1. ROBINSON PROJECTION
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is a world map projection that displays the entire world at once.
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In the 1960s Arthur H. Robinson, a Wisconsin geography professor, developed a projection which
has become much more popular than the Mercator projection for world maps.
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replaced the Mercator projection as the preferred projection for world maps.
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1988, the National Geographic Society (NGS) began using the Robinson projection for general
purpose world maps replacing the Van der Grinten projection.
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1998, NGS abandoned the use of Robinson projection in favor of the Winkel Tripel projection. It is
due to “the distortion of the landmass is reduced as it approaches the poles.”
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called this the orthopanic projection (meaning “right appearing”/ “look correct”).
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Professor Robinson did not develop this projection by developing new geometric formulas to
convert latitude and longitude coordinates from the surface of the Model of the Earth to locations on
the map. Instead, Robinson used a huge number of trialand-error computer simulations.
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primary purpose is to create visually appealing maps of the entire world. It is a compromise
projection
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does not eliminate any type of distortion, but it keeps the levels of all types of distortion relatively
low over most of the map.
Form:
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can best be described as pseudocylindrical, but given its unique method of development, it does not
fall perfectly into any known form category
Case:
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basically secant, with lines of tangency running along the 38° 0′ 0″N and 38° 0′ 0″S lines of latitude.
Aspect:
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normal aspects.
Graticule:
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The meridians are regularly distributed curves mimicking elliptical arcs.
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They are concave toward the central meridian and do not intersect the parallels at right angles.
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The parallels are unequally distributed straight lines.
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The equator, both poles, and the central meridian are projected as straight lines.
DISTORTIONS:
Shearing:
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is not conformal; shapes are distorted more than they would be in a truly conformal projection.
Tearing:
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Robinson maps show lines of latitude as parallel straight lines and lines of longitude as nonparallel
lines that become increasingly curved as you move farther away from the map’s central meridian.
Compression:
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are not equivalent; they do suffer from compression.
Equivalence:
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are not equivalent; they do suffer from compression.
Conformality:
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The Robinson projection is not conformal; shapes are distorted more than they would be in a truly
conformal projection.
Equidistance:
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The Robinson projection is not equidistant; there is no point or points from which all distances are
shown accurately.
Azimuthally:
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The Robinson projection is not azimuthal; there is no point or points from which all directions are
shown accurately
2. LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC PROJECTION
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One of seven map projection system developed and introduced by Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1772.
Conformal Projection
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preserves the correct shape of small areas and retain correct angular relations in transfer from globe
to map with a very low distortion of area and maps with some of the lowest overall distortion
parameters possible.
Graticular Lines
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(representing meridians and parallels) intersect at 90° angles, and any point on map scale is the same
in all directions but scale changes from point to point. Maintains all angles at each point, including
intersections of arcs.
True Projection of the Rotational Ellipsoid (Datum Surface) onto the plane. The axis of a right cone with
circular base contains both poles, and this cone is Tangent or Secant to the datum surface on one or two
parallel circles respectively.
The one tangent or two secant parallel circles called the Reference/Standard Parallels- are equidistant lines
of the projection (lines without distortion). The parallel circle along which point scale factor reaches
minimum is called Central Parallel.
-Uses a Cone as its developable surface and Simplified Version that uses only one Parallel, the Mid
Latitudes.
3. WINKEL TRIPEL PROJECTION
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a modified azimuthal map projection of the world, proposed in 1921 by the German cartographer
Oswald Winkel (7 January 1874 – 18 July 1953).
Tripel is not somebody's name; it is a German term meaning a combination of three elements.
Winkel choose the name Tripel because he had developed a compromise projection; it does not eliminate
area, direction or distance distortions; rather, it tries to minimize the sum of all three.
Form:
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The Winkel Tripel has a modified planner form, which means that the developable surface is slightly
curved, and not completely flat as it is in a projection with a true planner form.
Case:
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Winkel tripel projections are typically secant, although it is not uncommon to create
a tangent version of the projection.
Aspect:
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The Winkel Tripel projection is based on a normal aspect.
Variation within Winkel Tripel Projections: Winkel Tripel projections differ in the locations of their lines
of tangency and their central meridians.
4. PLATE CARREE
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A cylindrical projection can be imagined in its simplest form as a cylinder that has been wrapped
around a globe at the equator.
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points on the spherical grid are transferred to the cylinder which is then unfolded into a flat plane.
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equator is the "normal aspect" or viewpoint for these projections.
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invented by Marinus of Tyre around A.D. 100. He was the greatest Geographer of the 1st century
and the founder of mathematical geography.
o Plate carree (french) – flat square
o Equirectangular, Equidistant Cylindrical, Simple Cylindrical, or la carte parallelogrammatique
projection or CPP
o converts the globe into a CARTESIAN GRID
o All the graticular intersections are 90 degrees
o The line of contact or the parallel line of this projection is along the equator
o ASPECT – normal cylindrical aspect
o Cassini Projection is the transverse aspect of plate carree.
