clubs where German gymnastics was practiced and social, political, and cultural events were held • When does something become historic? • What is your place in history? • Why should you care about local history of physical education and sport? • How can you learn about local history? Settlement houses: neighborhood institutions serving immigrants with transition and assimilation, health and nutrition information, and recreational opportunities • What can you do to help preserve local Ephemera: programs, newspaper articles, advertising, flyers, pay stubs, and so forth that may have historical significance but are often discarded or considered of limited long-term usefulness to the average person • What is your personal philosophy? Op-ed piece: in newspapers, the page opposite the editorial page (op-ed) is sometimes reserved for guest opinions Docents: people who act as guides (often as volunteers) in museums and can provide valuable insight and advice for researchers history? • Why should you write a statement of your philosophy? • How do you write a statement of personal philosophy? • What should you anticipate about your history and your philosophy as you start your career? 232 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT INTRODUCTION In the first chapter of this text, you learned that the three basic questions about history ask where we are now, how we got here, and where we are going. Much of this book has been devoted to answering these questions. However, the answers have left out an important part of history: you. Yes, you are part of history. You may not be a Major League pitcher or a world-renowned pole-vaulting history expert, or the owner of an NFL franchise. But wherever you are, whatever you do becomes part of history on some level, immediately. For what achievements would you like to be remembered? What would you like your students or colleagues to remember about you when you are gone? What will you leave behind? Your place in history is surrounded by the history of the locale(s) in which you reside or will reside. For example, you may have been an outstanding athlete in high school sports. If so, your name is likely listed in a local newspaper or hanging on a wall of records in your school. Your former teammates may remember your team leadership and your example of sportsmanship, and they may remember highlights of competitions in which you were particularly successful. Your team’s record is also part of history. So is your coach. But let’s think a little bigger. Your hometown may have had several high schools, each with their own stories. If your town has semiprofessional or professional sports teams, they have history. Everything from the smallest rural park to the biggest stadium in a major metropolitan center has a story. You cannot escape that fact, and your history will inevitably become part of those larger histories. You may think that only your actions make history, but your thoughts may become part of your legacy, whether directly or indirectly. My History, My Philosophy 233 Figure 15.1 Lewis “Sport” McAllister (1874–1962), a versatile professional ball player, shown in 1910 at the Newark (New Jersey) Indians’ minor league baseball stadium, Wiedenmayer’s Park. For example, Vince Lombardi to become a coach to be remembered for his thoughts on determination, dedication, and winning. Charles Dillon “Casey” Stengel didn’t necessarily think about how his strategy of platooning would change baseball management. Yogi Berra didn’t necessarily always mean to say what he said, but his thoughts are still profound, delightful, and true. Maybe one of your coaches had a way of inspiring you and your team through words, actions, or a combination of both. In all of these cases, philosophy is evident, even if the historical figures would not have considered themselves philosophers. In this chapter, you will be encouraged to think about your own philosophy and how it will affect your career decisions and actions. No matter what branch of kinesiology you follow, the way you think about yourself and your professional life will impact your behavior. Living an authentic life and acting in accordance with your beliefs can help you maintain a sense of self, no matter what situations arise in your personal and professional lives. WHY STUDY LOCAL HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT? Depending on where you are, the importance of the local history of physical education and sport may seem more or less important. A resident of Chicago can take pride in that city’s Major League sports teams as well as their playgrounds, physical education curricula, and recreational 234 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT opportunities. The history of the Chicago turnvereins and settlement houses like Hull House demonstrates that residents of Chicago provided additional physical education, health services, and recreation for immigrants, tailored to their needs and desires. Chicago’s fine institutions of higher education, including its community colleges, each has its own legacies. In the world of dance, professional ballet and jazz dance companies have made significant historical contributions. In short, you can barely turn around in that city or its environs without bumping into history. What if your college, university, high school, or town seems to have less historical importance? While other locales may not have the rich variety Chicago has, every place has physical activity history that can be studied. Why bother learning it? • Understand your institution’s or locality’s heritage. There are social and cultural influences that have shaped your local physical education and athletics landscape. • Bolster pride in the community and school spirit. Alumni like to reminisce about athletics, coaches, teachers, and professors, and some alumni are historical figures themselves. • Instill a sense of community and place in history to current residents and students. Let them take a moment to reflect on what has gone before and cherish current history. • Rediscover lost heritage. Did your town or college produce a Heisman Trophy winner? A world champion cross-country runner? • Preserve your history. You may be the only one who recognizes the historical importance of keeping certain artifacts. Old programs, pennants, and equipment may seem worthless today, but will be historically important (and possibly worth a lot of money) a century from now. Figure 15.2 Do you collect memorabilia and autographs? Knowing sports history can make you a savvier consumer. You might even have a second career selling items like this or even curating them for historical collections! My History, My Philosophy 235 Similarly, thinking about current history will help others to remember what happened today. When a program is prepared for an athletic banquet, simply putting the date and location on the program is helpful to historians. Listing not only names but also titles (athletic director, coach, assistant coach, etc.) will be appreciated in years to come. Saving an archival copy of any ephemera from each event and making sure to get it to someone who can preserve it properly such as a local archive, library, or historical society will enable future researchers to more accurately portray the history you, your league, your community, and your institution create now. If you have a sense of history, you have an understanding that can make a contribution toward it. HOW CAN YOU LEARN ABOUT LOCAL HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT? There is no right or wrong way to begin research into local history, and there are many ways to go about it. The best advice is to follow what interests you. Sometimes history is preserved online, but much of what is not online may be learned from books, archives, architecture, plaques, and displays in museums or other buildings, and people’s communications about experiences. Take time to notice the trophies, memorabilia, artworks, photographs, and banners that tell your institution’s sports history or commemorate achievements in dance, health, recreation, and kinesiology professions. For example, if you love swimming, you might think about whether you prefer competitive or recreational swimming. Remember that you can enjoy both, but you have to start somewhere! Where to turn next? If your interest is in competitive swimming, depending on what type of local history you are seeking, consider visiting the following: • • • • Local libraries (ask a librarian for help), Local or college newspaper archives for scoreboards and articles, Local pools, to see if they have record boards or other indications of achievements, Archives for interviews with former coaches and athletes (or visiting them to record oral histories), and • Formal or informal archives of school, league, athletics department, and local history centers. For recreational swimming, you might also seek help from: • • • • • 236 Local historical society collections, who may have photos of waterfronts or pools, Local community newsletters, Social media groups dedicated to preserving memories of localities, Community members who recall swimming locally in a lake, pool, reservoir, or creek, and Local youth bureau or community recreation resources. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Figure 15.3 Brand Park Memorial Pool in Elmira, New York (USA) is one of only about six surviving pools designed by renowned pool architect Wesley Bintz, known for his innovative and practical designs. The pool is closed, but there is a local historical movement to preserve this rare art deco–style facility. Once you start reading, you will find names, places, and other resources, and your challenge will become capturing and keeping track of where you get your information, in case you ever need to reference sources for any reason. Or you can just research for the fun of it, if you are someone who enjoys delving into history for its own sake! In any case, no matter where you are, these are good places to start, in addition to any online searches you do. Remember, not all history is online, and not all sources are equal. HOW CAN YOU PRESERVE LOCAL HISTORY? Suppose you are a physical education teacher who wants to help preserve local physical education and athletics history. How can you do that? What does it take, and how can you get started? You can start by archiving your own collection. You might have ephemera that should be kept in acid-free folders or scanned into online archives. If your school is replacing equipment, keep a sample, noting the year. Did one of your athletes go on to play in D1 athletics? Can you keep a jersey in a display case with trophies that athlete won or helped to win? Your own mundane paperwork and everyday items can attain significance over time. Someone, someday, may want to know how many physical education classes students had to take each week and what types of units were taught. You could have the basketball team all sign a ball each year and keep them on a shelf, maybe putting one in a trophy case for the year you win the championship. Space can My History, My Philosophy 237 become an issue over time, so you may want to think of creative alternatives, especially where large items are concerned! Remember also that laws concerning the use of student images and information may impact your ability to preserve information in online slideshow formats or if any information is in any way confidential. You can also encourage colleagues at other schools in your area to preserve historical items in their own schools and as a group. Does your school or community have a Hall of Fame? If not, can you create one? It doesn’t need to be huge or very expensive. For example, a local mall can donate an empty store location where plaques listing various schools’ Athletes of the Year, memorabilia, posters, and newspaper articles are on display. An annual recognition ceremony could induct new members, inviting alumni to send letters and/or come to the ceremony. Similar small-scale sports history corners could be housed in local sports-related shops, the local historical society, or a public building. Seeking donations, displaying the artifacts, acquiring insurance, publicizing induction ceremonies, and other such matters can be the work of a committee of interested volunteers. After all, who knows more about teamwork than you? Consider other ways you could help preserve local history, including your own. • Interview local coaches and athletes and create an online virtual gallery of their achievements, housing it on a school’s or local community’s website. • Write! Newspaper op-ed pieces, Letters to the Editor, and/or articles about sports and physical education. Whether you are a student or a professional sports history researcher submitting to a peer-reviewed journal, your contribution matters! • Keep a journal or diary of your experiences in physical activity. What do you do? What does a peak experience feel like for you? What do you hope to achieve? What competitions did you enter, and what were the results? Add in scores, fleeting thoughts, impressions, memories, snippets of song or poetry that come to mind, anything that will help you capture your physical education and sport experiences. • Organize an alumni sporting event, inviting alumni and coaches to take part. Collect photos of them, record short clips of players’ and coaches’ comments, and create a short film. You might even include others who were part of local athletics history like organ players, announcers, concessions vendors, and mascots. • Create memorable opportunities. For example, at a high school reunion, suggest a night at the bowling alley as one of the activities, and take photos! Ask local veterans if they played any sports, and find occasions to honor them at sporting events. Do you know of any former athletes living at an assisted living facility? Find out if they might like a visit from some youth players. Always make every reasonable effort to obtain permissions to take and use photographs or recordings, even if something seems totally innocuous. This applies to everyone, not just to minors. Sometimes people (including parents/guardians of schoolchildren or children of senior citizens in senior housing) will allow photographs, but not if there are names attached to them. Respect the wishes of the participants and/or their legal guardians, just as you would want others to respect yours. 