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Essentials of Lifespan Development Textbook, 2nd Canadian Ed.
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Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download link Below for Instant Download: https://browsegrades.net/documents/286751/ebook-payment-link-forinstant-download-after-payment Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page i SECOND CANADIAN EDITION John W. Santrock University of Texas at Dallas Catherine J. Mondloch Brock University Susan S. Chuang University of Guelph Anne MacKenzie-Thompson George Brown College (Retired) Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page ii Published by McGraw Hill 145 King Street West, Suite 1501 Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5H 1J8 Telephone: 1-800-565-5758 Website: www.mheducation.ca Essentials of Lifespan Development, Second Canadian Edition John W. Santrock, Catherine J. Mondloch, Susan S. Chuang, Anne MacKenzie-Thompson ISBN-13: 978-1-26-485196-6 ISBN-10: 1-26-485196-0 Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data The Library of Congress data for this book has been applied for from the Library of Congress. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TCP 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 Printed and bound in Canada. Product Director: Rhondda McNabb Portfolio Manager: Alex Campbell Senior Marketing Manager: Patti Rozakos Content Developer: Sarah Fulton Portfolio Associate: Tracey Hanson Supervising Editor: Jack Whelan Permissions Editor: Indu Arora Copy Editor: Laurel Sparrow, Top Copy Communications Plant Production Coordinator: Sarah Fraser Manufacturing Production Coordinator: Jason Stubner Cover Design: Liz Haraymczuk Cover Image: © Shutterstock Page Layout: MPS Printer: Transcontinental Printing Group Human Resource Management Copyright © 2020 by McGraw Hill Adaptation Copyright © 2023 by McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. In the case of photocopying or other reprographic copying, seek a licence from The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright). For an Access Copyright licence, visit www.accesscopyright.ca or call toll-free to 1-800-893-5777. Published by arrangement with McGraw Hill LLC ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS BOOK MAY BE REPRODUCED OR TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR MECHANICAL, INCLUDING PHOTOCOPYING, RECORDING, OR BY INFORMATION STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS, WITHOUT PERMISSION IN WRITING FROM MCGRAW HILL. Fictitious names of companies, products, people, characters, and/or data that may be used herein (in case studies or in examples) are not intended to represent any real individual, company, product, or event. ISBN-13: 978-1-26-485196-6 Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com ISBN-10: 1-26-485196-0 eISBN-10: 1-26-498786-2 © 2023. Exclusive rights by McGraw Hill for manufacture and export. This book cannot be re-exported from the country to which it is sold by McGraw Hill. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page iii Dedication: With special appreciation to my wife, Mary Jo. John W. Santrock With special appreciation to my developmental colleagues at Brock University, whose ingenuity and collegiality are inspiring; to Bill Timberlake, who shared his love of research and depth of thought throughout my PhD; and to the students in my lab, whose enthusiasm for research and knowledge is contagious. And with thanks to my family—especially my husband (Michael), children (Allison and Jonah), and parents (Charles and Jane), who have provided many lessons in lifespan development! Catherine J. Mondloch With special appreciation to my mom and dad, who have supported all of my pursuits and encouraged me every step of the way. Thank you to my family in Canada, the United States, and Taiwan! I also want to thank my academic family from around the world who have mentored, advised, and always had my back on this bumpy academic journey. Thank you to all of the students that I have taught over the years, as it is through their learning that I also have learned a lot as well. Susan S. Chuang With special appreciation to my husband, Ray, for his love and support, and to the many students, friends, and family from whom I learn. A very special thank you to the professionals of McGraw-Hill Ryerson, particularly to Sarah Fulton, Alex Campbell, Laurel Sparrow, and the editorial pros for their openness to new ideas, their suggestions, and their assistance and patience. Anne MacKenzie-Thompson Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page iv About the Authors John W. Santrock John Santrock received his PhD from the University of Minnesota in 1973. He taught at the University of Charleston and the University of Georgia before joining the Program in Psychology and Human Development at the University of Texas at Dallas, where he currently teaches a number of undergraduate courses and has received the University’s Effective Teaching Award. In 2010, he created the UT-Dallas Santrock undergraduate scholarship, an annual award that is given to outstanding undergraduate students majoring in developmental psychology to enable them to attend research conventions. John has been a member of the editorial boards of Child Development and Developmental Psychology. His research on the multiple factors involved in how divorce affects children’s development is widely cited and used in expert witness testimony to promote flexibility and alternative considerations in custody disputes. John has also authored these exceptional McGraw-Hill texts: Children (14th edition), Adolescence (17th edition), Life-Span Development (17th edition), A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development (9th edition), and Educational Psychology (6th edition). Catherine J. Mondloch Catherine Mondloch received her PhD from Indiana University in 1989. During her PhD and first academic appointment at The King’s College (Edmonton), she studied sibling competition and parental care in birds. She spent one fascinating summer hand-rearing a litter of wolf pups. In 1992, Catherine decided to study humans and so began investigating perceptual development at McMaster University (Hamilton) with Professor Daphne Maurer, where she developed expertise in face perception and the role of experience in perceptual and cognitive development. Catherine took an appointment at Brock University (St. Catharines) in 2004, where she currently teaches courses in developmental psychology and person perception. Catherine is the director of the Face Perception Lab at Brock University. She and her students investigate many aspects of face perception across the lifespan, including recognition of facial identity, sensitivity to facial displays of emotion, and first impressions. She has served as associate editor of the Journal of Experimental Child Psychology; was a recipient of the Discovery Supplement Award (NSERC); and has mentored undergraduate students, graduate students, and postdoctoral fellows in her lab for many years. Catherine encourages her students to think critically about how the environment (e.g., poverty, culture, parental care) influences development across the lifespan with the aim of fostering informed and engaged citizens. When not busy teaching and conducting research, Catherine enjoys hiking, travel, gardening, music, quilting, and spending time with friends and family. Susan S. Chuang Susan Chuang received her PhD from the University of Rochester, New York, and then was a postdoctoral fellow at the National Institutes of Health in Maryland. For three years, she was faculty at Syracuse University, New York, before joining the faculty at the University of Guelph, Ontario, in 2003. To date, Susan has taught around 11 000 undergraduate students, primarily teaching the Human Development course in person and online (approximately 500 students each semester). Her first line of research includes parenting, fathering, parent–child relationships, child and adolescent development, and school readiness in various sociocultural contexts (e.g., Chinese families in Canada, Mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan; Latina/o families in Paraguay, US; SSHRC-funded). In a current SSHRC-funded study, Susan is exploring parents’ and youths’ perspectives on cannabis use, and the impact on family communication, dynamics, and relationships. Page v In December 2020, Susan heard stories of children in high-conflict situations and union breakdowns having no contact with their fathers and their extended families for years. Susan decided to move her research efforts to explore family violence and abuse, high-conflict relationships, parental alienating behaviours, and their impact on individual and family well-being in 2021. Two SSHRC-funded projects are in collaboration with the community—one with a men’s organization and the other with two family lawyers. In 2022, as lead organizer, she Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com organized one of the first government-funded (SSHRC) conferences in the world on fathering and men’s experiences with violence and victimization. The conference included two keynote speakers, three panel sessions, and 60 presentations from 18 countries and regions across six continents. Susan also organized seven international conferences on immigrant families (On New Shores conferences). Susan is the series editor for Springer on Advances on Immigrant Family Research, and is the associate editor for the Journal of Family Psychology and the Journal of Adolescent Research. She provides numerous free community workshops for youth, parents, and community providers. The primary goal of the workshops is to bring greater attention to mental health issues and to strengthen families and communities. Anne MacKenzie-Thompson Anne MacKenzie-Thompson retired from a rewarding career as a teacher and administrator at George Brown College. Her interest in psychology focuses on social psychology, positive psychology, and contemporary research on the brain. Throughout her career, both as faculty and as an administrator, she has participated in the design and delivery of a number of diverse courses and programs, including Interdisciplinary Studies, the School of Labour, the Aboriginal Centre, Technology, Community Services, and Nursing. Her degrees are in English and educational psychology. As well as spending time with their children and grandchildren, Anne and her husband enjoy volunteering, theatre, art, music, writing, and gardening. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page vi Brief Contents 1. Introduction 2. Biological Beginnings 3. Physical and Cognitive Development in Infancy 4. Socioemotional Development in Infancy 5. Physical and Cognitive Development in Childhood 6. Socioemotional Development in Childhood 7. Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence 8. Socioemotional Development in Adolescence 9. Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood 10. Socioemotional Development in Early Adulthood 11. Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Adulthood 12. Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Adulthood 13. Death, Dying, and Grieving References Glossary Name Index Subject Index Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page vii Contents 1 Introduction The Nature of Development Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes Characteristics of Development Careers in Lifespan Development: Canadian Psychological Association The Lifespan Perspective The Importance of Studying Lifespan Development Periods of Development Conceptions of Age Central Questions in Developmental Science Developmental Issues Theories of Development Psychoanalytic Theories Cognitive Theories Behavioural and Social Cognitive Theories Ethological Theory Bioecological Theory Contemporary Theories and Approaches Positive Psychology Neuroscience and Neuroplasticity Dynamic Systems Evolutionary Psychology An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation Research in Lifespan Development Methods of Collecting Data Research Designs Time Span of Research Conducting Ethical Research Summary Key Terms 2 Biological Beginnings The Evolutionary Perspective Natural Selection and Adaptive Behaviour Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Evolutionary Psychology Genetic Foundations of Development Genes and Chromosomes Genetic Principles Chromosome and Gene-Linked Variations The Interaction of Genes and Environment Behavioural Genetics Heredity–Environment Correlations The Epigenetic View and Gene × Environment Interaction Careers in Lifespan Development: Amy Bombay, Assistant Professor of Nursing and Psychiatry How Do We Know This? How do we know that experience alters gene expression? Conclusions about Heredity–Environment Interaction Prenatal Development The Course of Prenatal Development Prenatal Tests Infertility and Reproductive Technology Hazards to Prenatal Development Prenatal Care Birth and the Postpartum Period The Birth Process The Transition from Fetus to Newborn Careers in Lifespan Development: Claire Dion Fletcher, Co-chair of the National Aboriginal Council of Midwives Low Birth Weight and Preterm Infants Bonding The Postpartum Period Summary Key Terms 3 Physical and Cognitive Development in Infancy Physical Growth and Development in Infancy Patterns of Growth The Brain Sleep Nutrition Careers in Lifespan Development: Jennifer Jenkins, Psychologist Motor Development Reflexes Gross Motor Skills Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Fine Motor Skills Cross-Cultural Differences Dynamic Systems Theory Sensory and Perceptual Development Exploring Sensory and Perceptual Development How Do We Know This? What can babies see? Using the visual preference method Page viii Visual Perception Other Senses Intermodal Perception Nature, Nurture, and Perceptual Development Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory Contemporary Approaches How Do We Know This? Do infants have a basic sense of morality? Using innovative methodologies Learning, Remembering, and Conceptualizing Language Development Defining Language Perceiving and Understanding Words Language Production Biological and Environmental Influences Summary Key Terms 4 Socioemotional Development in Infancy Emotional and Personality Development Emotional Development Temperament Personality Development Social Orientation and Attachment Social Orientation and Understanding How Do We Know This? Do infants understand intentions and desires? Attachment Social Contexts The Family Childcare Careers in Lifespan Development: Clarise Henrickson, Executive Director, Waninawakang Aboriginal Head Start Summary Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Key Terms 5 Physical and Cognitive Development in Childhood Physical Development The Brain Motor Development Well-Being Cognitive Development Piaget’s Theory: The Preoperational Child Piaget’s Theory: The Concrete Operational Child Vygotsky’s Theory Information Processing Cognitive Development: Applications in Everyday Life How Do We Know This? How do we know that lie telling is a cognitive milestone? Other Aspects of Cognitive Development Intelligence Children with Disabilities Careers in Lifespan Development: Angela Kirton, Senior Therapist for Children with Autism Language Development Understanding Phonology and Morphology Changes in Syntax and Semantics Advances in Pragmatics Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness Reading Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning Schools and Education Variations in Early Childhood Education Education for Young Children Who Are Disadvantaged Education in Middle and Late Childhood Private Schools and Home Schooling Summary Key Terms 6 Socioemotional Development in Childhood Developing a Sense of Self and Others The Self Understanding Others Gender Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Emotional and Moral Development Emotional Development How do we know