PROPERTIES
o SHAPE - Distortion increases as the distance from the standard parallels increases.
o
AREA - Distortion increases as the distance from the standard parallels increases.
o DIRECTION - North, south, east, and west directions are accurate. General directions are distorted,
except locally along the standard parallels.
o
DISTANCE - The scale is correct along the meridians and the standard parallels.
Plate Carree
o is a map projection that is equidistant cylindrical projection with the standard parallel located at the
equator.
o A grid of parallels and meridians forms perfect squares from east to west and from pole to pole.
o It is one of the simplest and oldest map projections, and therefore its usage was more common in the
past.
o The radius is used as a conversion factor between angular and linear units.
o Another usage of this projection is to display spatial data stored in a geographic coordinate system,
known as the pseudoplate carrée projection.
o Unlike the Mercator, it has the scale that is fixed to be correct for the standard parallel.
5. IMUTHAL EQUIDISTANT PROJECTION
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The azimuthal equidistant projection preserves both distance and direction from the central point.
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The world is projected onto a flat surface from any point on the globe.
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Although all aspects are possible (equatorial, polar, and oblique), the one used most commonly is the
polar aspect, in which all meridians and parallels are divided equally to maintain the equidistant
property.
ORIGIN
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Known for many centuries in the polar aspect.
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believed the Egyptians used the polar aspect for star charts, but the oldest existing celestial map using
this projection was prepared in 1426 by Conrad of Dyffenbach.
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The first known use for polar maps of the Earth was by Gerardus Mercator as insets on his 1569 world
map, which introduced his famous cylindrical projection.
PROJECTION PROPERTIES
1. POLAR ASPECT: The meridians project as straight lines originating at the pole, and angles between
them are true.
2. EQUATORIAL ASPECT: The equator and central meridian are projected as two perpendicular
straight lines.
3. OBLIQUE ASPECT: Only the central meridian and antimeridian project as straight lines.
DISTORTIONS:
1. SHEARING: Azimuthal equidistant projections do distort shapes. This distortion is present
everywhere on the map, but becomes more pronounced as you move farther from the point of tangency.
2. TEARING: Azimuthal equidistant maps tend to be circular in shape, and typically are used to show
no more than half the Earth (i.e., one hemisphere) in any one map. Tearing occurs along the map's
circular edge. While it is possible to create interrupted maps using azimuthal equidistant projections,
I don't think I've ever seen one in actual use.
3. COMPRESSION: Azimuthal equidistant maps are not equivalent; they do suffer from compression.
Compression is present all over the map, but becomes more pronounced as you move farther from the
point of tangency.
4. EQUIVALENCE: Azimuthal equidistant maps are not equivalent; they do suffer from compression.
Compression is present all over the map, but becomes more pronounced as you move farther from
the point of tangency.
5. CONFORMALITY: Azimuthal equidistant maps are not conformal; shape distortion is present
throughout the map. As with most other forms of distortion, the amount of shape distortion present in
an azimuthal equidistant map increases as you get farther from the map's point of tangency.
6. EQUIDISTANCE: An azimuthal equidistant map accurately shows distances from its point of
tangency to all other points on the map. Distances between other pairs of points (i.e., a distance
between two points, neither of which is the map's point of tangency) are not accurate.
7. AZIMUTHALITY: An azimuthal equidistant map accurately shows directions from its point of
tangency to all other points on the map. Directions between other pairs of points (i.e., a direction
between two points, neither of which is the map's point of tangency) are not accurate.
6. MOLLWEIDE MAP PROJECTION
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Published by mathematician and astronomer Karl (or Carl) Brandan Mollweide (1774–1825)
of Leipzig in 1805.
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is an equal-area, pseudocylindrical map projection generally used for maps of the world or celestial
sphere.
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is also known as the Babinet Projection, Homolographic Projection, and Elliptical Projection.
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The projection trades accuracy of angle and shape for accuracy of proportions in area, and as such is
used where that property is needed, such as maps depicting global distributions.
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pseudocylindrical projection in which the equator is represented as a straight horizontal line
perpendicular to a central meridian that is one-half the equator's length.
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Pseudocylindrical projections for world maps are characterized by straight hori-zontal lines for
parallels of latitude and (usually) equally-spaced curved meridians of longitude.
7. SINUSOIDAL
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is a pseudo cylindrical equal-area projection displaying all parallels and the central meridian at true
scale.
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is also known as the Sanson-Flamsteed and Mercator-Sanson projection after the cartographers who
used it. The projection was developed in the 16th century.