238 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Figure 15.4 A Miami University Varsity Alumni football game, 1922. The photo is partially blurred, but the fact that the image was captured for posterity is important. YOUR PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY In the first chapter, you learned what it means to be a philosopher. You also learned that not everyone is a philosopher, but hopefully in reading Chapters 13, 14, and 15, you will have come to a better understanding of the philosophy of physical education and sport. Whether or not you consider yourself a philosopher now (even a beginning one), you have ideas about right and wrong, the nature of play, the place of competition in sport, the beauty of sports, and so on. It’s time to reflect. Think back to what first drew you to physical activity, making you love it so much that you decided you would like to make a living doing something that involved movement. Most likely other people were involved at some point: parents, friends, teachers, coaches, and/ or other athletes. What influence(s) did they have on your physical education and athletic experiences? Think about your career goals and what this area of study holds for you. Do you want to help others? Become wealthy? Achieve fame? Invent new types of prosthetic limbs? Conduct basic or applied research? Teach movement skills? Teach values through sport? Give back to your community? Create recreational opportunities? Build playgrounds? Whatever it is you want to do, there is probably a reason you want to do it. The answer is unique to you, so you are the only person who can provide it. A professor can open many doors, but no professor can tell you which one to choose or why you picked one over another. Those parts are your decisions, and you should not let anyone make the decisions for you. Parents and professors and career services can My History, My Philosophy 239 offer advice, guidance, and testing, but if you do not follow your heart and soul into a profession, your joy in life will be diminished, no matter how much money you make. What is important to you? What goals have you set for yourself? What type of work environment will suit you best? Do you need to be your own boss? If your life could be any way you want it to be, how would you arrange it? Are you willing and able to invest in education beyond the bachelor’s degree to achieve higher earning potential? In considering the answers to these questions, you come to a better understanding of your own vision for your future, even if it’s only for the next few years. WHY WRITE A STATEMENT OF PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY? There are several reasons to write a statement of personal philosophy. The most obvious and practical reason, in terms of your career, is that a potential employer may ask you for one. This is most likely to be the case if you are going into physical education or coaching, but you may encounter this requirement in other professions. There is a greater reason to write such a statement, however. As a student in a college program, you (hopefully) devote countless hours to classes and study. Is it really only to earn a degree as a ticket to a job upon graduation? Many students would say that. Yet, there are a wide variety of occupations—with good salaries—that do not require a college degree. That being the case, what is the point of investing in years of study? Ask yourself if Figure 15.5 Take stock of yourself and your personal history it is really only about the money. Could it be and traits. It is an important part of discovering who you are that you wanted to have the opportunity to and who you want to be as a person and as a professional. get away from home, to make new friends, to study whatever you wanted, to have the whole college experience, to earn a degree that proves you are able to do advanced studies in a topic? Do you crave respect, a certain status, or maybe just a chance at the American dream? College is your chance to really get to know yourself. Whatever you discover, don’t waste the opportunity to try. Your statement of personal philosophy is a window on your soul. As such, it may not fit every prospective employer’s ideal of the perfect candidate for a job. You may think you can simply craft a statement that you think hits all of the things any given employer might want, but you cannot. You cannot read the employer’s mind, though you should always do your research into the employer and the culture of the workplace for a good idea. 240 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Let’s say, for instance, that you want to be a wrestling coach in an educational institution, and there is an opening available nearby. You might indicate that you are a caring educator, fully dedicated to teaching. Your goals are teaching correct technique and making sure the wrestlers have fun at every practice session. Those are all noble and worthwhile statements. However, if the people in charge of hiring want a rigorous, win-at-all-costs coach to take the team to national championships within two years, the job may not be a good fit. You might as well be honest. It will help you and potential employers avoid making hiring mistakes, and you will eventually (hopefully) find a job that is a much better match to your skills and values than if you try to write what you think people want to hear. HOW TO WRITE A STATEMENT OF PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY Just as there is no perfect way to begin research, there is no perfect way to write a statement of personal philosophy. You may want to do an online search for some examples of statements of personal philosophy for your chosen career. Conversely, you may want to hold off and write yours first, then see how others approach the task. What is offered here is only one of many possible avenues, offering steps only as a matter of convenience to help you create what may seem like a daunting task. The first steps require a bit of bravery to get you started, but you can do this. 1. Goal setting. Visualize the best possible career in the best possible geographic, physical, and social environment for you. You do not need to write this down, but bear it in mind like a mental snapshot or postcard. A career as a physical therapist is different from a career as a fitness development expert or a sporting events manager. Imagine it, and mentally set it aside. That’s your dream, and it’s made up of all your hopes and aspirations for the future. 2. Experience. Tell your story. This is where you start writing. Tell about a time in your physical activity life where you had to make a tough decision or where you needed to get through something difficult. For example, did you ever see an opportunity to cheat in a competition and have to make a decision about whether or not you would? Did your faith prohibit traveling to compete on holy days, and if so, how did you work through that? Have you ever encountered discrimination? What did you do? If you have several examples, go ahead and describe each, being sure to include your responses to different situations. You will edit later; now is the time to just get started writing from your personal experience. 3. Influences. Next, think about your experiences in life that led you to your career choice or choice of college major. If occupational therapy is your career goal, for example, what have you experienced in life that influenced that choice? Did you know someone who was an OT, or someone who benefited from OT? If you are interested in working with the military, police departments, or fire departments in fitness development, what inspired that interest? 4. Adaptability. Think about how you learn best and what learning experiences have been more or less successful for you. You might be a kinesthetic learner, but then again, you might not! Do you need visual, aural, or emotional cues or reinforcement? Are you logical? Detail oriented? Now think about how you might work with someone who relies on a different style of learning. How would you work with clients, students, athletes, or special-needs populations who have styles that don’t match your own? My History, My Philosophy 241 5. Knowledge. What knowledge about physical activity, physical education, exercise science, therapeutic professions, health, nutrition, sport psychology, sport sociology, recreation, leisure, training, and athletics will you bring to your profession? 6. Epistemology. Think about the educational philosophies you studied in Chapter 13. Did you connect more with the idealists, the naturalists, the pragmatists, the experimentalists, or the existentialists? Was there a combination of more than one approach? Did you find a different way to think about epistemology? Even if you are not planning to become a physical educator, it is likely that some part of your career will involve teaching or training someone on some level. What type of teacher are you most likely to be, based on the philosophies you have encountered thus far? 7. Values. What do you care about when it comes to your career and the people with whom you will likely come into contact? Is lifelong learning important to you? Do you feel strongly about character building? Do ethics matter to you? Do you believe self-esteem is the most important thing to teach people? If you are planning to teach, what type of environment do you want to create for your students, and what would you like them to remember and take away with them when their time with you is finished? 8. Stop. Look at what you wrote for steps 2 through 7. Take time to think about how those things fit with what you imagined in step 1. Can you now envision an authentic, desirable career that will bring you fulfillment and enjoyment? If so, you are ready to continue. If not, revisit steps 1 through 7 and revise as needed. 9. Finally, using the (possibly revised) components you have written for steps 2 through 7, create a statement of personal philosophy that captures your values, experiences, knowledge, beliefs, and potential for connecting on a human level with others (students, clients, colleagues, etc.). Title it using your name and the words “Statement of Personal Philosophy.” Edit to rearrange, trim, streamline, and make a logically flowing, professional presentation. Check carefully for spelling, spacing, punctuation, grammar, and formatting. The final paper should be no more than two pages (double-spaced, 10–12 point font, 1-inch margins). Figure 15.6 Plato (in Apology) indicated that an unexamined life is not worth living. Self-reflection should continue throughout your life. 242 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Congratulations! Even if you are not a philosopher, you should now be able to articulate your personal philosophy and communicate your story and values with other professionals. Are you satisfied with the result? Remember, there are many models on the Internet for reference. Take care, though. Tempting though it may be, do not plagiarize someone else’s work: this needs to be yours and yours alone. THE FUTURE IN THE HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT Now that you have studied a semester’s worth of history and philosophy, including reflecting on your own history and philosophy, you should feel more secure in your understanding of where we are, where we have been, and where we are going. That is the good news. Now here is what some of you may consider the bad news: things will change. We may not know what will change, or how, or when, but we know change will come. After all, there was a time when people believed that Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown, New York. New research sheds new light on history, overturning it or modifying it. As a professional, part of your job may entail following the latest developments in research through consuming various media and attending professional conferences. As Yogi Berra told us, “It ain’t over ’til it’s over” (Foster, 2015, para. 2). Your history is what you make of it. Likewise, various philosophies of education will come in and out of favor, and you should now have some rudimentary tools to make critical assessments of the strengths and weaknesses of any new or revamped version of older philosophies. Expect new proposals for educational changes at the federal, state, and local levels, and be ready to voice your opinion as an educated practitioner. Moreover, your personal philosophy is likely to change over time. Your experiences in life and in the workplace may alter some of what you thought you believed. That is entirely normal; it is part of learning and growing. It is possible that your deepest core values and beliefs will be challenged, and that can be good or bad. On the other hand, you may always retain parts of Figure 15.7 How will you be remembered? What will your legacy be? My History, My Philosophy 243 your philosophy, like your feelings about the best way to share information or the most ethical, responsible way to solve problems. Change can be intimidating; it can feel like your identity is on the line. Evolving humans stay open to new ideas. They ask whether or not how they behave and what they believe are good behaviors and beliefs. They question themselves, daring to reconsider things in light of new evidence. They strive to model good behaviors and share good beliefs, living and practicing their professions in accordance with their conscience and best practices. They strive to make a difference in the lives of those they touch and in their communities. They leave behind a legacy of learning and a reputation for honor, fairness, and truth insofar as they can know it. SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • Something becomes historic once it has happened. History is continuous, up to the present moment in time. • Each of us has a personal history, of which the importance may not be known in this lifetime. The actions we take and the decisions we make exert an influence on events, institutions, and other people. • You should care about local history of physical education and sport because it helps you to understand your place and the place of others in your community’s history. • You can learn about local physical education and sport history through online sources, personal communications such as interviews, archives, books, architectural structures and their contents, museums, and local history centers. • You can help preserve local history by becoming more aware of it and sharing it with others. You can also encourage others to share their history. • You should write a statement of your philosophy to reflect on your own knowledge, values, and beliefs, and to be able to communicate those effectively with others. • There are many ways to write a statement of personal philosophy. One method is offered in this chapter. • You should anticipate that history may change as new facts come to light. Similarly, educational philosophies, including your personal philosophy, may well change over time throughout your career. 