how COVID-19 has impacted children’s mental health? Moral Development Families Parenting Sibling Relationships The Changing Family in a Changing Society Developmental Changes in Parent–Child Relationships Peer Relations, Play, and Media/Screen Time Peer Relations Play Careers in Lifespan Development: Laura Williams, Playground Designer Page ix Media and Screen Time Summary Key Terms 7 Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence The Nature of Adolescence Physical Development Puberty Adolescent Sexuality Adolescent Health Nutrition and Exercise Sleep Patterns How Do We Know This? What determines healthy sleep in adolescents? Substance Use and Abuse Eating Disorders Adolescent Cognition Piaget’s Theory Adolescent Egocentrism Information Processing The Brain Schools The Transition to Middle or Junior High School High School Careers in Lifespan Development: Monika Pries-Klassen, Teacher and Guidance Counsellor, Vice Principal Service Learning Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Summary Key Terms 8 Socioemotional Development in Adolescence Identity What Is Identity? Erikson’s View Developmental Changes Cultural and Ethnic Identity Families Parental Management and Monitoring Autonomy and Attachment Parent–Adolescent Conflict Careers in Lifespan Development: Clovis Grant, Chief Executive Officer, 360°kids Peers Friendships Peer Groups Dating and Romantic Relationships Culture and Adolescent Development Cross-Cultural Comparisons Ethnicity The Media Adolescent Problems Risk Taking How Do We Know This? Do peers play a special role in risk taking during adolescence? Bullying Depression and Suicide The Interrelation of Problems and Successful Prevention/Intervention Programs Summary Key Terms 9 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood The Transition from Adolescence to Adulthood Emerging Adulthood (18–29 years) Established Adulthood (30–45 years) Markers of Becoming an Adult Physical Development Physical Performance and Development Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Health Sexuality Sexual Activity Sexual Orientation and Identity Sexually Transmitted Infections Cognitive Development Piaget and Postformal Thought Information Processing Creativity Careers and Work Postsecondary Education Careers in Lifespan Development: Dr. Khristine G. Cariño, President of SCWIST Careers How Do We Know This? How does Statistics Canada know? Achievement Summary Key Terms 10 Socioemotional Development in Early Adulthood Stability and Change from Childhood to Adulthood How Do We Know This? What is the role of purpose? Love and Close Relationships Intimacy Friendship Romantic and Affectionate Love Consummate Love Adult Lifestyles Single Adults Careers in Lifespan Development: Bijan Rafii, Executive Director, Canadian Centre for Men and Families, York Region Cohabiting Adults Married Adults Divorced Adults Remarried Adults Polygamous Adults Gay and Lesbian Adults How Do We Know This? How does social activism contribute to our understanding of lifespan development? Tarana Burke and the #MeToo movement Challenges in Marriages, Unions, Parenting, and Divorce Making Marriage Work Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Becoming a Parent Intimate Partner Violence Dealing with Divorce or Union Breakdown Summary Key Terms 11 Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Adulthood The Nature of Middle and Late Adulthood Canada’s Changing Demographics Healthy Life Expectancy Centenarians Contemporary Theoretical Approaches to Aging Physical Development and Health Physical Development Sexuality Cognitive Development Intelligence Information Processing How Do We Know This? How do we know what underlies cognitive decline in late adulthood? Use It or Lose It Expertise and Wisdom Cognitive Neuroscience of Aging The Aging Brain Mild Cognitive Impairment Dementia Careers in Lifespan Development: Sarah Putman, Director of Education at the Alzheimer Society Parkinson’s Disease Careers, Work, and Leisure Work in Midlife Career Challenges and Changes Retirement Leisure Religion, Spirituality, and Meaning in Life Religion Spirituality Religion, Spirituality, and Health Meaning in Life Summary Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Key Terms 12 Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Adulthood Personality Theories and Development Adult Stage Theories The Life-Events Approach Stress and Personal Control in Midlife Activity Theory Socioemotional Selectivity Theory Older Adults and Society Stability and Change Stereotyping of Older Adults Policy Issues in an Aging Society Families and Close Relationships Love and Marriage in Middle and Late Adulthood Attachment The Empty Nest and Its Refilling Sibling Relationships and Friendships Grandparenting Intergenerational Relationships Social Support and Social Integration Altruism and Volunteering How Do We Know This? Can it be true that sometimes we don’t know? Successful Aging Careers in Lifespan Development: Sharon MacKenzie, Founder of i2i Intergenerational Society of Canada and the Meadows School Project of British Columbia Summary Key Terms Page xi 13 Death, Dying, and Grieving Defining Death and Life/Death Issues Determining Death Decisions Regarding Life, Death, and Healthcare How Do We Know This? How do cultural shifts in beliefs and practices shape our policies? Careers in Lifespan Development: Dr. Barbara Pesut, Professor of Nursing, University of British Columbia, BC Death in Sociohistorical and Cultural Contexts Changing Historical Circumstances Death in Different Cultures Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Facing One’s Own Death Kübler-Ross’s Stages of Dying Perceived Control and Denial Coping with the Death of Someone Else Communicating with a Dying Person Death by Suicide, Accident, Overdose, or Homicide Grieving Making Sense of the World Losing a Life Partner Forms of Mourning Summary Key Terms References Chapter Sources Glossary Name Index Subject Index Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page xii The Essential Approach to Lifespan Development In the view of many instructors who teach a lifespan development course, the biggest challenge is covering all periods of human development within one academic term. Our own teaching experience bears this out. We have had to skip over much of the material in a comprehensive lifespan development text to focus on key topics and concepts that students find difficult, and to fit in applications that are relevant to students’ lives. Essentials of Lifespan Development, Second Canadian Edition, was developed to respond to the need for a shorter text that covers core content in a way that is meaningful to diverse students. This second Canadian edition continues our commitment to providing a brief introduction to lifespan development—with an exciting difference. Recognizing that most of today’s students have grown up in a digital world, we take very seriously the need to communicate content in different ways, online as well as in print. Consequently, we’re enthusiastic about McGraw-Hill’s online assignment and assessment platform, Connect for Lifespan Development, which incorporates this text; the captivating Milestones video modules; and the game-based learning assignment, Quest: Journey through the Lifespan. An engaging and innovative learning game, Quest: Journey through the Lifespan provides students with opportunities to apply content from their human development curriculum to real-life scenarios. Students play unique characters of various ages who make decisions by applying key concepts and theories for each age as they negotiate events in an array of authentic environments. Additionally, students are exposed to different cultures and the intersections of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes by analyzing real-world behaviours and environments. Each quest has layered replayability, allowing students to make new choices each time they play—or offering different students in the same class different experiences. Fresh possibilities and outcomes shine light on the complexity and variations in real human development. This new experiential learning game includes follow-up questions, assignable in Connect and auto-graded, to reach a higher level of critical thinking. Together, these resources give students and instructors the essential coverage, applications, and course tools they need to tailor the lifespan course to meet their specific needs. The Essential Teaching and Learning Environment Research shows that students today learn in multiple modalities. Not only do their work preferences tend to be more visual and more interactive, but also their reading and study sessions often occur in short bursts. With shorter chapters and innovative interactive study modules, Essentials of Lifespan Development, Second Canadian Edition, allows students to study whenever, wherever, and however they choose. Regardless of individual study habits, preparation, and approaches to the course, Essentials connects with students on a personal, individual basis and provides a road map for success in the course. Essential Coverage The challenge in writing Essentials of Lifespan Development, Second Canadian Edition, was determining what makes up the core content of the course. With the help of consultants and instructors who have responded to surveys and reviewed the content at different stages of development, we are able to present all of the core topics, key ideas, and most important research in lifespan development that students need to know in a brief format that stands on its own merits. The 13 brief chapters of Essentials are organized chronologically and cover all periods of the human lifespan, from the prenatal period through late adulthood and death. Providing a broad overview of lifespan development, this text gives special attention to the theories and concepts that students seem to have difficulty mastering. Page xiii Essential Applications Applied examples give students a sense that the field of lifespan development has personal meaning for them. In this second Canadian edition of Essentials of Lifespan Development are numerous real-life applications as well as research applications for each period of the Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com lifespan. In addition to applied examples, Essentials offers applications for students in a variety of majors and career paths. How Would You…? questions. Given that students enrolled in the lifespan course have diverse majors, Essentials includes applications that appeal to different interests. The most prevalent areas of specialization are education, human development and family studies, health professions, psychology, and social work. To engage these students and ensure that Essentials orients them to concepts that are key to their understanding of lifespan development, instructors specializing in these fields contributed How Would You…? questions for each chapter. Strategically placed near relevant topics, these questions highlight the essential takeaway ideas for these students. Careers in Lifespan Development. This feature personalizes lifespan development by describing an individual working in a career related to the chapter’s focus. One example is Dr. Khristine G. Cariño, who is the president of the Society for Canadian Women in Science and Technology (SCWIST), which seeks to remove barriers that prevent women’s sustained participation in STEM by providing mentorship and opportunities for networking. A second example is Clarise Henrickson, the executive director of the Waninawakang Aboriginal Head Start program in Sioux Lookout. The Careers box describes the goals of this educational program and the career experience that Henrickson brought to this leadership role. Other featured careers include working with youth at risk for homelessness, designing playgrounds, and aiding men who need social support and mental health services. How Do We Know This? This feature illustrates the who, what, when, where, and why of Canadian research. The aim of the feature is to help students understand how research is done. For example, one How Do We Know This? box looks at how Statistics Canada conducts its research. Another describes how Dr. Michael Meaney of McGill University undertakes his research to learn about the impact of trauma on the brain. Essential Resources The following resources accompany Essentials of Lifespan Development, Second Canadian Edition. Please contact your McGraw-Hill representative for details concerning the availability of these and other valuable materials that can help you design and enhance your course: Instructor’s Manual Test Bank Case Study Test Bank Microsoft® PowerPoint® Presentations Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page xiv Content Highlights A Note about Our Cover The cover of this textbook was inspired by individuals who courageously shared their stories at various events sponsored by United Way, Niagara. Listening—both to the devastating effects of poverty, political turmoil, and family conflict on people’s well-being, and to the resilience shown when communities work together to improve lives—leads to this realization: As we move through the various stages of life— from infancy to adolescence to old age—our paths are influenced both by decisions we make and by events outside our control. Much as in any well-crafted board game, we roll the dice repeatedly. Overview In this second Canadian edition, we have incorporated several tools that will engage Canadian students as they study lifespan development. We have: highlighted Canadian research throughout, identifying researchers and their institutions; highlighted development in Indigenous populations where appropriate; contrasted regions across Canada using provincial statistics; discussed studies from around the world; and included Canadian statistics, often in an international context. Each chapter includes: beginning with Chapter 2, one or two How Do We Know This? boxes, explaining how Canadian researchers made important discoveries and helping students link research methods to findings; at least one Careers in Lifespan Development box, introducing students to Canadians working in diverse occupations related to lifespan development; and several How Would You...? boxes, prompting students to think about lifespan issues in the context of five key areas of specialization: education, human development and family studies, health professions, psychology, and social work. New to the Second Edition The following is a summary of new and revised chapter highlights in this second Canadian edition of Essentials of Lifespan Development. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Chapter 1: Introduction Added new chapter opening vignette considering potential impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on individuals at different developmental stages of the lifespan Reorganized structure to cover more general developmental topics first in “The Nature of Development,” followed by topics specific to lifespan development in “The Lifespan Perspective” Presented the central themes of lifespan development in current contexts (e.g., global pandemic; discovery of unmarked graves on the grounds of former residential schools) Streamlined discussion of developmental theories, presenting only those theories that are addressed in subsequent chapters Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Chapter 2: Biological Beginnings Added new chapter opening vignette considering the interplay of heredity and environment in the context of identical twin studies In “The Evolutionary Perspective,” made a connection to social psychology, provided more extensive discussion of tool use, and introduced research related to aspects of human nature revealed by the COVID-19 pandemic Revised “The Interaction of Genes and Environment” and introduced three examples to illustrate how epigenetics explain why the effect of trauma is often transmitted across generations Revised How Do We Know This? box, “How do we know that experience alters gene expression?” to focus more precisely on how Michael Meaney’s research is conducted In “Birth and the Postpartum Period,” added section on National Aboriginal Council of Midwives, including a Careers in Lifespan Development box featuring the co-chair of the National Aboriginal Council of Midwives Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Chapter 3: Physical and Cognitive Development in Infancy Updated coverage throughout with detailed descriptions of current theories and models Described key studies in detail to help students understand links between research questions, research methodology, and data Reorganized the section on brain development to enhance links between brain and behavioural development Described new research using fNIRS, aimed at emphasizing the importance of these technologies (e.g., for early diagnosis) Revised section on infant sleep, emphasizing cross-cultural differences in sleep practices (e.g., co-sleeping) and cultural influences that have increased concerns about whether infants sleep through the night Revised “Dynamic Systems Theory,” emphasizing how this theory informs our understanding of motor development (e.g., learning to choose low-risk slopes) Page xv Added new research on cross-cultural differences in motor development Added Piaget’s A-not-B error, to ensure adequate coverage of theory Updated and revised coverage of attention, including evidence from fNIRS about the role of neural coupling in joint attention Reorganized coverage of memory and added information on short-lookers and long-lookers Reorganized language content, separating language production from language comprehension Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Chapter 4: Socioemotional Development in Infancy Revised chapter content thoroughly and introduced eight new concepts/key terms: effortful control, emotion socialization, graduated extinction, primary emotions, reactivity, self-conscious or other-conscious emotions, self-recognition, and synchrony Updated chapter to enhance emphasis on cultural contexts and integrate global and cultural perspectives and studies throughout Added international studies to “Biological and Environmental Influences” Expanded coverage of “Crying in Context” to include international studies and provide information about techniques to deal with infant crying Revamped gender, culture, and temperament coverage to include multi-country studies Revised “Attachment and Culture” to demonstrate cultural diversity in attachment patterns Updated and expanded coverage in “Maternal and Paternal Caregiving” Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Chapter 5: Physical and Cognitive Development in Childhood Reorganized “The Brain,” to clarify key changes that occur during childhood; the section now includes a new study exploring the effects of scarcity on parental behaviour and brain development in rats (Perry et al., 2018) and content related to cerebral surface area Added new content on the relationship between physical activity and executive function and cultural differences in motor development Added new content (and key term) on developmental coordination disorder Updated information on the proportion of children who do not meet the World Health Organization’s sleep recommendations and the consequences of failing to do so; included recent evidence collected during the COVID-19 pandemic Reorganized “Attention” to clearly differentiate sustained versus selective attention and the interplay between attention and executive function Revised discussion of executive function to clearly differentiate updating, inhibition, and attentional shifting and provided an example of how each is tested Revised “Memory” (e.g., collapsing working and short-term memory) and carefully defined different components of long-term memory with examples to enhance understanding Enhanced coverage of individual differences in social cognition with a cross-cultural study on executive function and theory of mind, showing role of siblings (Sabbagh et al., 2006) Revised coverage of autism to be consistent with DSM-5 and to include recent Canadian statistics Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Chapter 6: Socioemotional Development in Childhood Revised coverage of initiative versus guilt in “Erikson’s Theory,” and included story about Canadian schoolchild Ryan Hreljac Expanded coverage of self-understanding to incorporate considerations of how ethnic identity forms and emphasize issues of discrimination and their impact on children Expanded discussion of parents’ role in children’s self-esteem Enhanced cultural perspectives throughout the chapter, adding more Canadian researchers and examples Revised “Regulation of Emotion and Peer Relations” to incorporate new information and studies Added UNICEF Canada tips for parents during the COVID-19 pandemic Added coverage of social domain theory to “Moral Development” Expanded “Parenting” by introducing concept of parenting styles as contexts Enhanced coverage in “Sibling Relationships” by introducing and discussing sibling abuse and parental favouritism and updating the section with Canadian statistics and recent studies Updated “Working Parents” with recent Canadian statistics and studies and effects of COVID-19 lockdowns Added to “Peer Relations” coverage of parents’ role in children’s peer relations Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Chapter 7: Physical Adolescence and Cognitive Development in Presented youth-led climate march in opening vignette Separated coverage of physical development (e.g., puberty) and brain development Redefined puberty and clarified and expanded coverage of hormonal changes Clarified distinctions between sexual activity, sexual identity, and sexual orientation, incorporating new studies from various countries; noted UNICEF call to improve education Page xvi Added content related to Canadian ban on conversion therapy, which took effect in January 2022 Added recent Canadian study on teenage pregnancy and highlighted Canada–U.S. differences Updated information about sleep during adolescence, including Canadian research reporting beneficial outcomes when schools went online during the COVID-19 pandemic Revised coverage of substance abuse for greater focus on Canada, including the influence of school engagement, family relations, and peers; highlighted link between residential schools and higher incidence of substance abuse in Indigenous as compared to nonIndigenous populations Revised discussion of cognitive development to clearly distinguish working memory, sustained attention, inhibition, and decision making; described tasks used to measure each of these components of cognitive control Expanded coverage of brain development to include brain volume, neurotransmitter levels, and connectivity; presented new evidence that adolescence is a sensitive period in brain development Highlighted the impact of social stressors on brain development and discussed this link in light of the COVID-19 pandemic Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Chapter 8: Socioemotional Development in Adolescence Enhanced chapter focus on Indigenous youth Expanded coverage of identity by increasing discussion of cultural and ethnic identity, including recent study of invisible immigrant Russian youth in Canada (Glozman & Chuang, 2022) Expanded “Families” with enhanced coverage of parental monitoring, the role of attachment (including COVID implications), and new sections, “The COVID-19 Pandemic Context” and ”The Immigration Context” Added new Careers in Lifespan Development box featuring Clovis Grant, CEO of 360°kids in York Region, Ontario Included a How Do We Know This? box featuring research by Teena Willoughby investigating risk taking during adolescence Expanded “Peers” with extended coverage of friendship, linking it to attachment and discussing negative effects of friends Added new subsections in “Peers”—“Dating in LGBTQ2+ Youth”; “Dating and Adjustment”; and “Physical Distance, Lockdown, and Sexting” Updated and expanded coverage of culture and adolescent development with content related to health, gender, rites of passage, and immigration Revised “Adolescent Problems” with an extended introduction that discusses sensation seeking, and a Canadian focus in its coverage of bullying and suicide Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Chapter 9: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood Introduced established adulthood (30–45 years) as a new concept (Mehta et al., 2020), distinguishing it from emerging adulthood (18– 29 years) Enhanced coverage of emerging adulthood, including deeper consideration of cultural differences Updated data from Statistics Canada about mortality rates during emerging and established adulthood, contrasting individuals’ knowledge about the importance of diet, exercise, sleep, and substance abuse with their behaviour Added new information about sleep and the impact of sleep deprivation on cognitive functioning Depicted current guidelines for physical activity Highlighted the opioid crisis and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on substance abuse Presented current trends in sexual activity (e.g., hooking up; friends with benefits) and current research on the development of sexual orientation and identity, including intriguing work on the “older brother effect,” linking it to coverage of epigenetics in Chapter 2 Introduced work-integrated learning and added discussion of work during postsecondary education Added coverage of women in STEM careers, including Canadian statistics about income level and education Added new Careers in Lifespan Development box featuring Dr. Khristine G. Cariño, president of the Society for Canadian Women in Science and Technology (SCWIST) Replaced data about unemployment with information about developmental factors that lead to career success Revised How Do We Know This? box to provide a better understanding of Statistics Canada and the breadth of expertise that contributes to its work Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Chapter 10: Socioemotional Development in Early Adulthood Expanded “Stability and Change from Childhood to Adulthood” with a deeper exploration of attachment Revised and updated coverage in “Costa and McCrae’s Baltimore Study,” focusing on the big five personality traits: openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN) Enhanced “Adult Lifestyles” with extended discussions and the incorporation of multiple Canadian and international studies Added new Careers in Lifespan Development box profiling Bijan Rafii, executive director of the Canadian Centre for Men and Families, York Region Added new Figure 10.3 examining marital trends in Canada Expanded “Challenges in Marriages, Unions, Parenting, and Divorce” with new coverage of intimate partner violence, high conflict situations, false allegations, divorce with children, and non-custodial fathers Page xvii Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Chapter 11: Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Adulthood Featured Michelle Good----advocate, lawyer, and author of Cree ancestry----in chapter opening vignette Revised “The Nature of Middle and Late Adulthood” by linking the stages of middle and old age to emerging and established adulthood Added new statistics related to aging in Canada, and made connections to daily life Discussed the adaptive value of human longevity in light of the grandmother hypothesis and presented new research regarding cellular clock theory Provided a discussion of age-related changes in the impact of stress on physical and mental health during middle and late adulthood Updated material on menopause, with emphasis on cross-cultural variability Reorganized and updated discussion of cognitive change during middle and late adulthood, including state-of-the-art technological innovations Added a new section, “Cognitive Neuroscience of Aging,” with information about neural compensation, mild cognitive impairment, and dementia Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Chapter 12: Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Adulthood Introduced new concept/key term: positivity effect Extended discussion of midlife crises Included enhanced coverage of the life-events approach Included 10 conclusions drawn from a study of the impact of stressful life events on disease risk (Cohen et al., 2019) Increased inclusion of Canadian statistics, studies, and information Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Chapter 13: Death, Dying, and Grieving Incorporated Russian invasion of Ukraine into chapter opening vignette Discussed various cultural and religious beliefs and practices with respect to death and dying, including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism, as well as those of Indigenous peoples Included a Careers in Lifespan Development box featuring Barbara Pesut of British Columbia, whose research focuses on palliative care Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page xviii Award-Winning Technology McGraw Hill Connect® is our best-in-class digital teaching and learning solution that saves time and enhances your impact. Connect gives you the tools you need to deliver a personalized course with ease, backed by our support at every step of the way so you can open a world of possibilities for your students. SmartBook® personalizes learning to individual student needs, continually adapting to pinpoint knowledge gaps and focus learning on concepts requiring additional study. For instructors, SmartBook tracks student progress and provides insights that guide teaching strategies and advanced instruction, for a more dynamic class experience. Connect’s key features include analytics and reporting, assignment management, smart grading, the opportunity to post your own resources, and the Connect Instructor Library, a repository for additional resources to improve student engagement in and out of the classroom. Instructor Resources for Essentials of Lifespan Development, Second Canadian Edition: Instructor’s Manual Test Bank Case Study Test Bank Microsoft® PowerPoint® Presentations Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page xix McGraw Hill Connect is a best-in-class digital teaching and learning solution that empowers students to reach their potential and enables instructors to manage their course more efficiently. Endorsed by educators. Loved by students. Instructors Deliver your course Enhance your teaching style with course management tools that save you time like seamless LMS integration, mobile access to the digital textbook, assignment creation tools and more. Our trusted, high-quality course materials help students develop higher-level thinking skills while allowing you the flexibility to tailor your course. Drive student success Incorporate adaptive study resources like SmartBook 2.0 into your course and help your students be better prepared in less time. Monitor student progress with critical analytics, data, and insights to help guide your teaching and remediation for better outcomes. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Support at every step We'll partner with you to ensure success every step of the way. From course design and setup to instructor training, LMS integration, and ongoing support, your Digital Success Consultant is here to make your course as effective as possible. Students Your ideal study partner Connect is designed to make you more productive with simple, flexible tools that maximize your study time. With everything you need in one place, Connect makes it easy to read your eBook, complete assignments, and stay on track. Study anytime, anywhere Download the ReadAnywhere app to access your eBook or SmartBook 2.0 assignments on the go, online or offline. The app automatically syncs with Connect to ensure you’re always up to date. Learning for everyone McGraw Hill works directly with your institution’s Accessibility Office to meet the learning needs of all students. Reach out to your Accessibility Office or visit mheducation.ca/accessibility to learn more. Learn more about Connect at mheducation.ca/connect » Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page xx Acknowledgments The Canadian authors—Catherine Mondloch, Susan Chuang, and Anne MacKenzie-Thompson—would like to thank the exceptional team that enabled the publishing of the second Canadian edition of Essentials of Lifespan Development: our portfolio manager, Alex Campbell; copyeditor, Laurel Sparrow; permissions editor, Indu Arora; and supervising editor, Jack Whelan. We would especially like to thank our content developer, Sarah Fulton, who was an incredible guide throughout the entire process. We are grateful to all of the Canadians who have shared their stories and research, supplied images, and provided valuable feedback to ensure that Canadian research in lifespan development is well represented. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page 1 1 Introduction Ariel Skelley/Getty Images CHAPTER OUTLINE THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes Characteristics of Development THE LIFESPAN PERSPECTIVE The Importance of Studying Lifespan Development Periods of Development Conceptions of Age Central Questions in Developmental Science Developmental Issues THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT Psychoanalytic Theories Cognitive Theories Behavioural and Social Cognitive Theories Ethological Theory Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Bioecological Theory CONTEMPORARY THEORIES AND APPROACHES Positive Psychology Neuroscience and Neuroplasticity Dynamic Systems Evolutionary Psychology An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation RESEARCH IN LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT Methods of Collecting Data Research Designs Time Span of Research Conducting Ethical Research On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared the COVID-19 outbreak a global pandemic (Cucinotta & Vanelli, 2 020). Hospitals were overwhelmed; schools turned to online learning; visits to many long-term care homes were prohibited; businesses were shuttered; shelters for unhoused people were closed or overcrowded; and citizens were instructed to minimize contact with anyone outside their immediate household. The global pandemic negatively affected individuals around the globe in myriad ways, but pause for a moment to think about the impact of the pandemic as a function of lifespan development. Consider the following questions: What age group was most impacted by the pandemic and associated restrictions? What support could be provided to mitigate both short- and long-term effects? To answer these questions, one must know what developmental tasks are important at each life stage and the extent to which disruptions alter an individual’s immediate well-being and their developmental trajectory. Let’s consider some developmental tasks at each life stage: Infancy: Form a bond with caregivers; learn about object properties through play; Childhood: Form friendships and develop a sense of efficacy; learn how to read and write and play a musical instrument; Page 2 Adolescence: Initiate romantic relationships and regulate emotions; develop abstract thinking; Young adulthood: Form a long-term relationship and (perhaps) have children; complete postsecondary education and launch a career; Middle adulthood: Care for children and parents; establish a career and plan for retirement; and Older adulthood: Focus on relationships with close family and friends; engage in activities to maintain cognitive and physical well-being. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com A kindergarten child consults a computer screen while engaged in online learning. Ann in the uk/Shutterstock Each of these developmental tasks was likely impacted by the global pandemic. For example, older adults were deprived of contact with those they loved most of all and of opportunities to maintain physical and cognitive well-being. At the same time, adolescents and young adults were deprived of opportunities to be with peers just when time spent with peers exceeds time spent with parents, and when romantic relationships are formed. Infants may have benefited from spending more time with parents, as daycares closed and parents worked from home; but many parents were highly stressed, altering their interactions with their infants. Older adults living in long-term care had limited contact with family during the global pandemic. Alonafoto/Shutterstock The effects of the global pandemic varied not only with age, but also across cultures and as a function of socioeconomic status. For example, only some jobs could easily adapt to an online environment; only some children had access to the resources necessary to learn from home; and access to healthcare varies across cultures. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com A survey of North Americans highlighted the impact of the pandemic on developmental milestones. Many respondents indicated decreased dating and delays in marriage, home ownership, and retirement, suggesting that the pandemic could have long-term social and economic consequences (Goda & Streeter, 2021). Likewise, lack of support for learning could have longterm effects on children—effects most impactful among low-income countries and families (World Economic Forum, 2022). Whether such effects are long lasting will take years to discover. During the pandemic, significant events such as weddings and funerals were smaller and required face masks. Ivanova Tanja/Shutterstock Designing policies to support individuals and to build resiliency in diverse settings and across the lifespan requires knowledge about development. Throughout the course on which you are about to embark, you will learn about brain and behavioural development and how development is shaped by experience. Such knowledge is power. People are living longer now than ever before, and the children of today will have access to medical advances that we can currently only imagine. As highlighted by the Stanford Center for Longevity (2022), planning for a society in which people routinely live to 100 years of age will benefit young and old alike. It is the authors’ hope that the knowledge you gain from this textbook will allow you to build a better future for yourself, your family, and your community. ■ Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page 3 The Nature of Development Every day, governments and organizations around the world make important decisions about allocation of resources. Decisions are made about number of children per classroom, healthcare budgets, playground designs, and long-term care. Making informed decisions requires an understanding of human development, the pattern of movement or change that starts at conception and continues through the lifespan. To understand human development and to integrate relevant and meaningful knowledge into our institutions and policies, it is essential to understand biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes—processes that interact throughout the lifespan. For example, to understand the development of personality, one needs to consider genetic influences, how people think, and the social environment in which an individual develops. To understand well-being in older adulthood, one needs to consider physical, cognitive, and socioemotional changes and how those changes are influenced by earlier life stages. Later in this chapter, we will discuss research and theories of development. You might be surprised at the breadth of approaches, from studying the role of specific genes to contrasting diverse cultures. The diversity in approaches reflects the processes that underlie human development. In this section, we introduce biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes (see Figure 1.1). Throughout the textbook, we devote two chapters to each life stage; we emphasize biological and cognitive processes in one chapter and socioemotional processes in the other. Keep in mind, though, that these processes are not independent of one another. Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes Biological Processes Biological processes produce changes in an individual’s physical nature. Genes inherited from parents, the development of the brain, changes in motor skills, nutrition, exercise, the hormonal changes of puberty, and cardiovascular decline are all examples of biological processes that affect development. As you will learn, the environment affects gene expression, producing biological changes that are passed from one generation to the next. Cognitive Processes Cognitive processes involve changes in an individual’s thinking, intelligence, and language. Watching a colourful mobile swinging above the crib, putting together a two-word sentence, memorizing a poem, finding something funny, imagining what it would be like to be a movie star, and solving a crossword puzzle all involve cognitive processes. As you will learn, age-related changes in cognitive processes (e.g., in attention) influence how we think and interact with others. Socioemotional Processes Socioemotional processes involve changes in the individual’s relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality. An infant’s smile in response to a parent’s touch, a toddler’s aggressive attack on a playmate, a school-age child’s development of assertiveness, an adolescent’s joy at the senior prom, and the affection between an elderly couple all reflect the role of socioemotional processes in development. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download link Below for Instant Download: https://browsegrades.net/documents/286751/ebook-payment-link-forinstant-download-after-payment Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Figure 1.1 Processes Involved in Developmental Changes Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes interact as individuals develop. Page 4 Connecting Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are inextricably intertwined (Diamond, 2013). Consider a baby smiling in response to a parent’s touch. This response depends on biological processes (the physical nature of touch and responsiveness to it), cognitive processes (the ability to understand and react to intentional acts), and socioemotional processes (the emotions elicited in an infant and the influence of the infant’s smile on the social interaction). Nowhere is the connection across biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes more obvious than in two rapidly emerging fields: developmental cognitive neuroscience, which explores links between development, cognitive processes, and the brain (de Haan & Johnson, 2016; Johnson, 2013), and developmental social neuroscience, which examines connections between socioemotional processes, development, and the brain (Decety & Cowell, 2016; Monahan et al., 2016). In many instances, biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are bidirectional. For example, biological processes can influence cognitive processes, and vice versa. For the most part, we will study the different processes of development (biological, cognitive, and socioemotional) in separate chapters, but the human being is an integrated individual with a mind and body that are interdependent. Thus, in many places throughout the book, we will call attention to the connections between these processes. Characteristics of Development Regardless of whether one focuses on development during childhood or development across the lifespan, researchers agree that development has several characteristics. Development is: Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com multidimensional, plastic, contextual, and a co-construction of biology, culture, and the individual. We will introduce these characteristics here. In the next section of this chapter, we will see that the lifespan perspective includes two additional characteristics: Development is lifelong and a process that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss (Baltes, 1997; Baltes et al., 2006). Page 5 Development Is Multidimensional Development consists of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions. Even within each of those dimensions, there are many components (Lustig & Lin, 2016; Reuter-Lorenz et al., 2016). For example, the cognitive dimension includes attention, memory, abstract thinking, speed of processing information, and social intelligence. At every age, changes occur in every dimension. Changes in one dimension also affect development in the other dimensions. Because development is multidimensional, it is an inherently multidisciplinary area of study. Bodies, brains, thinking, social interactions, and emotions all change across the lifespan. It is not surprising, then, that psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers all share an interest in unlocking the mysteries of development through the lifespan. How do heredity and health limit intelligence? Do intelligence and social relationships change with age in the same way around the world? How do families and schools influence intellectual development? How does childhood trauma alter the expression of genes? These are examples of research questions that cut across disciplines. Development Is Plastic Plasticity is the capacity for change. Is a shy child likely to become a shy adult? Or might life experiences (e.g., a supportive teacher; a special accomplishment) alter one’s temperament? Can you still improve your intellectual skills when you are in your 70s or 80s? Are these intellectual skills fixed by the time you are in your 30s? Does the brain simply mature on a predetermined schedule? Is the developing brain shaped by experience? Developmental psychologists debate how much plasticity people have in various dimensions at different points in their development (Kuhn & Lindenberger, 2016). For example, although cognitive skills of older adults can be improved through training and developing better strategies (Dörrenbächer et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2021), we may possess less capacity for change when we become older (Liem et al., 2021; Salthouse, 2020). Understanding the mechanisms and limits of developmental plasticity can influence social policy (e.g., help to evaluate the efficacy of policies and optimize their timing). How Would You...? As a social worker, how would you prioritize programs based on your knowledge of developmental plasticity? Development Is Contextual All development occurs within a context or setting. Contexts include families, schools, peer groups, places of worship, cities, neighbourhoods, university laboratories, countries, and so on. Each of these settings is influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, 1979; Parke & Elder, 2019) Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com The context in which humans develop varies around the world and over time. Baltes (1997) argued that contexts exert three types of influences: (1) normative age-graded influences, (2) normative history-graded influences, and (3) nonnormative or highly individualized life events. Each of these types can have a biological or socioemotional impact on development. Normative age-graded influences are similar for individuals in a particular age group. These influences include biological processes such as puberty and menopause. They also include sociocultural environmental processes such as beginning formal education (at about age 6 in most cultures) and retirement (which takes place during the 50s and 60s in most cultures). Normative history-graded influences are common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances. For example, in their youth, Canadian baby boomers shared the experience of Expo ’67, the creation of our national flag, “Trudeaumania,” Quebec’s desire to separate from the rest of Canada, the War Measures Act, and the arrival of the Beatles on the pop music scene. Other examples of normative history-graded influences are economic, political, and social upheavals such