Projection Properties
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represents the poles as points, as they are on the sphere, but the meridians and continents are distorted.
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equator and the central meridian are the most accurate parts of the map, having no distortion at all,
and the further away from those that one examines, the greater the distortion.
Graticule
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pseudo cylindric projection
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equator and the central meridian are projected as straight lines, where the projected equator is two
times as long as the central meridian.
Distortion
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is an equal-area (equivalent) projection.
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Shapes, directions, angles, and distances are generally distorted.
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Scale is true along every parallel and the central meridian.
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Distortions are moderate near the projection center.
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Bulging meridians produce considerable distortion toward the edge of the projection. Distortion
values are symmetric across the equator and the central meridian.
Usage
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is appropriate for thematic world maps although its use is not recommended. The projection has also
been used for maps of continents near the equator, like South America and Africa, centered on their
own central meridians.
Scale
Specifies the unit scale of the projected map, relative to meters.
8. LAMBERT’S EQUAL AREA
LAMBERT’S AZIMUTHAL EQUAL AREA
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maintains land features at their true relative sizes while simultaneously maintaining a true sense of
direction from the center.
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The world is projected onto a flat surface from any point on the globe.
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projection is best suited for individual land masses that are symmetrically proportioned, either round
or square.
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was developed by Johann H. Lambert in 1772.
GRATICULE

In the polar aspect, the meridians project as straight lines originating at the pole and the angles
between them are true. The parallels are shown as unequally spaced concentric circular arcs and their
spacing decreases with the distance from the center. All graticule line intersections are 90°. The
opposite pole is projected as a circle and presents the edge of the map. The graticule is symmetric
across any meridian.

In the equatorial aspect, the equator and the central meridian are projected as two perpendicular
straight lines. Two meridians, 90° east and west of the central meridian, project as a circle. Other
meridians are complex curves. Their spacing decreases away from the central meridian.

In the oblique case, only the central meridian and anti-meridian project as straight lines. The other
meridians and parallels are complex curves. The meridians intersect at poles and are projected as a
point. The parallels are unequally spaced along the central meridian and their spacing decreases
away from the projection's center. The graticule is symmetric across the central meridian.
DISTORTION
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Lambert azimuthal equal-area is an equal-area (equivalent) projection.
•
Shapes, directions, angles, and distances are generally distorted.
•
Scale and directions are true only at the center of the projection.
•
The scale decreases with the distance from the center along the radii and increases from the center
perpendicularly to the radii, resulting in small shapes compressed radially from the center and
elongated perpendicularly.
•
The general pattern of distortion is radial.
LAMBERT’S CYLINDRICAL EQUAL AREA
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presents the world as a rectangle while maintaining relative areas on a map. The projection was first
described by the Swiss mathematician Johann H. Lambert in 1772.
9. ALBERS EQUAL AREA
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was developed by Heinrich Christian Albers in 1805.
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a conic projection
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All meridians are equally spaced straight lines converging to a common point. The parallels and both
poles are represented as circular arcs centered on the point of convergence of the meridians
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Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles and the arcs of longitude along any given parallel are
of equal length.
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It uses two standard parallels to reduce some of the distortion found in a projection with only one
standard parallel.
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The projection is best suited for land masses extending in an east-to-west orientation at mid-latitudes.
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The parallels are spaced to retain the condition of equal area.
Projection Properties
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When the standard parallels are on the southern hemisphere, the fan-shape of the graticule is oriented
down.
DISTORTION
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Shapes, directions, angles, and distances are generally distorted.
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The scale, directions, and distances are true only along the standard parallels.
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Distortion values grow away from the standard parallels.
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Distortion values are the same along any given parallel and symmetric across the central meridian.
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Scale and shape are not preserved, but directions are reasonably accurate in limited regions.
GRATICULE
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Albers is a conic projection.
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All meridians are equally spaced straight lines converging to a common point. The parallels and
both poles are represented as circular arcs centered on the point of convergence of the meridians.
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The spacing of the parallels decreases toward the poles. The graticule is symmetric across the
central meridian
FIVE MAIN LATITUDES THAT WERE GIVEN THEIR OWN SPECIFIC NAMES:
ARCTIC CIRCLE
66°33’39” N
TROPIC OF CANCER
23°26’22” N
EQUATOR
0
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
ARCTIC CIRCLE
23°26’22” S
66°33’39” S
THREE RULES:
1. If the area to be portrayed lies in the tropics, a cylindrical projection should be employed.
2. Use a conical projection for the mapping of areas located in temperate latitudes.
3. If the map is required to show one of the polar regions, an azimuthal projection should be use.

COMPROMISE PROJECTION
- Does not preserve any property.
- Minimize distortion