244 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT LEARNING ACTIVITIES The following are suggestions for assignments and activities related to this chapter. There is an activity for writing a personal philosophy given in detail in the chapter. Students may do one or more of the following to deepen their understanding of local history as covered in this chapter, or develop similar group or individual projects using the ideas provided in this chapter. 1. Documentation (Visual): Think about the historical photos in this text, which give so much information about past history. If you have skills as a photographer or videographer, take photos or videos of current history! In some cases, you may need to get permissions and/or releases, especially if you include people (particularly children, who need parent/ guardian permission) in your photos. What are the facilities like? What uniforms are worn by the athletes? What does the equipment look like? If you are considering a career in physical therapy or athletic training, what sorts of therapies and equipment are currently used? Create a slideshow in PowerPoint or a folder of images and videos. Is there anyone locally who would want to add the items to their archives? If permitted, can you upload the images to online sites such as Wikimedia Commons? 2. Local History Paper (Research): Select a local sports team, dance company, settlement house, turnverein, sports club, or facility (a roller skating rink, for example) and document its history. Find out if there are archives or files you can use for research. Are there photos? Who, what, where, when, and how are questions you should ask, but also ask “why” questions. Contact your local library/librarians and historical society/docents for help getting started. Research local newspaper archives online, if available. You might even contact the owners of the facility or club/team/company management to request interviews and suggestions for research or other people to contact. Be sure to document your process and the people with whom you speak, and thank people for their help. Provide the team, company, or facility with a copy of your final project for their archives. This activity could lead to a short research article for a school newspaper or a full research paper. 3. Local Sports (Kinesthetic): Do you realize that many locales have a history of their own particular games and sports? In today’s globalized society, it’s easy to forget that before colonization, mass media, and the Internet, local versions of games and sports were common. In Great Britain alone, local rules for football (soccer) made it difficult to create a league for intercity competition, you may recall. Consider the changes in rugby, which led to American football, Canadian football, and Australian (Aussie) rules football (footy), for example. Irish dancer Jo McNamara has preserved and taught games and dances from her childhood and shared them at New York City’s Irish Arts Center. Bess Lomax Hawes and Bessie Jones preserved games from the Georgia Sea Islands and southern United States in their 1987 book, Step It Down. What games and sports, or versions of those, were historically played in your city or town? If possible, play one of these games or sports. If your town has a vintage baseball team, can you attend a practice and talk with the players, maybe even take a turn at bat? How might you find out about local games, sports, and dances, and how might you be able to experience them? My History, My Philosophy 245 4. Oral History (Outreach): Is there a local athlete, dancer, coach, teacher, or someone else important to physical education and sport who interests you? Preserve their history with an oral history interview. You’ll want to keep the interview focused, so prepare carefully. For tips on how to prepare, see https://www.aauw.org/resource/oral-history-project/ or a similar website. To save time and effort transcribing the interview, use a program such as Google Docs: (https://qz.com/work/1087765/how-to-transcribe-audio-fast-and-for-free-using-google-docsvoice-typing/). Check the transcription, and give a copy to the interviewee with thanks. Where else might the interview be archived, with the interviewee’s permission, for posterity? FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 15.1: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lew_McAllister,_Newark,_minor_ league_(baseball)_LCCN2014689109.tif. Fig. 15.2: Copyright © 2009 by John Seb Barber, (CC BY 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Signed_SB_helmet_(3823064048).jpg. Fig. 15.3: Copyright © 2004 by Stilfehler, (CC BY-SA 1.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Brand_Park_Pool.JPG. Fig. 15.4: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Action_at_Miami_University_ Varsity-Alumni_football_game_1922_(3190674155).jpg. Fig. 15.5: Source: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/identity-mask-disguise-mindset-510866/. Fig. 15.6: Source: https://pixabay.com/illustrations/identity-self-self-image-801212/. Fig. 15.7: Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/in-love-thinking-poetry-poet-652485/. REFERENCES Hawes, B. L., & Jones, B. (1987). Step it down. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. Foster, J. (2015, September 25). Yogi Berra’s “It ain’t over ’til it’s over” true in baseball as in life. Sporting News. Retrieved from http://www.sportingnews.com/us/mlb/news/yogi-berra-diesquotes-its-not-over-till-its-over-yankees-comebacks-mets-red-sox-braves-indians/13tyjao2 mbhrf1jrgniroq2auz 246 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT C H APTER 16 CURRENT ISSUES IN SPORT HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS GUIDING QUESTIONS Listed below are key terms and concepts from the chapter that may be unfamiliar to you. Before reading, skim through the chapter to locate these terms and concepts; they are in bold type. Take a minute to read the term in context and review the definition. This will enable you to read the chapter more effectively and with better comprehension. These questions will guide your reading and help you identify the main topics in the chapter. LGBT+: sexual orientation and gender identity abbreviation referring to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender; “+” refers to an expanded list of identity referents such as asexual, aromantic, ally, intersexual, pansexual, polygamous, cisgender (identifying with the gender with which one is born), genderfluid, and so on Golden age of sport: in the 1920s, an appetite for sports participation, spectatorship, and reading about sports was so widespread that later historians dubbed this decade the golden age of sport Pay-to-play: many school districts are switching to this model for sports participation, in which students who wish to play on a team must pay a fee; the fees may amount to hundreds of dollars per sport per student C-teams: sports teams specifically for first-year high school students; used in some school districts to supplement varsity and junior varsity (JV) athletic opportunities No pass-no play: students who do not meet minimum standards for academics are not allowed to participate in competitions Intersectionality: intersectionality theory explores the ways in which people are discriminated against due to multiple sources of oppression based on their identity markers Therapeutic use exemption (TUE): some drugs or treatments which are normally considered non-approved substances by the World Anti-Doping Agency may be used by athletes if they obtain a TUE 248 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT • How do the media and the associated commercialization of sport affect the spectator? • What are some of the issues surrounding youth sports? • What are some of the problems facing interscholastic sports? • What issues are faced by women and minorities in sports and dance? • What are some threats to the integrity of sport? • Is violence a normal part of sports? (Key Terms and Concepts, continued) INTRODUCTION This chapter gives readers opportunities to discuss current issues in sports and physical education using the knowledge gained from the previous chapters on history and philosophy. Topics such as gambling, violence, LGBT+ issues, and youth sports dilemmas are presented in brief, with accompanying discussion questions. In-class discussions may follow the reading, or instructors may wish to use the topics as starting points or inspiration for term-paper assignments, poster sessions, small group discussions, in-class debates, or class presentations by students. There are no learning activities at the end of this chapter, because the chapter itself is a collection of potential learning activities. References are included, as they are in the preceding chapters, to provide students with additional resources as needed. Some of the topics are controversial. Some may fall outside the focus of your course. Some may be new issues to you, while others have been touched upon in previous chapters. This is by no means an exhaustive list of current topics being studied by sports historians and philosophers. Rather, it provides several backdrops against which students can work toward integration of course topics, conceptual knowledge, and facility with the use of philosophy and history as tools for understanding and discussing current and future problems. It is one thing to theorize about the use of tools and quite another to get them into your hands and begin hammering, sawing, screwing, and polishing actual projects. It can be uncomfortable at first, and you may get a few blisters along the way. It’s hard to grow accustomed to using new tools. You might think of this part of the text as a sort of cognitive apprenticeship, guided by your instructor, who can help coach you as you become more The Steroid Era: from 1993 to 2003, Major League Baseball in the United States did not routinely test for performance-enhancing drugs, and the use of steroids rose during that time Point shaving: a means of cheating, in which athletes prevent a team from covering a published point spread in order to benefit spread bettors Bountygate: from 2009–2011, several players of the New Orleans Saints were paid bonuses for deliberately injuring opposing players Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 249 adept at academic discourse and writing. Eventually, your skin toughens up, you learn to wield the tools as best you can, and you come out of the course with at least a rudimentary toolkit. To begin, let’s consider the role of media in sports. MEDIA AND SPORT IN THE UNITED STATES In Chapter 9, we looked at the case of Richard Kyle Fox, publisher of the National Police Gazette, and his promotion of John L. Sullivan’s boxing career. In the 1920s, sometimes known as the golden age of sport, sports broadcasting and writing fed the public’s desire for escapism through sport. Great athletes assumed larger-than-life personalities in newspapers from coast to coast, and sports reporters like Ring Lardner and Paul Gallico began their literary careers covering the boxing rings, golf links, tennis courts, and playing fields of North America. From the mid-19th to the mid-20th centuries, the public appetite for sports figures led to off-season appearances by athletes on the nationwide vaudeville theater circuits, where people who couldn’t travel to a major metropolitan city for a baseball game could see Babe Ruth, Christy Mathewson, Ty Cobb, and many others onstage supplementing their baseball salaries with vaudeville gigs. Ring Lardner himself wrote some of the comedy skits for these appearances. Radio broadcasts of sporting events such as boxing matches, football games, and even speedboat races began in the early 1920s. In the early days of radio, coverage of these events spurred the sales of radio sets and eventually led to lucrative advertising sales (Mandell, 1984). When ratings systems were developed to measure the numbers of listeners who tuned in to sports programming, the results proved that the audience for sports events was sufficient to justify the expenditure of marketing money to reach potential customers. That trend continued as television sets were sold throughout the 1950s, expanding the reach of advertisers across the nation via rapidly expanding networks of stations. Let’s look at an event that began in the 1960s, when most American homes had acquired television sets. The NFL and AFL agreed to merge in June 1966 and began planning the AFLNFL World Championship Game for early 1967. The founder of the AFL, Lamar Hunt, sent a memo to NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle, in which he suggested changing the name to something else. “I have kiddingly called it the Super Bowl, which obviously can be improved on” (MacCambridge, 2011, para. 2). The name was not used on the programs until 1969 and was used on tickets beginning in 1970. That first year, 1967, the price of a 30-second commercial was in the neighborhood of $40,000. By 2017, the price for 30 seconds was $5,000,000. Adjusted for inflation, total ad spending from 1967–2017 was $6.9 billion dollars ($5.4 billion if not adjusted for inflation) (Johnson, 2018). If, as a fan, you wanted to watch that first Super Bowl (we may as well call it that) between the NFL’s Green Bay Packers (coached by the legendary Vince Lombardi) and the AFL’s Kansas City Chiefs, the top price for tickets was $12 ($90, adjusted for inflation), with cheap seats going for just $6. If you wanted to attend Super Bowl LIII (53) on February 3, 2019, you would have had to pay anywhere from $3,400 for a single seat to over $600,000 (though the upper end would be for suites and assorted VIP perks) (“How Much Are Super Bowl Tickets?,” 2018). In other words, if a fan were making the median household income of about $7,000 per year in 1967, it would have cost them about .09% of their annual salary (before taxes) for a low-end ticket to attend the Super Bowl. In January 2019, the median income was $63,688, so a Super Bowl ticket was about 5% of an annual household income. However, for a full-time worker 250 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT making federal minimum wage of $7.25 per hour, or $15,080 per year, that ticket would equal about 23% of a worker’s annual income. We must bear in mind that the ticket price does not include parking, food, souvenirs, travel, and lodging. The cost of attending a Super Bowl in person is well beyond the means of many fans; for average Americans, it would be a once-in-a-lifetime event, if it were possible at all. For over 100 million people who watch the Super Bowl annually, at home or in public or private parties, the event can still be a fun, accessible social event. Television coverage builds the fans’ excitement with musical performances at halftime and makes this exclusive event akin to an annual national holiday. Even the commercials are a topic of intense interest, greatly anticipated beforehand, and talked about sometimes for years afterward. Figure 16.1 A Patriots fan is interviewed outside after the NFL Super Bowl LII game, Minneapolis, Minnesota (USA), 2018. On the intercollegiate side, Division I athletics and television have created an entertainment behemoth. However, contrary to expectations, that partnership does not usually result in financial gains for the schools. According to Chudacoff (2015), “In 2013–14, of the 340 or so college athletics programs in Division I where most opportunities for income lie, fewer than two dozen had incomes that exceeded expenses” (p. 127). Multimillion-dollar salaries for coaches (often among the highest-paid state employees) are only one part of the expenditures; marketing, travel, facilities, equipment, the cost of putting on games, and scholarships all figure into the budgets, and lucrative television contracts usually cannot offset the expense of major athletic programs. Half of major football bowl game participants lose money because of expenses related to participation in bowl games. Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 251 The prospect of seeing big-name schools outfitted in brands like Nike, Adidas, and Under Armour has led those companies to compensate coaches for securing the privilege of product placement. It has also led to violations of recruitment rules. Two former Adidas employees and a sports agent were found guilty of wire fraud and conspiracy to commit wire fraud in 2018 after they arranged for money to be paid to families of prospective male basketball recruits at Adidassponsored schools. The federal wire fraud crime convictions, combined with the exposure of violation of NCAA amateurism regulations, revealed a nefarious practice of bribery that likely has existed for years (Tracy, 2018b). Adidas was also involved in a recruiting scandal involving the University of Louisville (Kentucky) basketball team, in which prostitutes were hired to entertain prospects and bribes and other corrupt schemes led to player ineligibility, invalidation of wins for the 2011–2012 and 2014–2015 season, the NCAA’s demand for a refund of $600,000 in tournament payouts, and the ouster of coach Rick Pitino (Tracy, 2018a). The push to get the best players on winning teams leads some people to risk the integrity of collegiate sports recruiting. The eligibility and amateur status of players is put at risk. Young players are sometimes seduced into apparel deals that will carry over into their professional careers. With so much money on offer, and so many commercial interests in the game, perhaps corruption at all levels is inevitable under the current system of high-stakes rankings and tournaments. Are there any benefits to outweigh the risks involved? Media exposure through sports can lead to increased applications to colleges that have recent winning seasons, but the effect has not been shown to last over the years. Donations from alumni and boosters may rise after a bowl game appearance, but a steady correlation between winning seasons and alumni donations has not been proven scientifically. There is even some evidence to suggest that the attendance of actual students at football and basketball games is going down, though crowd attendance is on the rise thanks to marketing and stadium investments (Chudacoff, 2015). Therefore, some of the traditional beliefs about the benefits of strong athletic programs— that they increase applications, donations, and school spirit—actually seem to be in question. However, this may be a question of degree and to some extent a school’s position in the hierarchy of intercollegiate sports. Doubtless these benefits exist, to a greater or lesser extent, but the risks attached to the commercialization of intercollegiate sport should also give administrators reason to monitor athletic programs closely. DISCUSS 1. Beyond television: online spectatorship. Many fans now watch sporting events, highlights, commentary, and classic moments in sports via the Internet. How has this changed the relationship between the spectator and the athletic performance? Consider also the role of online forums, social media, and chat rooms in terms of connecting spectators to each other. How is watching something online different from watching it on television? Many people now use streaming television services, which can also deliver content to mobile devices: do you watch sports on your tablet or phone? 2. Follow the money: who should reap the benefits of commercialization of sport? With the amount of money being spent to provide sports entertainment, does that justify multimilliondollar contracts for professional athletes? Should student athletes be able to receive living 252 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT allowances for food, housing, and transportation? Where does the money from college and university footwear and apparel contracts actually go? 3. Risks and benefits: overall, is commercialization a good thing for sports? Considering the risks to the integrity of sport (especially the pressure to win at all costs, including cheating and doping), is the commercialization of sports good for athletes, spectators, and/or colleges and universities? YOUTH SPORTS Organized youth sports such as soccer, baseball, softball, football, cross-country running, lacrosse, and volleyball have become an important part of the sports culture in the United States. Over the years, travel teams and special sports academies have become more popular as ways to gain skills and compete against other dedicated young regional athletes. However, in some cases, (youth soccer, for example), only parents willing and able to spend thousands of dollars per year on one child’s training are able to take advantage of these advanced opportunities (Carpenter, 2016). The high costs of youth sports participation have, in some cases, resulted in a lack of racial and economic diversity at all playing levels. Parents wanting the best possible athletic experience for their children often put pressure on coaches and referees during games and sometimes resort to fighting with other parents, coaches, or even players when they are angered by calls or behavior with which they disagree (Hennessy & Schwartz, 2007). In some cases, parents push their children to specialize in a sport and work at it year-round, incurring the risk of overuse injury or burnout (Matzkin & Garvey, 2019). Some parents even go so far as to have children undergo genetic testing to determine which sports activities and training regimens are best suited to their children. Specialized training camps and teams offer advanced opportunities in some sports, but parents and coaches need to investigate the costs and benefits of such programs carefully before committing money to what may be of minimal practical use for a developing athlete. Most parents are content to see their children happily engaged in organized sports, but a few adults are consumed by a win-at-allcosts mentality, and this drive can blind them to the needs of youth in athletic programs. Among those adults are some coaches who engage in bullying behaviors (yelling at players or using training as punishment, for example) or emotional manipulation of players (neglecting players, refusing playing time, and so on). Such coaches may not know any other way of running a team because they experienced such behaviors when they were young players. Others see the team’s win/loss record as a reflection on themselves and push their team’s athletes in order to fulfill their own emotional needs. Great coaches, however, leave a positive mark in the lives of young athletes. They can be inspirations that last a lifetime. They sometimes become surrogate parents and trusted sounding boards for their players, helping them deal with problems on and off the field (Vella, Oades, & Crowe, 2013). How can we best encourage this type of coach and reduce the number of negative coaching experiences in youth sports? The National Alliance for Youth Sports (NAYS), the American Sport Education Program (run through Human Kinetics), Positive Coaching Alliance, American Coaching Academy, World Coach Institute, Up2Us Sports, National Council of Youth Sports (NCYS), Team USA, United States Sports Academy, and other coaching certifications are available for coaches of youth sport. Whichever certification is pursued, the emphasis should be on fun, safety, positive experiences, Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 253 Figure 16.2 Students from Brewster Middle School race after a basketball during a Hoops-N-Dreams jamboree at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina (USA). teamwork, best practices, sportsmanship, building social skills, and cooperation. Keeping the focus on the children and their needs should be a coach’s aim. For more advanced and in-depth study, sociology and psychology of sport courses in higher education should be expected of those in a coaching major program. Beyond certifications and degrees, continuing education about concussion risks and treatment and sports injury prevention and rehabilitation should be expected of coaches at all levels. DISCUSS 1. If your philosophy of sport participation emphasizes the needs of youth, what goals would that lead you to set for a youth sports program? For example, when it comes to motivating participation, do you believe the experiences of practices and competitions (intrinsic benefits) outweigh the need for trophies and extrinsic benefits? 2. Under what circumstances might it be necessary, or a good idea, for a young athlete or dancer to specialize in one sport, one team position, one form of dance, etc.? Consider the age of the athlete, the sport or dance style, and the demands of the activity. Do some activities tend to favor younger participants? 254 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 3. Should all youth be forced to participate in sports, even if they are not naturally inclined to do so? Conversely, should all youth have access to sports participation regardless of economic status, including travel teams and specialized opportunities, if they are interested and if they show abilities or skills in their sport of choice? INTERSCHOLASTIC SPORTS For many years, going back as far as the early 1800s in some places in the United States, sports have been a part of the high school experience for nearly all students. Even if students didn’t play any sports, they probably attended pep rallies, played in a band, or attended a game or match. The expectation was that participation on a team was available to all who qualified through their skills or interests. While millions of high school students regularly participate in sports through their schools, that situation is currently changing with school district budget woes, a model known as pay-to-play, and no pass-no play policies. In the United States, public school districts are funded by local taxes, and voters can approve or reject proposed school budgets from year to year. In order to keep costs down, in recent years schools have cut expenses by eliminating C-teams, which are athletic teams specifically for first-year high school students. The expense of hiring qualified coaches for teams is sometimes prohibitive. In the past, certification as a coach was not considered essential in many locales; thankfully, the current trend is toward requiring adequate and ongoing certification through the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), the American Sport Education Program (ASEP), or other coaching certification organizations (Hoch, 2018). In order to alleviate some of the costs associated with funding an interscholastic team’s coach(es), uniforms, conference fees, and travel, some schools have implemented pay-to-play requirements. Under this system, any student wishing to play on a sports team must pay, often hundreds of dollars, to be on the team. In some cases, sports boosters or district subsidization can provide funding for athletes, but otherwise, parents must foot the bill. For families with several siblings in high school at the same time, this can add up to thousands of dollars per year. One study of Michigan schools found that approximately 10% of athletes quit sports participation if $100 was required in pay-to-play fees, and that percentage doubled when the cost was $200 (Rowe, 2012). Another issue facing interscholastic sports is no pass-no play laws, in which a player who falls below a certain standard academically is barred from participation in sports. Beginning in Texas in 1984, for example, a student’s failing to maintain Figure 16.3 A student protests a round of funding cuts to an average of 70 in every class would result in six weeks K–12 schools in Milwaukee, Wisconsin (USA). Sometimes without practices or competitions. The Texas Supreme Court protests are necessary when funding cuts threaten upheld the law. A decade later, the Texas law was revised to a athletic programs. Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 255 three-week suspension from competition (an athlete could attend practices, however). In 2007, some advanced placement and honors courses were exempt from the requirement (Hayward, 2014). Such laws are meant to emphasize the importance of academic studies in schools and to ensure that sports are not distracting a student from their primary purpose for attending a school. However, opponents argue that for some academically challenged young athletes, sports are the only thing keeping them in school, and some students will simply disengage from school entirely if they cannot participate in athletics. DISCUSS 1. As a matter of public policy (for student health and keeping the incidence of juvenile delinquency low, for example), should public schools be expected and/or required to provide athletic opportunities for all students, regardless of socioeconomic status? Why or why not? At a time when childhood obesity is at epidemic levels, does it make sense to enact pay-for-play policies? 2. Is there a risk that no pass-no play laws might lead to pressure on teachers to inflate failing grades, from coaches and/or administrators who want to maintain player eligibility? Do teachers have an obligation to offer extra credit, extra help, or special consideration to athletes to help them maintain their eligibility? Philosophically, is it better for the individual student or for the team to have a partial suspension from competition if it means they might work harder in their academic classes? 3. When budget cuts are threatened at the school district level, extracurricular activities such as arts and sports are often considered as “extras” so that they might be eliminated or scaled back to save money. Are interscholastic sports essential to high schools, or are they a “frill” that simply cannot always be afforded? If sports are cut in less-wealthy districts, which demographic groups are most likely to be impacted? MINORITIES IN SPORTS AND DANCE While debates concerning the social construct of race continue in academe (Reich, 2018; Requarth, 2019), the notions of race and racism continue to concern people as a matter of global general public discourse. Social inequality, injustice, and inequity are ongoing topics of discussion in the political arena, on social media, in houses of worship, and, of course, in the news and entertainment media. Beyond—or intersecting with—racial identity and cultural tensions, we encounter questions of classism and socioeconomic status (SES), misogyny, ageism, ableism, sizeism, gender identity, sexual orientation, and religious differences. Furthermore, accidents of geographical location influence the way people view each other, from local biases based on neighborhoods, towns, and rural/urban dwellings to worldwide perceptions of the global North and the global South (or the East/West divide, or the first world/third world division, etc.). Identity, or the way(s) in which one views oneself, is important. It is the lens through which most people view the world and others in it. When conflicts, questions, and problems concerning identity arise in the worlds of sport and dance, they are usually either because someone or some group is suffering discrimination based on their identity. Ideally, sport should be a meritocracy. The best athlete wins. However, when barriers to participation exist, when officials treat minorities unequally through intentional or 256 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT unintentional actions, when spectators (or coaches or other players) judge athletes based on their minority identities, and when violence occurs based on identity, we cannot pretend that such an ideal meritocracy exists. Nor can we pretend it does not have wider ramifications for public health. In 2011, the US Department of Health and Human Services declared that “characteristics such as race or ethnicity, religion, SES (socioeconomic status), gender, age, mental health, disability, sexual orientation or gender identity, geographic location, or other characteristics historically linked to exclusion or discrimination are known to influence health status” (Bowleg, 2012, p. 1267). In the case of health and physical culture, the intersectionality of identities logically compounds the effects of prejudice and indicates that the problem of discrimination can have additional detrimental effects on health (Dagkas, 2016). Beyond a question of the fairness (or unfairness) of discrimination, the economic impact of prejudice against minorities hurts society as a whole because health care costs, lost income, lost productivity, and lost tax dollars impact everyone. That includes people who do not participate in discriminatory activities and who are not themselves victims of discrimination. In the previous chapters dealing with sport in the United States, we have seen how racism and gender discrimination in horseracing, bicycling, and baseball have influenced the history of those sports and recreational activities. Here is a list of just a few other circumstances in which discrimination has limited opportunities: • The Augusta National Golf Club in Augusta, Georgia, did not admit female members until 2012 and did not hold an Augusta National Women’s Amateur Championship until 2019. Although Lee Elder broke the race barrier at Augusta’s male championship tournament in 1975, black members were not admitted until 1991. All caddies at that club had to be black until 1983. Charles Sifford, who was the first black athlete on the PGA tour after the demise of the Caucasian-only clause (in effect between 1934 and 1961), was harassed and received death threats for playing professional golf. • Similarly, when black driver Wendell Scott won a 1963 NASCAR race in Jacksonville, Florida, officials apparently feared the crowd’s reaction and announced white driver Buck Baker as the winner. After the crowds were gone, the officials announced that Scott had actually won (Hembree, 2018; Zirin, 2008). In 2004, NASCAR started a Diversity Initiative (Drive for Diversity) to encourage minority drivers (like Darrell “Bubba” Wallace Jr.), support staff, and pit crews. • In 1947 (when Jackie Robinson became the first African American Major League Baseball player), Wat Misaka became the first Asian American to play professional basketball. In 2019, Jeremy Lin was the only Asian American in the National Basketball Association and had encountered racism in overt and subtle forms. • In 1967, Kathrine Switzer became the first woman to run the Boston Marathon. At the time, race officials did not believe women were capable of running long distances, so she entered the race as “K. V. Switzer.” She was literally chased and grabbed during the race by an official who tried to rip her bib number, Figure 16.4 Jackie Robinson (1919–1972): athlete, civil rights activist, veteran. 261, from her body (Dator, 2017). Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 257 • Male dancers often face bullying, homophobia, and assumptions about their sexual orientation. There are sometimes pressures to perform with stereotypical maleness, and parents in the United States will often discourage males from enrolling in dance classes (Polasek & Roper, 2011; Richardson, 2018). Wildly popular televised dance competitions have alleviated the biases somewhat, but some dance forms (square dance, country line dance, hip hop, and tap, for example) still seem to be more acceptable for males than ballet and modern dance. The presence of Quinton Peron and Napoleon Jinnies, the first male cheerleaders dancing in a Super Bowl (2019) on the Los Angeles Rams’ squad, was a breakthrough in a sport milieu that emphasizes masculinity and had denied professional opportunities to the first openly gay NFL draft pick, Michael Sam, in 2015. • Among young LGBT athletes, 80 to 82% are not “out” to their coaches, and many transgender and non-binary athletes do not feel safe in their locker rooms. While 68% of American youth play sports, only 24% of LGBT+ youth do so. The LGBT+ who play sports report feeling safer in their classrooms, however, and have lower rates of feelings of worthlessness and depression, reinforcing the need for inclusivity in sports (Johnson, Miranda, & Lee, 2018). Around the world, many countries will not support LGBT+ athletes for international competitions such as the Olympics. • Transgender and intersex athletes face difficulties at all levels of sport because the system of sports competitions is based on a binary (male or female) model. Only in the Gay Games, held every four years since their creation by Dr. Tom Waddell in 1982, are nontraditional gender identity athletes welcome to compete on their own terms. The International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) ruled in 2019 that South African runner Caster Semenya could not compete as a woman unless she underwent medically induced testosterone reduction, even though she was born with naturally high testosterone levels (Burke, 2019). Chris Mosier, a transgender duathlete, has had to fight for the right to compete in international competitions as a man despite not having undergone gender reassignment surgery. He works with the You Can Play Project and TransAthlete.com, and previously served as Executive Director of Go! Athletes, all of which support the unique needs of LGBTQIA athletes. • Religious barriers to participation in sport and dance can include issues with scheduling games, practices, and performances during the Jewish and Seventh Day Adventist Sabbath, the necessity for covering body parts under the Mormon and Muslim faiths, restrictions on female dancing and athletic participation in some Muslim countries, and even threats or incidents of violence based on religion. During the 1972 Munich Olympic Games, a Palestinian group known as Black September held 11 Israeli athletes as hostages and killed them in an extreme example of political/religious terrorism. On a more positive note, Jewish athletes have competed in the Maccabiah Games since 1932, and since 1953, there are also Pan Arab Games. DISCUSS 1. While sports teams in the NFL, NBA, and MLB in the United States are racially integrated, other sports such as MLS (Major League Soccer) and the NHL are less so. Additionally, team owners, managers, and head coaches tend to be male Caucasians. Why is this so? Is the situation changing? 258 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT 2. What could be done about game, performance, or tournament scheduling which conflicts with religious observance? Must an athlete or dancer choose between his/her religion and sports or dance competition or performance? Does the scheduling of major competitive events during periods of religious observance present inherent biases against the advancement opportunities of religious minorities? 3. Should athletes be forced to conform to gender stereotypes in their uniforms or athletic apparel? For example, should female tennis players and field hockey players have to wear skirts? Would a man be allowed to wear a tennis skirt? Should males competing in Scottish games have to wear kilts? What kinds of gender conformity are regulated in the sports world? Who gets to decide what is acceptable? THREATS TO THE INTEGRITY OF SPORT Beginning in 2015, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), which monitors the use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) and illegal substances in competitions, placed a ban on athletes of the Russian Athletic Federation (RUSAF) for having used PEDs. The IAAF has since allowed some individual athletes to compete if they have proven themselves to be competing “clean,” but suspicions concerning the Russian government’s role in the doping scandal and interference with that country’s testing laboratory protocols continue to shadow its elite athletes. One question that arose is whether that country’s athletes were told that they were being subjected to performance-enhancing substances. In international competitions, the use of anabolic steroids and glucocorticoids, human growth hormone (hGH) and peptide hormones, erythropoietin (EPO, also known as blood doping), amphetamines, tetrahydrogestinone, beta blockers, diuretics, narcotics, cannabinoids, testosterone, and androstenedione are among the most common non-approved substances. Additionally, human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) is banned for men, though its use for women who are infertile is allowed. That would be an example of a therapeutic use exemption, or TUE. Other TUEs may be obtained for relief of asthma, which sometimes requires the use of steroids, and the use of stimulants for control of ADD/ADHD. Infusions and injections, gene doping, and even the use of some dietary supplements can put athletes (and support staff) at risk for sanction, suspension, disqualification, fines, and revocation of awards. It would appear that performance enhancement using banned substances is taken seriously. In the United States, the controversy over PEDs has been especially prevalent in Major League Baseball, where the time from 1993 through 2003 was known as the Steroid Era in the MLB. One study showed a significant increase in the number of players who hit more than 40 home runs during this era (Erickson, Yanke, Monson, & Romeo, 2015). The spectators loved the sluggers pounding home runs, the players loved the stats they could achieve if they use PEDs, and the media expressed concern over the situation while appreciating the entertainment value and potential advertising dollars that resulted from exciting games and home run races. In 2007, US senator George Mitchell released the Mitchell Report on the use of PEDs in MLB, a comprehensive study of this threat to the integrity of America’s national pastime. Major League Baseball now has a system in effect using progressive discipline involving inpatient treatment, then fines and suspensions, and eventually possible lifetime bans from baseball. In reality, enforcement cannot entirely compete with the demands of elite sport. Many athletes from a variety of sports have come to believe that they cannot compete at the professional level if Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 259 they do not use PEDs. One example, cyclist Lance Armstrong, was stripped of his Tour de France titles for the use of blood doping, EPO, hGH, and diuretics. His usage of these methods escaped detection for years. Some chemical stimulants are less harmful than others. Hockey players have often used a whiff of smelling salts to increase their level of alertness before they take the ice. At the other extreme, professional wrestlers have long struggled with the side effects of anabolic steroid use, condoned by Vince McMahon in the early 1990s and exposed by the Signature Pharmacy scandal of 2007. Steroid (“roid rage”) questions still surround the suicide of wrestler Chris Benoit, who killed his wife and son before hanging himself (Harris, 2017). Figure 16.5 Cyclist Lance Armstrong (b. 1971) was stripped of seven Tour de France titles for his use of illegal performance-enhancing drugs. Among the threats to the integrity of sport we must also include biased judges or referees (Ansorge & Scheer, 1988), cheating (Cady, 1971; Mather, 2015), and gambling. Along with gambling, there is a strong incentive to attempt to “fix” matches and games or to have players engage in point shaving (preventing a team from covering a published point spread, to benefit spread bettors). Although the Interstate Wire Act of 1961 prohibits betting across state lines (enacted to reduce the incidence of organized crime betting), a sport-specific law against sports gambling in most states known as the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act of 1992 (PASPA) was effectively nullified in 2018. That year, the US Supreme Court, in Murphy v. National Collegiate Athletic Association, 138 S. Ct. 1461 (2018), ruled that individual states may regulate sports wagering. Under the Tenth Amendment to the US Constitution, any rights not explicitly 260 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT allotted to the federal government are given to the people, or the states, and this amendment was the basis for overturning PASPA. The risk to the integrity of sport by cheating is matched by the risk to people placing bets. In the majority opinion written by Justice Samuel Alito, he recognized the vacillating attitudes of Americans toward gambling and noted the risks posed especially to young sports enthusiasts by sports betting (Murphy v. National Collegiate Athletic Association, 584 U.S. (2018)). Financial losses are always a gambling risk, but the risk of addiction to gambling is also a major concern because a small percentage of gamblers will become problem or pathological gamblers. As of 2019, about a dozen US states allowed sports betting, and dozens more were poised to adopt legalized sports wagers in the wake of Murphy v. NCAA. Whether this court decision will lead to an increase in betting scandals and gambling addiction remains to be seen. DISCUSS 1. Is it fair to require athletes to undergo drug testing? If more and more athletes are using methods of performance enhancement, is it reasonable to expect athletes to comply with anti-doping regulations when doing so puts them at a competitive disadvantage? Where do athletes get PEDs? Do coaches, athletic trainers, and managers have a responsibility to stop doping, or are they more likely to encourage it (or look the other way) if the athletes are winning (as well as possibly earning championship bonuses and/or helping them keep their jobs)? Will cheating via PEDs ever stop? 2. Most athletes have witnessed, experienced, or committed acts of cheating in sport. Is it just part of the game? Is it fine as long as the cheater is not caught? Is it OK to bend the rules if the goal of winning is met? 3. Gambling can become a serious addiction, and Gamblers Anonymous exists to help those caught in its grip. On Wednesday, November 8, 1989, former National League baseball slugger Pete Rose admitted to a gambling addiction (Hasen, 1989). In his 2004 autobiography, My Prison Without Bars, he confessed to having bet on baseball games, and in 2007 he revealed that he had, in fact, bet on his own team, the Cincinnati Reds, every night while he managed the team. As a result of his gambling problem, Rose has been denied induction into the Reds’ or the national Baseball Hall of Fame, where he would surely have been inducted after 1991 were he not banned. He is not allowed to participate in most on-field activities, so the Reds have not retired his number (14) (“Rose Admits to Betting,” 2007). Do you believe Rose should be inducted into the Reds’ and/or the Baseball Hall of Fame? If yes, should it be during his lifetime? VIOLENCE IN SPORTS George Orwell (author of Animal Farm (1945) and Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949)) once opined, “At the international level sport is frankly mimic warfare. … Serious sport has nothing to do with fair play. It is bound up with hatred, jealousy, boastfulness, disregard of all rules and sadistic pleasure in witnessing violence: in other words it is war minus the shooting” (1945, para. 4, 6). Researchers have found that sports aggressiveness increases spectators’ (particularly male spectators’) enjoyment of watching sports, and that when sportscasters highlight roughness, Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 261 hostility, and animosity between athletes and teams, the spectators enjoy the events even more (Bryant, Zillmann, & Raney, 1998; Russell, 1986). Of course, violence in sport is nothing new. Some sports are or were violent by their nature: to a degree, we could reference the gladiators of Roman times or the boxers, mixed martial artists (MMA), and ultimate fighting championship (UFC) athletes of today. You should recall that the NCAA was founded in response to issues of violence and deaths on United States collegiate football fields. Impromptu brawls are part of the excitement of baseball, hockey, Australian rules football, rugby, soccer, and other team sports. Figure 16.6 Fighting became so prevalent in hockey that comedian Rodney Dangerfield joked, “I went to the fights the other night and a hockey game broke out.” The NHL has taken measures to reduce the incidents of fighting in games. Coaches have been known to encourage or ignore violence against the players of opposing teams or even officials. From 2009–2011, some New Orleans Saints football team players took part in Bountygate, in which they were paid bonuses for deliberately injuring opponents (“Saints Bounty Scandal,” 2013). In 2015, two football players from John Jay High School in San Antonio, Texas, were told by their coach to attack a referee; they did so, and were expelled from the team and suspended from school. Their coach resigned, was suspended from all coaching for a year, and served probation (Green, 2015). What do actions like this teach youth about sports? Boxer Mike Tyson bit off the ear of Evander Holyfield in a 1997 fight, only a couple years after he had served a prison sentence for the rape of Desiree Washington, a beauty pageant contestant. While men commit most of the violence in sport, women are not immune to its lure and its 262 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT dangers. Figure skater Nancy Kerrigan was the victim of a conspiracy led by her rival, Tonya Harding, which led to an attack on Kerrigan at the 1994 National Championships. Other athletes have attacked fans, as when three Indiana Pacers attacked fans in 2004. On September 13 of that same year, Texas Rangers pitcher Frank Francisco broke a woman’s nose when he threw a folding chair at Oakland spectators for heckling the Rangers’ bullpen (Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017; Rosynsky, 2016). Francisco was charged with felony battery but spent 30 days in jail after pleading down to misdemeanor assault (Lee, 2007). Baseball great Ty Cobb had a reputation as a violent individual who allegedly sharpened his spikes to threaten infield players when he was sliding, slept with a gun, and fought with teammates and fans. Many accounts of his nature have been exaggerated, but enough remain to confirm his tendencies (Gustkey, 1985). Teammates sometimes engage in violent bullying or hazing behaviors among themselves, and coaches have been known to attack with chairs or balls or bare hands; Indiana coach Bobby Knight was famous for his outbursts. In the NBA, Latrell Sprewell of the Warriors put a choke hold on his coach, P. J. Carlesimo, during practice when the coach was particularly hard on him and said he was not passing sharply enough (Dowd, 2017). Sexual aggression, inappropriate or forcible touching, and statutory rape of young athletes have been reported by members of the US Gymnastics organization, Penn State football and the Second Mile program, Ohio State wrestlers, and many more. Sports and recreational pastimes involving violence between or against animals is also common, as in cockfights, dog fights, buzkashi (a traditional version of polo in Afghanistan, using goat carcasses), and so on. Something in certain sports speaks to a psychological desire or need within people to experience violence vicariously. Sometimes, that need carries over into spectator fighting, as when soccer hooligans or (possibly) drunken baseball or football fans become enraged enough to start throwing anything from punches to snowballs (Polidoro, 2000). Baseball fans have been known to attack coaches and umpires. It can happen at a Little League or other youth sporting event among parents, and it can happen when teams riot in celebration of victories (Kiefer, 2019). We have also seen the tragic results of violent terrorism at athletic events, in the Centennial Olympic Park bombing of 1996 in Atlanta, Georgia, and the Boston Marathon bombing of 2013, for example. Off the playing field, violence continues with domestic abuse charges, manslaughter, assault, and murder committed by athletes, coaches, and managers. When violent scandals hit the news, fans are frequently shocked. It would seem that whatever aggressions are being funneled into competitive sports are not always easily controlled. The responses of the regulating bodies of sport are sometimes mystifying as well, when light punishments are given to attackers. For example, NFL commissioner Roger Goodell has received criticism from people at the highest levels in NFL clubs as well as from women’s rights groups, who complain that the NFL does not discipline players strongly enough when they are found to have committed domestic abuse (Pelissero, 2015). Whether violent athletes are seen as heroes or condemned as criminals, the study of the history, sociology, psychology, legality, and morality of violence in and around sports is a fascinating exploration of a darker side of humanity (Goldstein, 1983). Do athletes and spectators, in fact, sublimate urges toward aggression by channeling them into sporting experiences where violence is potentially part of the performance and spectacle of competition? Does steroid abuse impact the choices and behavior of abusers, leading to more violence? Is violence an inherent part of the drama of sport? Obviously, not all sports, athletes, and spectators commit or enjoy acts of violence on or off the field. However, the evidence suggests that while Orwell may have Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 263 exaggerated in terms of the nefarious nature of sport, there was a kernel of truth in his belief that there is an element of the most violent of human undertakings—warfare—in some sports and some athletes. For better or worse, if we ignore its existence or excuse individual instances of it, we deny something that seems to connect us, through sport, to our primal prehistoric survival skills. DISCUSS 1. International soccer striker Luis Suarez has explained that he bites opponents when the adrenaline, fear of failure, sense of responsibility for winning, and pent-up frustration he feels during some games cannot be controlled (Tomarchio, 2014). He has been working to be able to control his feelings, accepting blame and seeking help to change his behavior. His biting led to his being suspended from play in at least three instances between 2010 and 2014, with his famous 2014 World Cup bite of Italy’s Giorgio Chiellini resulting in a nine-game ban from international play and a four-month ban on soccer activities—one of the longest bans in sports history. Players who inflict other types of injuries are not subjected to bans of that length, even if the damage they do to other players is more severe or has more lasting repercussions. He was allowed to finish the Uruguay/Italy World Cup Game in 2014 with no punishment from the referees after he bit Chiellini. Should he have been sidelined immediately? Were his other punishments too harsh? Do players have a moral responsibility to the public to live up to the highest standards of sportsmanship? Who is responsible for ensuring the safety of other players? 2. The evidence shows that reported incidents of violence related to sport most often involve men. However, the statistics are changing. One study by Kerr (2016) found that women enjoyed the violence of team sports such as rugby and ice hockey. In some cases, female athletes reported anger violence, loss of control, and a willingness to break rules and use violence against opponents. One clinical sport psychologist who specializes in anger management in sports has noted the recent rise of violence in women’s sports and believes it is an indication of a wider societal toleration of violence (Abrams, 2010). What do you think? Are male, female, non-binary, and/or gender nonconforming people more likely to engage in violent sports (where violence is part of the game) or unacceptable violent behavior? If it is a question of testosterone, are female athletes with high testosterone levels more likely to engage in unsanctioned violent behavior? Can violence have a positive, empowering effect on the psyches of female athletes, or should it be discouraged in all instances? 3. As of 2019, the NFL had paid out millions of dollars (of a one-billion-dollar settlement) in claims related to players’ concussions that led to brain damage (Dale, 2019). High school football teams, even in the football-loving state of Texas, are seeing declining numbers, due in large part to concerns about brain trauma and other injuries (Lehren, Monahan, Friedman, & Enright, 2018). The sport of football has a long history of violence, injuries, and even deaths: don’t players know about the risks before they start playing? If they don’t realize the risks when they are young, are they aware of the risks before they sign collegiate and professional contracts to play? What changes have been implemented in training to help reduce the incidence of head injuries? Who provides insurance for athletes, from youth players through the professional level, to cover expenses related to injuries incurred during practices or competitions? Did the NFL disclose the risks of repeated head hits, even after 264 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT creating a committee to deal with the issue in 1994? Does a player’s agreement to play, at any level, imply they are willing to risk injury during games and practices? SUMMARY Below is a summary of main points from the chapter. Take a moment to review the Guiding Questions. Then, read this summary to see how the content in the chapter responds to those questions. • The traditional media of newspapers, magazines, radio, and television controlled how the spectator received information about sporting events, but online media allow the spectator to control the experience of sports using interactive controls and give more choices of events to spectators. The associated commercialization of sport has, in various ways, caused the cost of in-person attendance at professional sporting events to rise, sometimes becoming prohibitive to ordinary fans. • Some of the issues surrounding youth sports include access, parental and coaching behaviors, pressure to win, and specialization. • Some of the problems facing interscholastic sports include budget cuts leading to cutting of teams, pay-to-play requirements, and no pass-no play policies. • Some issues facing women and minorities in sports and dance are discrimination, misogyny, homophobia, religious observance restrictions, and unclear or unfair policies regarding transgender, intersex, or other non-binary athletes. • Some threats to the integrity of sport are doping, cheating, unfair officiating or judging, and gambling. • Violence is, in some cases, a normal part of sports. However, in cases of sexual abuse, extreme violence on and off the playing field, animal fighting, and spectator violence, the behavior goes beyond normal parameters. FIGURE CREDITS Fig. 16.1: Copyright © 2018 by Lorie Shaull, (CC BY-SA 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:A_Patriots_fan_is_interviewed_outside_after_Super_Bowl_LII,_Minneapolis_MN_ (39220732655).jpg. Fig. 16.2: Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Basketball_gateway_to_youth_ mentoring_program_130222-M-ZB219-139.jpg. Fig. 16.3: Copyright © 2018 by Charles Edward Miller, (CC BY-SA 2.0) at https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Milwaukee_Public_School_Teachers_and_Supporters_ Picket_Outside_Milwaukee_Public_Schools_Adminstration_Building_Milwaukee_ Wisconsin_4-24-18_1164_(39925468070).jpg. Fig. 16.4: Copyright © 2018 by Osbrun, (CC BY-SA 4.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Jackie_Robinson_batejant.jpg. Fig. 16.5: Copyright © 2002 by Hase, (CC BY-SA 3.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Lance_Armstrong_MidiLibre_2002.jpg. Current Issues in Sport History and Philosophy 265 Fig. 16.6: Copyright © 2009 by ArtBrom, (CC BY-SA 2.0) at https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:Fight_in_ice_hockey_2009.JPG. REFERENCES Abrams, M. (2010, March 5). Female violence in sport: Maybe it isn’t just the testosterone [Web log post]. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/sportstransgressions/201003/female-violence-in-sport-maybe-it-isnt-just-the-testosterone Ansorge, C. J., & Scheer, J. K. (1988). International bias detected in judging gymnastic competition at the 1984 Olympic Games. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 59(2), 103–107. doi: 10.1080/02701367.1988.10605486 Bowleg, L. (2012). The problem with the phrase women and minorities: Intersectionality—an important theoretical framework for public health. 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(2018b, October 24). Three found guilty in N.C.A.A. basketball recruiting scheme. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/24/sports/ncaa-basketballadidas-guilty.html Vella, S. A., Oades, L. G., & Crowe, T. P. (2013). The relationship between coach leadership, the coach-athlete relationship, team success, and the positive developmental experiences of adolescent soccer players. Physical Education & Sport Pedagogy, 18(5), 549–561. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7bf4/780c8280415f47c179acd073513ca4d7a011.pdf Zirin, D. (2008). A people’s history of sports in the United States: 250 years of politics, protest, people, and play. New York, NY: New Press. 268 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT ABOUT THE AUTHOR Nancy Kane teaches kinesiology at the State University of New York, College at Cortland, U.S.A. She is a past president of the National Dance Association, formerly a national organization under the umbrella of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (now SHAPE America). She is Editor-in-Chief of the peer-reviewed National Dance Society Journal and has taught dance, stage combat, movement analysis, and theater classes for more than 30 years while simultaneously maintaining a career as a professional educator, dancer, musical theater performer, actor, author, lecturer, theatrical director and choreographer. Her background in the history and philosophy Copyright © by Prisloe Photograof physical education and sport includes years as a phy. Reprinted with permission. competitive athlete and advanced studies in history and philosophy at the University of Colorado at Boulder, the Laban Centre for Movement & Dance (now Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance) in London, England, and New York University, where she was a Teaching Fellow while pursuing her PhD. She holds advanced degrees in both dance and exercise science, and through her international research, she seeks connections between history, philosophy, performing arts, and comprehensive physical activity. She is a member of the International Society for the History of Physical Education and Sport, the International Association for the Philosophy of Sport, the Stage Directors and Choreographers Society, and the National Dance Society. She is vice president of the Lloyd Shaw Foundation for the preservation, restoration, and teaching of folk dance and music. 269 INDEX A abductive reasoning. See also logical reasoning acrobatics, 30, 35, 36, 53, 54 Adams, John, 84, 85, 86 aesthetic perspective, 216, 219 aesthetics, 216, 218 affective domain, 2, 8, 191 Africa. See also African African stick fighting. See also kalenda/calinda, N'golo African-American, 131, 134, 137 agoge, 24, 29 agōn, 26, 225, 228 Agon Capitolinus, 39 agricultural fair competitions, 131 Alexander the Great, 51 Alfonsus, Petrus, 64 All-American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL), 139 amateur, 134, 135, 136, 137 Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), 128, 137, 158 Amateur Sports Act, 158, 164 American Academy of Physical Education (AAPE), 156 American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD), 156 American Association for Leisure and Recreation (AALR), 156 American Association for Physical Activity and Recreation (AAPAR), 156 American Century, The, 148, 149 American Sport Education Program, 253, 255 American Turf Register and Sporting Magazine, 131 Anderson, William G., 117, 122 anthropometrics, 109, 115 Arbeau, Thoinot. See also Tabourot, Jehan archeobotany. See also paleoethnobotany archery, 18, 27, 50, 53 archival sources, 2, 5 aretē, 8, 26, 32, 41 Aristotle, 29, 191 Armstrong, Lance, 260 asanas, 46, 52 Asia, 47, 51 Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW), 163 Association for the Advancement of Physical Education (AAPE), 122 Athens, 24, 28, 30, 31 athlios, 24, 26 atlatl, 16, 17 Australia, 17, 25, 54 Austria, 92, 176, 177 axiology, 202, 204 Aztec, 49, 81 B ball games, ancient Roman, 25, 36, 40, 41 follis, 37 handball, 37, 100 harpastum, 37 hop-ball, 37 paganica, 37 trigon, 37 balneae, 36 Bancroft, George, 110 Bancroft Posture Test, 150 barbells, 115 baseball, 111, 218 Basedow, Johann Bernhardt, 91, 92, 151 basketball, 120, 227, 257 baton twirling, 158 Battle Creek Sanitarium. See also the "San" Battle of the Systems, 7, 122 beanbags, 109, 119 Beck, Charles. See also (Karl) Beecher, Catharine, 109, 117, 119, 130 Belgium, 96, 175 Belmont Report, The, 211 Berk, Fred, 180 Berra, Yogi, 225, 234, 243 Best, David, 1 bicycling. See also cycling Big Ten. See also Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives billiards, 69, 135, 136 bioarchaeology, 14, 16, 19 Bishop, Emily, 116 Bloom's taxonomy, 8, 191 Blue Laws. See also Sabbath-Day Laws bo-taoshi, 55, 183 boating. See also rowing, sailing body building, 109, 120 body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), 173, 175 Bohemia, 96 Book of Sports. See also The King's Declaration of Sport boom, 92, 99 271 Boston Marathon, 165, 257 Boston Normal Gymnastics School, 115 Bountygate, 249, 262 Bowen, Anthony, 120 bowling. See also bowls, ninepins boxing, 27, 28, 32 Boy Scouts of America, 121 Brazil, 165, 177 British public school, 90, 91, 154 British public school ideal, 92, 100 British sports model, 90, 154 Buddhism, 51, 52, 207 bull-vaulting. See also bull-leaping, course landaise bull-leaping, course landaise Burchenal, Elizabeth. See also American Folk Dance Society bushido, 202, 208 buzkashi, 55, 263 Byzantium, 58, 59 C C-teams, 248, 255 Caledonian games, 128, 132, 144 calisthenics, 96, 109, 117, 118, 119 Camp Fire Girls, 121 campidoctores, 25, 36 camping, 94, 111, 156 Campus Martius, 37 capoeira, 134 Caroso, Fabritio, 67 Carroll, Douglas, 15, 17, 21 carryover sports. See also lifetime sports Cassidy, Rosalind, 151 Castiglione, Baldassare, 66 categorical imperative, 202, 209 chariot racing, 30, 35, 53, 59 Charles II, 59, 70 Chautauqua, 117 chi-kung, 46, 52 childbirth. See also motherhood children, 7, 16, 136, 152, 164 China, 9, 51, 207 chivalry, 58, 64 Circus Maximus, 25, 39, 40 Civil Rights Act of 1964, 150, 162, 166 clean athletes, 173, 175 clergy, 58, 62, 63, 82 climbing poles, 112 coach. See also coaches cockfighting, 36, 65, 83, 133 cognitive domain, 2 272 Cogswell, Joseph Green, 110 colonialism, 78, 173, 174 Colosseum, 25, 39, 40 commercialism. See also commercial sponsorship commercialization, 141, 248, 252 Committee on Women's Athletics (CWA), 143 common schools movement, 109, 122 competition manipulation, 172, 175 concept mapping, 173, 183 Confucianism, 207 Confucius, 51, 212 consequentialism, 203 Constantinople, 59, 73, 102 corps de ballet, 90, 92 Coubertin, Pierre de, 157, 175, 217 Counter-reformation, 58, 71, 73 Country Dance & Song Society (CDSS), 183 Crete, 27, 28, 54 cricket, 100, 135 cult, 38, 60 cultural appropriation, 173, 182 cultural imperialism, 173, 182 Cultural Olympiad, 217, 218 Curtis, Henry, 155 Czech, 91, 96 D dakyu, 46, 51 dance. See also dancing, dancers dance ethnology, 15. See also dance anthropology Dance of Death, 5 dance, ancient Greek clashers, 34 Emméleia, 34 Gymnopaidiai, 33, 34 Hyporchémata, 34 paian, 34 Pyrrhic (Pyrrhichē), 34 dance, forms, 11, 131 ballet, 71, 172, 181 ballroom, 103, 179 bugaku, 180 character, 90, 92 classical, 180, 181, 182 classic ceremonial ritual, 173, 180 clogging, 131 comic (komos), 33 contradance (longways dance), 78, 85 cotillion, 92, 103 country line, 258 courtly, 64, 85 courtship, 20, 84 created, 83, 94, 98, 109 Dionysian (tyrbasia), 33 folk, 34, 179, 180 funeral, 28, 34, 181 galop, 103 gumboot, 131 hambone, 131 hunting, 61, 65, 80, 132 Israeli folk, 180, 184 Kathak, 131, 182 Lancers, 103 ländler, 103 malambo, 131 mazurka, 103 minuet, 78, 85 Morris, 59, 67, 68 peasant, 60 percussive, 128, 131 popular, 41, 105, 112, 115, 218, 253, 258 quadrille, 92, 103 ritual, xiv, 19, 224 round, 19, 34 sacred, 179 Salii, 26, 41 Schuhplattler, 131 social, 136, 142, 148, 152 square, 167, 180 stepping, 34, 131 tap, 131, 132, 179 Tibetan step dance, 131 waltz, 91, 92, 103 zapateado, 131 dancesport, 179 Danish gymnastics. See also Nachtegall, Franz Darwin. See also Darwinism Day's Order, 99, 114 Deaflympics, 151, 165 deductive reasoning, 2, 6, 15 Delsarte, François. See also Delsartism Delsartism. See also applied aesthetics Denmark, 97, 98 deontological reasoning, 202 Descartes, René, 71, 191 descriptive historical research, 2 descriptive reasoning, 2, 6 de Sousa Santos, Boaventura, 172, 173 Dewey, John, 151, 156 disability. See also disabilities HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT discus, 28, 30, 261 diversium, 58, 59 divertissements, 90, 92 diving. See also dive Division I, 158 docents, 232, 245 doping, 175, 259 dualism, 190 duel. See also Mensur dumb-bells, 37, 119, 122 Duncan, Isadora, 33 E Ebreo, Guglielmo, 67 Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, The, 164 education of the physical, 149, 152 education through the physical, 87, 148, 151 Émile. See also Treatise on Education en travestie, 91, 92 Enebuske, Claës J., 105 England, 59, 61, 67, 134 Enlightenment, 71, 84, 191 ephebia, 30 ephemera, 219, 232, 236 epistemology, 7, 189 ethics, 202, 203 ethnicity. See also ethnicities Etruscan, 25, 35 Europe, 63, 66, 175, 180 exercise, 85 existentialism, 195, 196 experimentalism, 188, 194 external critical review, 2 F falcons. See also falconry Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), 176 feis. See also fleadh, oirachtas female. See also females female athlete triad, 173, 175 fencing, 66, 69, 93 fertility, 20, 40, 81 festivals, religious, 39, 60 feudalism, 58, 63 Feuillet, Raoul-Auger, 71 field days, 142 field hockey, 32, 46, 81 fighting, 20, 133 fishing, 61, 81, 83 FitnessGram®, 8, 9, 11, 149, 153 Fitzstephen, William, 65 fives. See also handball folk dance, 180 Follen, Charles. See also (Karl) football (soccer), 245 football, 6, 132, 141 Football Association, 101, 140, 176 Forty-Eighters, 108, 113 Fowle, William, 112 fox hunts. See also fox hunting Fox, Richard Kyle, 138 Franklin, Benjamin, 84 free agency, 150, 160 frontiersmen, 84 Fugner, Henry, 96 G Galen, 38 gambling, 78, 81 game(s) ascolia, 35 ball, 35, 38 billiards, 137 board, 27, 30 borsa, 35 Caledonian, 132 chess, 53, 63, 136 croquet/pall-mall, 59, 67 dice, 27, 30, 69 double-ball, 78, 81 funeral, 28, 34 Gay, 248, 258 hoop, 30, 36 Indigenous, 16, 177 knattleikr, 60 knucklebone, 27 kottobas/cottabos, 35 Maccabiah, 258 Olympic, 31, 228, 263 Phersu, 35 skittles, 78, 83 Troy, 35 tug-of-war, 54 lapka, 58, 60 khazza lawizza, 46, 54 quoits, 83, 85, 133 Scottish, 132, 133 Gay Games, 258 gender equity, 148 gender identity. See also gender German gymnastics, 7, 92, 151, 193, 195 gladiator, 26, 40 global North, the, 172, 173 global South, the, 172, 173, 182 Golden Age of Sports, 130 golf, 67, 139, 142, 156 grand march (dance), 103 Great Britain. See also England Greece, ancient, 218 Greek ideal, 24, 26 Gulick, Luther H., 121, 151, 155 GutsMuths, Johann, 104 Guttmann, Ludwig, 164 Gyekye, Kwame, 208, 212 gymnasium, 24, 205 gymnastics, 35, 39, 53, 151 H halteres, 32, 38 Hanna, Delphine. See also Oberlin College harness racing. See also trotting Hartwell, Edward M., 115 Harvard, 110, 112, 116 Harvard Summer School for Physical Education, 116 health-based physical education, 2 Hemenway Gymnasium, 115 Herodikos, 24, 28 Herzl, Theodor, 102 Hetherington, Clark, 152, 156 higher education, xiii, 116, 150, 152, 235 hiking, 111, 193 Hippocrates, 24, 28, 38 hippodrome, 59 Hitchcock, Edward, 115, 116 Holocene epoch, 18 Homer, 28, 86 horizontal bar, 7 horseback riding. See also riding Hughes, Thomas, 90, 100 humanism, 202, 208 Hungary, 90, 96 hunting, 62, 102, 111 Husserl, Edmund, 197 hydropathy, 128, 135 hygiene, 38, 114, 116 I ice hockey, 111, 140, 264 ice-skating, 7, 65, 85 idealism, 190 imitative magic, 14, 17 immigrants. See also immigration implications approach, 189, 198 inclusion, 150, 164 Indian clubs, 115, 119 Indigenous Games, 177 indigenous peoples. See also First Nations peoples indigenous sports, 174, 177 individualized education plan (IEP), 150, 164 INDEX 273 individualized transition plan (ITP), 150, 164 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1990, 167 inductive reasoning, 7 instrumentalism, 188, 194 integrity of sport, 259 intention, 216 intentional fallacy, 216, 223 intercollegiate, 141 internal critical review, 3, 5 International Association for Dance Medicine and Science, 179 International Association for the Philosophy of Sport (IAPS), 190 International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), 258 International Association of Blacks in Dance, 179 International Conference of Ministers and Senior Officials Responsible for Physical Education and Sport, 177, 186 International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport, and Dance (ICHPERD SD), 175, 183 International Council of Sports Science and Physical Education (ICSSPE), 175, 183 International Dance Council, 183. See also (Conseil International de la Dance (CID) International Dance Entrepreneurs Association, 179 International Olympic Committee, 157, 172, 183 Interregnum, 70. See also Oliver Cromwell intersectionality, 149, 155 Interstate Wire Act of 1961, 260 intramural sports, 142 Irish-American sports, 81 Gaelic football, 132 hurling, 132 rifle drilling, 132 Iron Age, 22 Iroquois, 80 Islamic ethics, 206 Italy, 63, 67, 90 J Jahn, Friedrich Ludwig, 94, 110 James I, 59. See also James VI of Scotland 274 Japan. See also Japanese javelin, 36 Jefferson, Thomas, 84 Jewish sports clubs, 102. See also Maccabi, Bar Kochba jockey, 138 joust, 58, 63, 64 jump rope, 158 jumping, 84, 85, 181 jumping stands, 112 K kabbadi, 183 Kadman, Gurit, 180 kalokagathia, 24, 26, 32 kalon, 202, 205 Kant, Immanuel, 209 Kellogg, John Harvey, 135 Keynes, John Maynard, 155 kickball, 81, 224 Kierkegaard, Søren, 195 kinesiology, 2, 198 king's forest, 61 kisha, 46, 51 knighthood, 58. See also knights-errant Korea, 207 Kraus-Weber Minimum Test, 11 kung-fu, 52 L lacrosse, 58. See also kabucha, toli, anetsó, hótti icósi, bagataway ladders, 91, 112 Lardner, Ring, 250 Lascaux cave paintings, 21 leisure, 149, 154 leisure society, the, 155 leisure studies, 148 Lewis, Diocletian, 109 LGBTQ, 267. See also LGBT+ light gymnastics, 109 Ling, Hjalmar, 105, 114. See also Day's Order Ling, Per Henrik, 98, 109 lists, 131, 144 Lloyd Shaw Foundation, 5, 179, 269 Locke, John, 60, 71 Louis XIV, 70, 71 Lully, Jean-Baptiste, 70 Luther, Martin, 68 Luxembourg, 96 Lyon, Mary, 117. See also Mount Holyoke College M Maccabiah Games, 258 Major League Baseball (MLB), 160 Major League Soccer (MLS), 160 Manifest Destiny, 108, 109 Mann, Horace, 109, 122 marching, 29, 36 martial arts, 52, 56, 163 massage, 106, 109 McCloy, Charles, 149 McCloy, Charles. See also McCloy Test of Present Health; See also General Motor Capacity Test; See also General Motor Ability Test McKenzie, R. Tait, 218 media, 245, 248 Mesoamerican ball game, 46, 49 metaphysics, 188, 209, 214 Middle Ages, 60, 64, 65. See also medieval Middle East, 206 military, 30, 41, 45 military drills, 94 militia training days, 82 Mill, John Stuart, 203, 209, 210 Minoan, 27, 56 minorities, 177, 248 Mitchell Report, The, 259 monism, 59, 65 monitorial educational system, 95 morality, 212. See also moral moral reasoning, 202, 209 Morgan, William G., 110, 121 Mosier, Chris, 258 motor development, 164 Moulton, Charles, 229 muscular Christianity, 90, 151 Muscular Judaism, 92, 102. See also Muskeljudentum musculoskeletal stress markers (MSMs), 16 music, 30 Mycenaean, 28. See also Aechaean N Nachtegall, Franz, 97 Naismith, James, 120 Nash, Jay, 156 National Alliance for Youth Sports (NAYS), 253 National Association for Girls and Women in Sport (NAGWS), 164 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE), 88 National Association of Base Ball Players, 136, 139 National Basketball Association, 140, 257 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), 260, 267 National Dance Society, 179, 269 National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), 255 National Folk Organization, 179, 183 National Football League (NFL), 160 national governing body (NGB), 149 National Hockey League (NHL), 140, 160 nationalism, 91, 95 National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), 121 National Women's Soccer League (NWSL), 161 natural gymnastics, 148, 151 naturalism, 188, 192 Negro American League, 139 Negro National League, 139 Netherlands, The, 62, 96 New Physical Education, The, 148, 191. See also modern physical education New York, 151, 171 New York City Marathon, 165 New York City Public Schools Athletic League, 121 Nietzche, Friedrich, 195 Nissen, Hartvig, 115 no pass-no play, 255 nobility, 69 non-consequentialism, 202, 213 non-western, 46, 206 Nordau, Max, 102. See also Südfeld, Max normal school, 148, 150 North America, 78, 170 North Carolina, 254 O Olmsted, Frederick Law, 122 Olympia film, 229 Olympics, 229. See also Olympic Games Olympism, 172, 174 ontology, 216, 221 op-ed piece, 232, 238 oral history, 3, 246 orchesis, 33 Ordnungsübungen, 91, 97. See also Spiess, Adolf osteoarchaeology, 14, 16 outdoor education, 166, 168 P paidonomos, 29 paidotribe, 24, 30 palaestra, 24, 30 paleopathology, 14, 18 pall-mall, 59, 67. See also croquet Pan Arab Games, 258 pankration, 29. See also pancratium paradigm, 3, 4 parallel bars, 7, 91 Paralympics, 150, 158 pay-to-play, 255 pedestrianism, 137 Pennsylvania, 84 pentathlon, 25, 32 performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs), 259 Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, 110 phenomenology, 189, 196, 197 Philanthropinum, 91, 92, 93 Philippines, The, 180 phrenologist, 109, 118 physical culture, 27, 35 physical education, 36, 43 physical fitness, 12 physiology, 118 Pistorius, Oscar, 165 Plato, 199 play, 145 play days, 142 Playford, John, 70 Playground Association of America (PAA), 155 playground movement, 110, 121 Pleistocene Era, 21 point shaving, 249, 260 polo, 136 positionality, 172, 174 Posse, Nils, 115 pragmatism, 194 prehistoric, 14, 22 primary source, 3, 5, 87 prize fighting, 146. See also prizefighting, bare-knuckle fighting Pro-am, 150, 159 professional, 157 Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act of 1992 (PASPA), 260 progressive era, the, 148 progressive overload, 148 Protestantism, 4 Protestant Reformation, 68 psychohistory, 3, 4 psychomotor domain, 3 Puritans, 83 Q Quaker, 78, 83 Quality Physical Education, 179 quintain, 58, 65 R racism, 137, 256 radio, 265 rationalism, 90, 91 realism, 191 recreation, 201 recruiting, 252 Rehabilitation Act of 1973, The, 164, 166 religion, 58. See also religious, faith remains, 5. See also relics Renaissance, 66. See also Early Modern Period Restoration, 59, 70 riding, horseback, 80, 137 Riefenstahl, Leni, 229. See also Olympia (film) rings, 175 Robinson, Jackie, 139, 257 roller-skate, 139. See also roller-skating Roman Catholic Church, 4, 205 Roman Empire, 25, 37, 38 Romania, 96 Rome, ancient, 35 ropes, 95 Rose, Pete, 261 Rothe, Johan, 64 Round Hill School, 108, 110 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 72, 192 rugby, 100, 262 running, 253, 257. See also footracing Rush, Dr. Benjamin, 84, 85 Russia, 92 S Sacred Dance Guild, 179 Salzmann, Christian, 91, 93 Sanders, Deion, 160 INDEX 275 Sanity Code, 167 Sargent, Dudley, 115, 123 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 196 Schnepfenthal Institute, 91, 93 scholarship, 3, 208 Scottish Games, 144 scutage, 58, 63 Seccombe, Joseph, 82 secondary source, 3, 5, 15 semi-professional(s), 150 sepak takraw, 51, 55, 183. See also sepak raga settlement houses, 108, 109, 119 Shaolin Monastery, 52, 207 shinny, 78 shooting, 82 Shriver, Eunice Kennedy, 151, 165 Shrovetide, 100 shukiku, 46, 51. See also kemari Simon, Johann Friedrich, 93 skill-based physical education, 3 skittles, 78, 83 slaves, 133. See also slavery Society of Health and Physical Educators (SHAPE America), 9, 12 socioeconomic status (SES), 256. See also socioeconomic strata, socioeconomic standing softball, 139 Sokol gymnastics, 91, 97 South America, 46 South Carolina, 83, 136 Spain, 90 Sparta, 28 special needs, 148 Special Olympics, 151 speculative reasoning, 3, 7 Spiess, Adolph, 91, 97. See also (Adolf) sport, 2. See also amateur; See also archery; See also baseball; See also basketball; See also bicycling; See also body building; See also bowling; See also boxing; See also carryover; See also cup stacking; See also dancesport; See also discus; See also diving; See also falconry; See also fencing; See also field hockey; See also fishing; See also fives; See also football; See also footracing; See also fox hunting; See also Golden Age of; See 276 also golf; See also gymnastics; See also handball; See also harness racing; See also horse racing; See also ice hockey; See also iceskating; See also integrity of; See also intercollegiate; See also interscholastic; See also intramural; See also IrishAmerican; See also javelin; See also Jewish; See also karate; See also kickball; See also lacrosse; See also lifetime; See also martial arts; See also pentathlon; See also polo; See also prizefighting; See also professional; See also purposive; See also rugby; See also running; See also soccer; See also swimming; See also symbolism or magic in; See also tennis; See also track and field; See also trampoline; See also trespass; See also varsity; See also volleyball; See also walking; See also wrestling; See also youth Sport Education Model (SEM), 149. See also Sport Education curriculum and instructional model sporting fraternity, the, 137. See also "the fancy" sport, purposive, 216, 222 sprezzatura, 59, 66 squire, 58, 64 stade, 25, 32 stall bars, 92, 99 statement of personal philosophy, 232, 240 Steroid Era, the, 249, 259 steroids, 267 stoicism, 205 Stone Age, 16, 19. See also paleolithic Strutt, Joseph, 110. See also The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England Suarez, Luis, 264, 268 Super Bowl, 159, 160, 251 Supreme Court, 260 Sweden, 22, 98 Swedish gymnastics, 90, 99 Swedish movement cure, 99, 109 swimming, 111, 112, 236 Switzerland, 96, 107 Symbolic Hunt Theory, 15, 17 symbolism in sport, 60. See also magic in sport synthesis, 3, 5 T tableaux mouvants, 109, 116. See also tableaux vivants Taoism, 207. See also Taoist Tarahumara, 81, 88. See also Rarámuri Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU), 149, 154 telegraphic meet, 128, 142 teleological reasoning, 203 television, 251, 252 temperance, 90, 91 tennis, 158. See also jeu de paume therapeutic use exemption (TUE), 248 thermae, 37 Thorpe, James (Jim), 157 three-prong test, 162 tip (square dance), 167 Title IX, 150, 161 13 program areas, the, 150, 162 Tom Brown's School Days, 100 tournament, 63. See also melee track and field, 136 trampoline, 158 transgender, 248, 258 trespass sport, 83 tsu-chu, 51 Turkish baths, 60 turners, 91, 94, 95 turnfest, 95, 96 turnplatz, 94, 95 turnvater, 91, 95. See also Jahn, Friedrich turnverein, 91, 94, 96 Tyrš, Miroslav, 96 tyzkanion, 60, 73 U U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, 257 U. S. Olympic Committee, 158 U. S. Soccer, 169 U. S. Women's Soccer Team, 169 United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 176, 183 usekh, 46, 54 utilitarianism, 203 HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT V Valentine, Thomas, 120 varsity, 239, 248 vaulting bars, 112 Vergerio, 66 Victorian, 90, 137 Victorian era, 102, 137 violence, 257, 261 visualization, 14, 17 volleyball. See also mintonette von Fellenberg, Philipp Emanuel, 110 W walking, 36, 112, 193 wands, 109, 119 West Africa, 180 western, 47 Willard, Emma. See also Troy Female Seminary Williams, George, 92, 102 Williams, Jesse, 132, 151, 156 women, 137, 139, 142 Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), 140 Women's Professional Soccer League (WPSL), 161 women's rational recreation, 102–103, 103 women's reform societies, 102 women's suffrage, 90, 130 Wood, Thomas, 148, 151 work bees, 78, 82 work-sport, 128, 130, 131 World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 259 World Cup (soccer), 176, 226 World Health Organization (WHO), 178, 183 wrestling, 18, 28, 39, 50 wrestling, professional, 227 X X Games, 165 Y Yale, 116, 141 YMCA. See also YWCA YMCA Training School, 120 YMHA. See also YWHA yoga, 46, 52 Youth Olympic Games (YOG), 172, 175 youth sports, 194, 227, 253 Z Zaharias, Mildred "Babe" Didrikson, 139, 161 Zander, Gustav, 115 Zeno of Citium, 205 Zwingli, Huldrych, 69 INDEX 277

History and Philosophy of Physical Education and Sport

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