as the Great Depression in the 1930s, World War II in the 1940s, the civil rights and women’s rights movements of the 1960s and 1970s, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and the integration of computers and cellphones into everyday life during the 1990s (Pittinsky, 2020). Long-term changes in the genetic and cultural makeup of a population (due to immigration or changes in fertility rates) are also part of normative historical change. As discussed in the opening vignette, the COVID-19 pandemic is an excellent example of a normative historygraded influence—one that impacted every generation, but in different ways (Goda & Streeter, 2021). Nonnormative life events are unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individual’s life. These events do not happen to all people, and when they do occur they can influence people in different ways. Examples include the death of a parent when a child is young, pregnancy in early adolescence, a fire that destroys a home, winning the lottery, getting an unexpected career opportunity, or forced migration (Masten et al., 2019). Nonnormative life events, such the heat wave in Lytton, BC, with the highest recorded temperatures in Canadian history, and the COVID-19 global pandemic can have a major influence on an individual’s development. (left) ProPics Canada Media Ltd/Shutterstock, (right) d3sign/Getty Images Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com How Would You...? As a social worker, how would you explain the importance of considering nonnormative life events when working with a new client? Development Is a Co-construction of Biology, Culture, and the Individual Development comes from biological, individual, and cultural factors influencing each other (Baltes et al., 2006; Bronfenbrenner & Morr is, 2006). Specifically, the ways in which individuals think and make sense of the world around them is influenced by their cultural norms, values, and beliefs. For example, the values and beliefs that children learn from their parents are culturally embedded in the countries’ norms and traditions. Power dynamics, gendered roles, the importance and involvement of extended family, and social transformative changes (e.g., women entering the workforce, the one-child policy) are examples of factors that may directly and indirectly impact one’s development. These influences then shape the experiences that individuals have or pursue. Page 6 Although they are shaped by their genes and environment, humans can create a unique developmental path by actively choosing from the environment those things that optimize their lives (Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde, 2014). Careers in Lifespan Development Canadian Psychological Association The Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) was organized in 1939 and since then has represented Canadian psychology nationally and internationally. The CPA has become the national voice for promoting relevant research, education, and practice, with the goal of contributing to the overall health and welfare of Canadians. The organization established a code of ethics that governs research and practice. The core of the code includes respect for dignity, responsible caring, integrity, and social responsibility. These principles guide and promote the science and practice of psychology as well as addressing and responding to contemporary concerns, such as the needs of our aging population or posttraumatic stress experienced by military personnel. The mental and behavioural health needs in society are extensive. If left untreated, problems become magnified and have a negative effect on families and communities. Anxiety and depression are two of the most notable disorders experienced by Canadians, and these are closely followed by addiction. Despite Canada’s universal health plan, access to mental health services and supports is underfunded and therefore not guaranteed. Consequently, the expense to the family is compounded and often destructive. The provision of client/patient service fosters resilience and health (Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 2018). The CPA plays a key role in training psychological practitioners and developing and training researchers. Through scholarly publications, the CPA promotes psychological and cognitive research, disseminates information, and advocates to the government for increased funding to support research and fill the gaps in public health. The specific strategic goals of the CPA are as follows: Contribute to transforming the health system to improve mental healthcare for all Canadians, Be the national voice in support of psychological science and its import for public policy, Page 7 Deliver and communicate a unique and responsive value proposition to Canadian psychologists and students, Be a leading and valued provider of continuing professional development that helps enhance the competence and relevance of psychologists, and Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Continue to deliver excellence in strong fiscal management, stewardship of resources, and organizational effectiveness. According to Ian Nicholson, 2019–2020 president, the CPA has “a rich history of setting a strong course for our profession for the future. ... Or, as Shakespeare wrote, ‘It is not in the stars to hold our destiny but in ourselves’” (CPA, 2018). In Canada, a doctoral degree is considered the basic requirement to become a clinical psychologist. By meeting this requirement, individuals may conduct clinical and experimental research. With an additional year of internship, they may then provide psychological services to clients. In some provinces, such as Alberta and Saskatchewan, individuals with a master’s degree may become chartered psychologists and teach in colleges (CPA, n.d.) Throughout the textbook, you will read about individuals who are making valuable contributions, as well as learn about how the research is being conducted. How Would You...? As a psychologist, how would you explain the importance of examining sociocultural factors in developmental research? Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com The Lifespan Perspective Growth and development are dramatic during the first two decades of life, but development is not something that happens only to children and adolescents (Leipold, 2020). The traditional approach to the study of development emphasizes extensive change from birth to adolescence (especially during infancy), little or no change in adulthood, and decline in old age. Yet a great deal of change does occur in the decades after adolescence. The lifespan perspective emphasizes that development is a lifelong process that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss (Baltes, 1987; Baltes et al., 2006). Development Is Lifelong In the lifespan perspective, early adulthood is not the endpoint of development; rather, age-related change continues throughout adulthood. Understanding the influence of early life experiences (e.g., parent–child interactions, nutrition, play) on later development and how changes in the brain influence thinking across the lifespan are just some of the questions addressed by researchers in lifespan development. For example, cognitive skills that have a prolonged development during childhood (e.g., attentional control, executive functions) often decline during old age, allowing researchers to investigate the role of such skills in the development and maintenance of other abilities (Apperly et al., 2009) Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation of Loss Baltes and colleagues (Baltes et al., 2006) assert that the mastery of life often involves conflicts and competition among three goals of human development: growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss. As individuals age into middle and late adulthood, the quest to maintain their capacities and to regulate loss takes centre stage. Thus, a 75-year-old might aim to improve their memory or their mobility in order to maintain independence and autonomy. We will discuss these ideas about maintenance and regulation of loss in greater depth in later chapters. Life Expectancy Increases in human life expectancy have contributed to greater interest in the lifespan approach to development. The upper boundary of the human lifespan (based on the oldest age documented) is 122 years. The maximum lifespan of humans has not changed since the beginning of recorded history. What has changed is life expectancy (i.e., the average number of years that a person born in a particular year can expect to live). In the twentieth century alone, life expectancy increased by 30 years, thanks to the improvements in sanitation, nutrition, and medicine (see Figure 1.2). Page 8 According to Statistics Canada, life expectancy in Canada was 71.13 years in 1960, and increased more than 10 years to 81.9 in 2020 (S tatistics Canada, 2022). How does this compare with other countries of the world? Life expectancy has increased around the globe. In fact, the World Bank reports that world life expectancy increased from 52.572 years in 1960 to 72.232 in 2017. Nearly half of these gains in life expectancy occurred in the period between 1921 and 1951, largely due to reduced infant mortality. Increases in life expectancy are changing age demographics. Centenarians are the fastest-growing age group in Canada, according to the census results of 2011 (Decady & Greenberg, 2015). For most individuals in developed countries, childhood and adolescence now represent only about one-fourth of their lives. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Figure 1.2 Human Life Expectancy at Birth from Prehistoric Times to Contemporary Times It took 5,000 years to extend human life expectancy from 18 to 50 years of age and only a century to increase from 50 years to over 81 years in Canada. Source: Statistics Canada, 2022. Laura Carstensen, professor of psychology at Stanford University in California, describes the challenges and opportunities involved in this dramatic increase in life expectancy (Eberhardt & Carstensen, 2021). In her view, the remarkable increase in the number of people living to old age has taken place so quickly that science, technology, and social structures have not kept pace. She proposes that the challenge is to transform a world constructed mainly for young people into a world that is more compatible with, and supportive of, the Chapter 12, making the world more supportive of older adults is increasing number of people living to 100 and older. As we will see in challenging, but they are not as frail as stereotypically they are thought to be. Nonetheless, rising up to meet this challenge is important. After all, most of us will be older adults one day! The Importance of Studying Lifespan Development Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com How might you benefit from studying lifespan development? Perhaps you are—or will be—a parent, social worker, health professional, or teacher. If so, responsibility for children is—or will be—a part of your everyday life. The more you learn about children, the better you can raise them, teach them, and help them in a variety of other ways. Perhaps you hope to gain some insight about your own history—as an infant, a child, an adolescent, or a young adult. Perhaps you want to know more about what your life will be like as you grow through the adult years—as a middle-aged or older adult. Perhaps you wish to help aging parents or grandparents. Perhaps you want to use your knowledge of lifespan development to enhance the well-being of others in your professional life. It might help you to understand how childhood poverty or trauma influence people during adulthood or how culture influences how people think and behave. It might also help you to understand how diet and exercise in adolescence and early adulthood influence physical, cognitive, and socioemotional well-being later in life. Or perhaps you just stumbled across this course, thinking that it sounded intriguing. Whatever your reasons, you will discover that the study of lifespan development addresses some provocative questions about who we are, how we came to be this way, and where our future will take us. In our exploration of development, we will examine the lifespan from the point of conception until the time when life (at least, life as we know it) ends. We will examine physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development—aspects of development that interact with one another throughout the lifespan. You might reflect on your own developmental pathway from infancy to today, and from today into the future. Understanding the impact of early adulthood on well-being during older adulthood provides an opportunity to shape your own future. Social Policy Understanding lifespan development can influence social policy. Social policy is a national government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens. Values, economics, and politics all shape a nation’s social policy. Out of concern that policy makers are doing too little to protect the well-being of children and older adults, lifespan researchers are increasingly undertaking studies that they hope will lead to effective social policy (Sommer et al., 2016; Yeung & Mui-Teng, 2015). Understanding human development can help citizens evaluate policy and hold government and institutions to account. Page 9 The well-being of children has been a priority for Canadians since 1893, when the first comprehensive welfare legislation was enacted. Since then, further legislation has been passed both nationally and provincially. The Canadian Professional Social Workers (CASW), founded in 1926, has been an advocate for research and policy development. Developmental psychologists are seeking ways to help families living in poverty improve their well-being, and they have offered many suggestions for improving government policies (Gonzales et al., 2016; McCartney & Yoshikawa, 2015; Yoshikawa et al., 2016). Canada Without Poverty (2021) reports that 20 percent (1 in 5 children under 18) are living in poverty—a rate higher than that among Canadian adults. According to the UNICEF Report Card (2018), Canada’s child poverty gap (the depth of child poverty) is 26th of 35 wealthy nations (first is best). Poverty rates vary across communities in Canada. One in two Status First Nations children live in poverty. Children with disabilities, racialized families, and single-parent women are at greater risk of poverty than other Canadians. Impoverished families are struggling with food insecurity as well as social, emotional, and physical health issues (Canada Without Poverty, 2022). Poverty is associated with many adverse conditions, each of which impacts development. As indicated in Figure 1.3, one study found that a higher percentage of children in poor families than in middle-income families were exposed to family turmoil, separation from a parent, violence, crowding, excessive noise, and poor housing (Evans & English, 2002). Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Figure 1.3 Exposure to Six Stressors among Poor and Middle-Income Children One study analyzed the exposure to six stressors among poor children and middle-income children (Evans & English, 2002). Poor children were much more likely to face each of these stressors. The poverty rates are so staggeringly high in Indigenous communities that urgent action is required. To that end, in 2019, consistent with the Truth and Reconciliation Act of 2008, Canada introduced Bill C-92, a crucial piece of legislation that was co-developed with First Nations, Inuit, and Métis people. The goal of Bill C-92 is to reinstate jurisdiction of child welfare programs to Indigenous nations, groups, and communities. The Cowessess First Nation of Saskatchewan, where 751 unmarked graves were located on the grounds of a former residential school, was the first to implement Bill C-92. The 2021 Cowessess First Nation Miyo Pimatisowin Act was intended to develop service components, one of which is Chair Red Bear Children’s Lodge, and develop programs with individual and family supports across Canada. On July 6, 2021, at a First Nations ceremony, the agreement was signed by Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, Saskatchewan premier Scott Moe, and Chief Cadmus Delorme of the Cowessess First Nation. The words of Chief Delorme express the significance of Bill C-92: Today is an example of how reconciliation is possible in Canada. … today we stand ready to enter a new chapter of our history that will bring new support, hope, and opportunity to Cowessess First Nation children and youth. Our Agreement commits each government to their role in our healing journey and this new chapter, as one braid of sweetgrass. (Government of Canada, 2021) At the other end of the lifespan, older adults have health issues that social policy can address (Hooyman et al., 2015). Key concerns are escalating healthcare costs and the access of older adults to adequate healthcare (Gaugler, 2016; Moon, 2016). Concerns about the wellbeing of older adults are heightened by two facts. First, the number of older adults is growing rapidly. Second, many of these older adults Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com are likely to need society’s help (Williamson & Beland, 2016). Compared with earlier decades, older adults today are less likely to be married, more likely to be childless, and more likely to live alone (Machielse, 2015). As the older population continues to expand during the twenty-first century, an increasing number of older adults will be without either a spouse or children—traditionally the main sources of support for older adults. These individuals will need social relationships, networks, and other supports (Antonucci et al., 2016; LaMantia et al., 2015). Page 10 Periods of Development Figure 1.1) over time gives rise to the developmental The interplay of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes (see periods of the human lifespan. A developmental period is a time frame in a person’s life that is characterized by certain features. The most widely used classification of developmental periods involves an eight-period sequence. For the purposes of organization and understanding, we have collapsed some of these periods (e.g., middle and late adulthood) into the same chapter, simply to make reading this textbook—and covering the content within a single-term course—more manageable. The prenatal period is the time from conception to birth. It involves tremendous growth—from a single cell to a complete organism with a brain and behavioural capabilities—and takes place in approximately a 9-month period. Infancy is the developmental period from birth to 18–24 months when humans are extremely dependent on adults. During this period, many psychological activities—language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination, and social learning, for example—are just beginning. Childhood is the developmental period from the end of infancy to about 10–12 years of age. During early childhood (up to age 5–6) preschool children learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves. They also develop school-readiness skills, such as the ability to follow instructions and identify letters, and they spend many hours playing with peers. During middle and late childhood, children master the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic. They are formally exposed to the world outside the family and to the prevailing culture. Adolescence encompasses the transition from childhood to early adulthood, beginning at approximately 10–12 years of age and ending at 18–22 years of age. Adolescence begins with rapid physical changes—dramatic gains in height and weight; changes in body contour; and the development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, growth of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. At this point in development, the pursuit of independence and an identity are prominent themes. Thought is more logical, abstract, and idealistic. More time is spent outside the family. It is also a period characterized by increased risk-taking—a pattern that might worry parents but is part of gaining independence. Early adulthood is the developmental period that begins in the late teens or early 20s and continues to around the age of 45. This is a time for establishing personal and economic independence and becoming proficient in a career. During this stage, many individuals select a mate, learn to live with that person in an intimate way, and start a family. Middle and late adulthood is the developmental period from approximately 45 years of age to about 60 and then from 60 years of age until death, respectively. Middle adulthood is a time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming competent, mature individuals; and of achieving and maintaining satisfaction in a career. Late adulthood is a time of life review, retirement from the workforce, and adjustment to new social roles involving decreasing strength and health. Conceptions of Age In our description of developmental periods, we attached an approximate age range to each period. But we have also noted that there are variations in the capabilities of individuals of the same age, and we have seen how age-related changes can be exaggerated. How important is age when we try to understand an individual? Page 11 According to some lifespan experts, chronological age is not very relevant to understanding a person’s psychological development (Hoyer & Roodin, 2009). Chronological age is the number of years that have elapsed since birth. But time is a crude index of experience, Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com and it does not cause development. Chronological age, moreover, is not the only way of measuring age (Boker & Nesselroade, 2021). Just as there are different domains of development, there are different ways of thinking about age (Hoyer & Roodin, 2009). Four Types of Age Chronological age simply reflects years since birth. Biological age is a person’s age in terms of biological health. Determining biological age involves knowing the functional capacities of a person’s vital organs. One person’s vital capacities may be better or worse than those of others of comparable chronological age. The younger the person’s biological age, the longer the person is expected to live, regardless of chronological age. Psychological age is an individual’s adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age. Thus, older adults who continue to learn, remain flexible, are motivated, think clearly, and have positive personality traits are said to be younger psychologically than their chronological age-mates who do not do these things (Schaie, 2021). Social age refers to connectedness with others and the social roles individuals adopt. Individuals who have better social relationships with others are happier and tend to live longer than individuals who are lonely (Antonucci et al., 2016; Carstensen, 2015). (a) (b) The elderly man on the left (a) is chronologically older than the sedentary, overweight man on the right (b). Nonetheless, the biological and psychological age of the man on the left is likely younger than that of the man on the right. (a) Sandy Huffaker/The New York Times/Redux; (b) Firehorse/E+/Getty Images From a lifespan perspective, the overall age profile of an individual involves all types of aging. For example, a 70-year-old man (chronological age) might be in good physical health (biological age), but might be experiencing memory problems and having trouble coping with the demands placed on him by his wife’s recent hospitalization (psychological age) and dealing with a lack of social support (social age). Three Developmental Patterns of Aging K. Warner Schaie (2016) describes three different developmental patterns that provide a portrait of how aging can involve individual variations: Normal aging characterizes most individuals, for whom psychological functioning often peaks in early middle age, remains relatively stable until the late 50s to early 60s, and then shows a modest decline through the early 80s. However, marked decline can occur as individuals near death. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Pathological aging characterizes individuals who show greater than average decline as they age through the adult years. In early old age, they may have mild cognitive impairment, develop Alzheimer’s disease, or have a chronic disease that impairs their daily functioning. Successful aging characterizes individuals whose positive physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development is maintained longer, declining later in old age than is the case for most people. For too long, only the declines that occur in late adulthood were highlighted, but interest is increasing in the concept of successful aging (Araújo et al., 2016; Rowe & Kahn, 2015; Schaie & Willis, 2021). Central Questions in Developmental Science Take a moment and consider the life trajectory of someone you truly admire or for whom you hold disdain. Then consider your life trajectory up to today. What makes each of our lives unique? Is your own journey through life marked out ahead of time, or can your experiences change your path? Are the experiences you have early in your journey more important than later ones? Is your journey more like taking an elevator up a skyscraper with distinct stops along the way, or more like a cruise down a river with smoother ebbs and flows? These considerations point to three central questions about the nature of development: the roles played by nature and nurture, stability and change, and continuity and discontinuity. Page 12 What are some key developmental issues? Photodisc/Stockbyte/Getty Images Nature and Nurture The nature versus nurture question concerns the extent to which development is influenced by nature and by nurture. Nature refers to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to its environmental experiences. Historically, researchers debated about the relative importance of nature versus nurture in development. Consider the question of how children come to understand and know about their world. Some researchers emphasize that infants have knowledge about certain concepts (e.g., number) without any experience (Spelke, 2003); such knowledge is often called innate. Others emphasize that infants and children construct knowledge through experience (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). The nature versus nurture question is evident in theories of language development. Noam Chomsky argued that language development was an innate process (Chomsky, 1972), whereas B. F. Skinner (1957) argued that language development was shaped by the environment. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com The nature versus nurture debate has a long-standing history, but today most researchers agree that nature and nurture interact throughout development (Stiles, 2011). For example, genetic signals are essential for brain development and play a key role in the complexity of the human brain. Simultaneously, the environment in which humans develop—an environment that includes faces, language, objects, and culture—plays a central role. As Joan Stiles (2011) stated: “The key to understanding the origins and emergence of both the brain and behavior lies in understanding how inherited and environmental factors are engaged in the dynamic and interactive processes that define and guide development of the neurobehavioral system” (p. 3). As you will see throughout this textbook, the influences of nature and nurture are so intertwined that separating them is almost nonsensical. As Ridley (2003) discussed, development might best be characterized as “nature via nurture,” with experience altering gene expression. Stability and Change Is the shy child who hides behind the sofa when visitors arrive destined to become a wallflower at university dances, or might the child become a sociable, talkative individual? Is the fun-loving, carefree adolescent bound to have difficulty holding down a nine-to-five job as an adult? These questions reflect the stability–change issue, involving the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist or change over time. The roles of early and later experience are an aspect of the stability–change issue that has long been hotly debated (Farrell et al., 2019). Some argue that warm, nurturant caregiving during infancy and toddlerhood predicts optimal development later in life (Girme et al., 2021). The later-experience advocates see children as malleable throughout development and believe that later sensitive caregiving is just as important as earlier sensitive caregiving (Adcock et al., 2020). Developmentalists who emphasize change take the more optimistic view that later experiences can produce change. According to this view, a shy child might become an outgoing young adult, and an older adult might continue to learn new things. The issue of stability and change has practical implications. For example, the view that later experiences can produce change raises the possibility of investing in at-risk adults with the expectation that their developmental trajectory is malleable. How Would You...? As a healthcare professional, how would you talk with a patient who is depressed or an addict about the possibility of resetting their life course? Page 13 Continuity and Discontinuity When developmental change occurs, is it gradual or abrupt? Think about your own development for a moment. Did you gradually become the person you are today? Or did you experience sudden, distinct changes in your growth? The continuity–discontinuity issue focuses on the degree to which development involves either gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity). In terms of continuity, as the oak grows from a seedling to a giant tree, its development is continuous. Similarly, a child’s first word, though seemingly an abrupt, discontinuous event, is actually the result of weeks and months of growth and practice. Puberty might seem abrupt, but it is a gradual process that occurs over several years. In terms of discontinuity, as an insect grows from a caterpillar to a chrysalis to a butterfly, it passes through a sequence of stages in which change is qualitatively rather than quantitatively different. Similarly, at some point a child moves from not being able to think abstractly about the world to being able to do so. This is a qualitative, discontinuous change in development rather than a quantitative, continuous change. To some extent, whether change is continuous or discontinuous depends on the level of measurement. For example, short-term memory loss might be gradual during older adulthood but appear sudden when a long-standing ability (such as playing bridge) becomes impaired. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Centre Block, on Parliament Hill in Ottawa. How might social policy and government spending be impacted by the view that development is dictated by nature and that individual differences are stable? Radius Images/Image Source Evaluating the Central Questions Developmentalists generally acknowledge that development is not all nature or all nurture, not all stability or all change, and not all continuity or all discontinuity. Nature and nurture, stability and change, and continuity and discontinuity characterize development throughout the lifespan. Although most developmentalists do not take extreme positions on these three important issues, there is spirited debate regarding how strongly development is influenced by each of these factors (Grigorenko et al., 2016; Hill & Roth, 2016; Sroufe, 2016; Thompson & Goodvin, 2016). The challenge is to unravel the mystery of development in all its complexities—a journey on which you are about to embark. Developmental Issues Pick up a newspaper or magazine and you might see headlines like these: “Political Leanings May Be Written in the Genes,” “Mother Accused of Tossing Children into Bay,” “Gender Gap Widens,” and “Test May Predict Alzheimer Disease.” Researchers using the lifespan perspective explore these and many other topics of contemporary concern. Now that you have been introduced to the lifespan developmental perspectives and some of the central questions in developmental science, we will present a sampling of issues that developmental research can address. Parenting and Education Can two gay men raise a healthy family? Do children suffer if they grow up in a divorced family? Is our education system failing to teach children how to read and write and calculate adequately? We hear many questions like these related to pressures on the contemporary family and the problems of schools (Bullard, 2017). Both mothers and fathers uniquely contribute to their children’s healthy development, impacting all aspects of their achievement—successes as well as failures. Parents’ roles, practices, and beliefs are embedded within their sociocultural contexts and, in recent years, researchers have paid increased attention to immigrant and ethnic minority families (Chuang et al., 2021; Johnson et al., 2022). Page 14 In later chapters, we analyze childcare, the effects of divorce, parenting styles and practices, intergenerational relationships, early childhood education, relationships between childhood poverty and education, bilingual education, new educational efforts to improve lifelong learning, and many other issues related to parenting and education (Feeney et al., 2016; Pianta, 2016; Wadsworth et al., 2016). Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Robert Maust/Photo Agora Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity Health, parenting, and education—like development itself—are all shaped by their sociocultural context (Marks et al., 2019; Walsh & Mortensen, 2020). To analyze this context, four concepts are especially useful: culture, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and gender. Culture encompasses the behaviour patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a particular group of people that are passed on from generation to generation (Li, 2020). Culture results from the interaction of people over many years (Schoon & Bynner, 2020). A cultural group can be as large as Canada or as small as an isolated prairie town. Whatever its size, the group’s culture influences the behaviour of its members (Masumoto & Juang, 2017). Cross-cultural studies compare aspects of two or more cultures. The comparison provides information about the degree to which development is similar, or universal, across cultures, or is instead culture specific (Chen & Liu, 2016). How diverse are the students in your lifespan development class? Are their experiences in growing up likely to have been similar to yours or different from yours? stockbroker © 123RF.com How Would You...? As a healthcare professional, how would you explain the importance of examining cross-cultural research when searching for developmental trends in health and wellness? Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Ethnicity (the word ethnic comes from the Greek word for “nation”) is rooted in cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language. It is the cultural norms and values and the strength and meaningfulness of one’s group to the individual. Thus, it is these cultural aspects that make ethnic groups unique from each other. Canadian, Asian, African, Filipino, Jamaican, Indian, and Indigenous refer to some of the diverse groups in Canadian culture. Diversity also exists within each ethnic group (Gonzales et al., 2016). There has been a growing realization that research on children’s development needs to include more children from diverse ethnic groups (Schaefer, 2015). A special concern is the discrimination and prejudice experienced by ethnic minority children (Spencer & Swanson, 2016). Doly Akter, age 17, lives in a slum in Dhaka, Bangladesh, where sewers overflow, garbage rots in the streets, and children are undernourished. Nearly two-thirds of the women in Bangladesh marry before they are 18. Doly organized a club supported by UNICEF in which girls go door-to-door to monitor the hygiene habits of households in their neighbourhood, which has led to improved hygiene and health in the families. Her group has managed to stop several child marriages by meeting with parents and convincing them that it is not in their daughter’s best interests. They emphasize the importance of staying in school and how this will improve their daughter’s future. Doly says that the girls in her UNICEF group are far more aware of their rights than their mothers ever were (UNICEF, 2007). Naser Siddique/UNICEF Bangladesh Socioeconomic status (SES) refers to a person’s position within society based on occupational, educational, and economic characteristics. SES implies certain inequalities. Differences in the ability to control resources and to participate in society’s rewards produce unequal opportunities (George & Ferraro, 2016; Wadsworth et al., 2016). Another important factor to consider is gender, the behavioural, cultural, or psychological traits that are generally presumed for one’s sex (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). Thus, whether a baby is born a boy or girl, how one identifies their gender when they grow up will influence their development. For example, the toys that babies are given in the early years may reflect cultural roles and expectations of what a boy or girl “should” do. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page 15 Theories of Development How can we answer questions about the roles of nature and nurture, stability and change, and continuity and discontinuity in development? How can we determine, for example, whether memory loss in older adults can be prevented, or whether special care can repair the harm inflicted by child neglect? The scientific method is the best tool we have to answer such questions (Smith & Davis, 2016). The scientific method is essentially a four-step process: (1) conceptualize a process or problem to be studied, (2) collect research information (data), (3) analyze the data, and (4) draw conclusions. In step 1, when researchers are formulating a problem to study, they often draw on theories and develop hypotheses. A theory is an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and make predictions. It may suggest hypotheses, which are specific assertions and predictions that can be tested. For example, a theory on aging might state that older adults are happier than younger adults because older adults have a different sense of time. Such a theory leads to predictions under which young adults might achieve a similar level of happiness. For example, one might hypothesize that young adults will achieve a similar level of happiness prior to moving to a new country because their sense of time in their current environment (e.g., near current friends and family) is shortened. This section outlines five theoretical orientations to development: psychoanalytic, cognitive, behavioural and social cognitive, ethological, and bioecological. These theories examine development from different perspectives, and theorists disagree about certain aspects of development. But many of their ideas are complementary, and each contributes an important piece to the lifespan development puzzle. Together they let us see the total landscape of lifespan development in all its richness. Psychoanalytic Theories Psychoanalytic theories describe development primarily in terms of unconscious (beyond awareness) processes that are heavily coloured by emotion. Psychoanalytic theorists emphasize that behaviour is merely a surface characteristic, and that a true understanding of development requires us to analyze the symbolic meanings of behaviour and the deep inner workings of the mind. Psychoanalytic theorists also stress that early experiences with parents extensively shape development. The two theories we will discuss emphasize discontinuity over continuity. These characteristics are highlighted in the main psychoanalytic theory, that of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). Freud’s Theory Freud was a pioneer in the treatment of psychological problems. Based on his belief that patients who talked about their problems could be restored to psychological health, Freud developed a technique called psychoanalysis. As he listened to, probed, and analyzed his patients, he became convinced that their problems were the result of experiences early in life. He thought that, as children grow up, their focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from the mouth to the anus and eventually to the genitals. Consequently, he determined that we pass through five stages of psychosexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital (see Figure 1.4). Our adult personality, Freud claimed, is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure at each stage and the demands of reality (1917). Oral Stage Anal Stage Phallic Stage Infant’s pleasure Child’s pleasure Child’s centres on the focuses on the focuses mouth. anus. genitals. intellectual skills. family. Birth to 1½ years 1½ to 3 years 3 to 6 years 6 years to puberty Puberty onward pleasure on the Latency Stage Genital Stage Child represses sexual interest A time of sexual reawakening; the source of and sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the develops social and Figure 1.4 Freudian Stages Because Freud emphasized sexual motivation, his stages of development are known as psychosexual stages. In his view, if the need for pleasure at any stage is either undergratified or overgratified, an individual may become fixated, or locked in, at that stage of development. Freud’s followers significantly revised his psychoanalytic theory. Many of today’s psychoanalytic theorists believe that Freud overemphasized sexual instincts; they place more emphasis on cultural experiences as determinants of an individual’s development. Unconscious thought remains a central theme, but conscious thought plays a greater role than Freud envisioned. Next, we will outline the ideas of an important revisionist of Freud’s theory—Erik Erikson (1902–1994). Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page 16 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson recognized Freud’s contributions but believed that Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development. Both Erikson and Freud placed great importance on early experience—but, whereas Freud claimed that one’s basic personality is shaped in the first 5 years of life, Erikson argued that developmental change occurs throughout the lifespan. In other words, Erikson and Freud took different approaches to the developmental question of stability versus change. Second, Erikson (1950, 1968) said that development is in psychosocial stages, rather than the psychosexual stages that Freud described. According to Erikson, motivation is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people. In Erikson’s theory, eight stages of development unfold as we go through life (see Figure 1.5). At each stage, a unique developmental task confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved. According to Erikson, this crisis is not a catastrophe but a turning point marked by both increased vulnerability and enhanced potential. The more successfully an individual resolves these crises, the healthier their development will be. Erikson’s Stage Developmental Period Trust versus mistrust Infancy (first year) Autonomy versus shame and doubt Infancy (1 to 3 years) Initiative versus guilt Early childhood (preschool years, 3 to 5 years) Industry versus inferiority Middle and late childhood (elementary school years, 6 years to puberty) Identity versus identity confusion Adolescence (10 to 20 years) Intimacy versus isolation Early adulthood (20s, 30s) Generativity versus stagnation Middle adulthood (40s, 50s) Integrity versus despair Late adulthood (60s onward) Figure 1.5 Erikson’s Eight Lifespan Stages Like Freud, Erikson proposed that individuals go through distinct, universal stages of development. Notice that the timing of Erikson’s first four stages is similar to that of Freud’s stages. What are the implications of saying that people go through stages of development? Page 17 We will discuss each of these stages later in this textbook, but let’s consider two of them now. Trust versus mistrust is Erikson’s first psychosocial stage, which is experienced in the first year of life. Trust during infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to live. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Erik Erikson with his wife, Joan, an artist. Erikson generated one of the most important developmental theories of the twentieth century. Which stage of Erikson’s theory are you in? Can you imagine parenting behaviours that would foster trust as opposed to mistrust? Jon Erikson/Science Source Intimacy versus isolation is Erikson’s sixth developmental stage, which individuals experience during early adulthood. At this time, individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships. If young adults form healthy friendships and an intimate relationship with a partner, intimacy will be achieved; if not, isolation will result. Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories Contributions of psychoanalytic theories like Freud’s and Erikson’s to lifespan development include an emphasis on a developmental framework, family relationships, and unconscious aspects of the mind. These theories have been criticized for a lack of scientific support, too much emphasis on sexual underpinnings, and an image of people that is too negative. In 2017, U.S. president Donald Trump invoked a policy by which asylum-seeking parents were separated from their children. How would Erikson describe the impact of such separation on the development of trust versus mistrust? John Moore/Getty Images Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Cognitive Theories Whereas psychoanalytic theories stress the unconscious, cognitive theories emphasize conscious thoughts. Three important cognitive theories are Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory, Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory, and information-processing theory. All three focus on the development of complex thinking skills. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Piaget’s theory states that children go through four stages of cognitive development as they actively construct their understanding of the Figure 1.6). Piaget (1954) envisioned children as actively engaged in their cognitive development, organizing and world (see reorganizing information with new discoveries (Miller, 2015). For example, upon discovering that not all four-legged house pets say “woof,” a young child might form a new category called “cat.” Page 18 Each of Piaget’s stages is age related and consists of a distinct way of thinking, a different way of understanding the world. Thus, according to Piaget, the child’s cognition is qualitatively different in one stage than in another. Sensorimotor Stage Preoperational Stage Concrete Operational Stage Formal Operational Stage an The child begins to represent the The child can now reason logically The adolescent reasons in more understanding of the world by world with words and images. about abstract, idealistic, and logical coordinating sensory experiences These words and images reflect classify objects into different sets. ways. with physical actions. An infant increased symbolic thinking and progresses 7 to 11 years of age 11 The infant constructs reflexive, go beyond the connection of instinctual action at birth to the sensory information and physical beginning of symbolic thought action. from concrete events and toward the end of the stage. Birth to 2 years of age 2 to 7 years of age years of age through adulthood Figure 1.6 Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development According to Piaget, how a child thinks—not how much the child knows—determines the child’s stage of cognitive development. Left to right Stockbyte/Getty Images; Jacobs Stock Photography/BananaStock/Getty Images; Fuse/image100/Corbis; Purestock/Getty Images The sensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age, is the first Piagetian stage. In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motor actions—hence the term sensorimotor. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Jean Piaget (1896–1980), the famous Swiss developmental psychologist, changed the way we think about the development of children’s minds. What are some key ideas in Piaget’s theory? Yves de Braine/Black Star/Stock Photo The preoperational stage, which lasts from approximately 2 to 7 years of age, is Piaget’s second stage. In this stage, children are now able to represent the world with words, images, and drawings. However, according to Piaget, preschool children still lack the ability to perform what he calls operations, which are internalized mental actions. Preoperational children are fascinating; their inability to perform operations leads to sibling battles over who has the larger piece of cake—simply because the two pieces differ in shape. The last two Piagetian stages, the concrete operational stage (about 7–11 years of age) and the formal operational stage (about 11 years of age to adulthood) include the development of the ability to reason logically about specific or concrete examples (concrete operations) and then to think more abstractly (formal operations). In solving problems, formal operational individuals become more systematic, developing hypotheses about why something is happening the way it is and then testing these hypotheses—something you do each day as you learn psychology. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Like Piaget, the Russian developmentalist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) reasoned that children actively construct their knowledge. However, Vygotsky (1962) gave social interaction and culture far more important roles in cognitive development than Piaget did. Lev Vygotsky was born the same year as Piaget, but he died much earlier, at the age of 37. There is considerable interest today in Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory of child development. What are some key characteristics of Vygotsky’s theory? A.R. Lauria /Dr. Michael Cole, Laboratory of Human Cognition, University of California, San Diego Vygotsky’s theory is a sociocultural theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development. Vygotsky portrayed the child’s development as inseparable from social and cultural activities (Gauvain & Perez, 2015). He stressed that cognitive development involves learning to use the inventions of society, such as language, mathematical systems, and memory strategies. Thus, in one culture, children might learn to count with the help of a computer; in another, they might learn by using beads. According to Vygotsky, children’s social interaction with more skilled adults and peers is indispensable to their cognitive development (Rogoff et al., 2015). Through this interaction, they learn to use the tools that will help them adapt and be successful in their culture. Later, we will examine ideas about learning and teaching that are based on Vygotsky’s theory. In 2011, an Inuit cultural school opened in Nunavut. Consistent with Vygotsky’s theory, children are learning traditional language and values from teachers and elders. Tonda MacCharles/Toronto Star via Getty Images Information-Processing Theory Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Information-processing theory emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Like Vygotsky’s theory, information-processing theory does not describe development as stage-like. Instead, according to this theory, individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information, which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills (Gordon et al., 2020; Muller & Kerns, 2015). Robert Siegler (2006, 2013), a leading expert on children’s information processing, states that thinking is information processing. Specifically, when individuals perceive, encode, represent, store, and retrieve information, they are thinking. Siegler emphasizes that an important aspect of development is learning good strategies for processing information (Siegler, 2016a, b). For example, becoming a better reader might involve learning to monitor the key themes of the material being read. Researchers who focus on information processing investigate how specific skills, such as lie telling or problem solving, are influenced by general cognitive development, such as improvements in working memory or executive function. Many of these researchers relate the improvements to brain development. Page 19 The information-processing approach often uses the computer as an analogy to help explain the connection between cognition and the brain (Siegler & Alibali, 2020) (see Figure 1.7). The physical brain is described as the computer’s hardware, and cognition as its software. In this analogy, the sensory and perceptual systems provide an “input channel,” similar to the way data are entered into the computer. As input (information) comes into the mind, mental processes—or operations—act on it, just as the computer’s software acts on the data. The transformed input generates information that remains in memory in much the same way that a computer stores what it has worked on. Finally, the information is retrieved from memory and “printed out” or “displayed” (so to speak) as an observable response. Figure 1.7 Comparing the Information Processing of Humans and Computers Psychologists who study cognition often use a computer analogy to explain how humans process information. The brain is analogous to the computer’s hardware and cognition is analagous to the computer’s software. Creatas/Getty Images Although the analogy between computers and the human brain is not perfect (e.g., only humans develop new learning goals), the computer’s role in cognitive and developmental psychology continues to increase. An entire scientific field called artificial intelligence (AI) focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people. A new field titled Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com developmental robotics uses robotic technology to explore various developmental topics and issues, such as motor development, perceptual development, information processing, and language development (Mozer et al., 2019; Roberts et al., 2020). The hope is to build robots that are as much like humans as possible and, in doing so, to better understand how humans think and develop (Gordon, 2020; Harris et al., 2020). Likewise, integrating what we know about human development into machine learning is expected to improve artificial intelligence (S mith & Slone, 2017). This humanoid robot, called iCub, was created by the Italian Institute of Technology to study aspects of children’s development such as perception, cognition, and motor development. In this situation, the robot, the size of a 3.5-year-old child, is catching a ball. This robot is being used by more than 20 laboratories worldwide and has 53 motors that move the head, arms and hands, waist, and legs. It also can see and hear, as well as having the sense of proprioception (body configuration) and movement (using gyroscopes). Marco Destefanis/Pacific Press/Sipa USA/Newscom Page 20 Evaluating Cognitive Theories Contributions of cognitive theories include a positive view of development and an emphasis on the active construction of understanding. Criticisms include skepticism about the pureness of Piaget’s stages and, with the exception of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, a belief that too little attention is paid to individual and cultural variations. Behavioural and Social Cognitive Theories Behavioural and social cognitive theories hold that development can be described in terms of behaviours learned through interactions with our surroundings. Behaviourism argues that what can be studied scientifically must be directly observed and measured. As a result, behaviourists focus on observable behaviour that can be learned through experience with the environment (Spiegler, 2016). In terms of the continuity–discontinuity issue discussed earlier in this chapter, the behavioural and social cognitive theories emphasize continuity in development and argue that development does not occur in a stage-like fashion. We will explore two versions of behaviourism: Skinner’s operant conditioning and Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory According to B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), the key aspect of development is behaviour, not thoughts and feelings. The consequences of a behaviour produce changes in the probability of the behaviour’s recurrence through operant conditioning. A behaviour followed by a Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur, whereas a behaviour followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur. For example, a child is more likely to repeat a behaviour if the behaviour is followed by a smile from an adult than if the behaviour is followed by a disapproving look. In Skinner’s (1938) view, such rewards and punishments shape development (i.e., development consists of the pattern of behavioural changes that are brought about by rewards and punishments). For example, Skinner would say that shy people learned to be shy as a result of experiences they had while growing up. It follows that modifications to an environment can help a shy person become more socially oriented. The Canadian Paediatric Society recommends that parents emphasize positive parenting (e.g., rewarding children’s good behaviour, acknowledging children’s feelings, redirecting children) and avoid getting angry, shaming, and time-outs. This approach would encourage parents to praise a child who shares but to avoid punishing a child who refuses to give some of their cookies to a sibling or friend. © Julien de Wilde/SuperStock Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Some psychologists agree with the behaviourists’ notion that development is learned and is influenced strongly by environmental interactions. However, unlike Skinner, they also see cognition as important in understanding development. Social cognitive theory holds that behaviour, environment, and person/cognitive factors are the key factors in development. American psychologist Albert Bandura is the leading architect of social cognitive theory. Bandura (1986, 2010, 2012, 2018) emphasizes that cognitive processes have important links with the environment and behaviour. His early research program focused heavily on observational learning (also called imitation or modelling), which is learning that occurs through observing what others do. For example, after observing his mother yelling in anger and treating other people with hostility, a young boy might act very aggressively with his peers, showing the same behavioural characteristics as his mother. Social cognitive theorists stress that people acquire a wide range of behaviours, thoughts, and feelings through observing others’ behaviour and that these observations form an important part of lifespan development. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Albert Bandura is a leading architect of social cognitive theory. How does Bandura’s theory differ from Skinner’s? Courtesy of Dr. Albert Bandura Page 21 What is cognitive about observational learning in Bandura’s view? He proposes that people cognitively represent the behaviour of others and then sometimes adopt this behaviour themselves. Bandura’s (2004, 2018) most recent model of learning and development includes three elements: behaviour, the person/cognition, and the environment. An individual’s confidence that they can control their success is an example of a person factor; strategies for achieving success are an example of a cognitive factor; another child’s behaviour is an example of an environmental factor. Recently, Bandura (2018) described forethought as a key cognitive factor in his social cognitive theory. When engaging in forethought, individuals guide and motivate themselves by creating action plans, formulating goals, and visualizing positive outcomes of their actions. As shown in influences from behaviour, person/cognition, and environment operate interactively. Figure 1.8 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model The arrows illustrate how relations between behaviour, person/cognition, and environment are reciprocal rather than one way. Person/cognition refers to cognitive processes (for example, thinking and planning) and personal characteristics (for example, believing that you can control your experiences). Figure 1.8, Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022 displaced millions of children and put millions of others in the midst of a dangerous conflict zone. According to behavioural and social cognitive theories, how might being forced to flee their country or living in a conflict zone affect children’s behaviour? Drop of Light/Shutterstock Evaluating Behavioural and Social Cognitive Theories Contributions of the behavioural and social cognitive theories include an emphasis on scientific research and environmental determinants of behaviour. These theories have been criticized for placing too little emphasis on cognition (Skinner) and giving inadequate attention to developmental changes. Ethological Theory Ethology is the study of the behaviour of animals in their natural habitat. Ethological theory stresses that behaviour is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods (Bateson, 2015). According to ethologists, these are specific time frames during which the presence or absence of certain experiences has a long-lasting influence on individuals. European zoologist Konrad Lorenz (1903–1989) helped bring ethology to prominence. In his best-known research, Lorenz (1965) studied the behaviour of greylag geese, which follow their mothers as soon as they hatch. Lorenz separated the eggs laid by one goose into two groups: one group he returned to the goose to be hatched by her; the other group was hatched in an incubator. The goslings in the first group performed as predicted: They followed their mother as soon as they hatched. Those in the second group, who saw Lorenz when they first hatched, followed him everywhere as though he were their mother. Lorenz marked the goslings and then placed both groups under a box. Mother goose and “mother” Lorenz stood aside as the box was lifted. Each group of goslings went directly to its “mother.” Lorenz called this process imprinting—the rapid, innate learning that involves attachment to the first moving object seen. Page 22 John Bowlby (1969, 1989) illustrated an important application of ethological theory to human development. Bowlby (1907–1990) stressed that attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences throughout the lifespan. In his view, if this attachment is positive and secure, the individual will likely develop positively in childhood and adulthood. If the attachment is negative and insecure, development will likely not be optimal. Later, we will explore the concept of infant attachment in much greater detail, but hopefully you are already thinking about similarities between Bowlby’s claims and Erikson’s notion of trust versus mistrust. In Lorenz’s view, imprinting needs to take place at a specific, very early time in the life of the animal, or else it will not take place; this point in time is called a critical period. A related concept is that of a sensitive period; an example of a sensitive period is the time during infancy when, according to Bowlby, attachment should occur in order to promote optimal development of social relationships. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Konrad Lorenz, a pioneering student of animal behaviour, is followed through the water by three imprinted greylag geese. Describe Lorenz’s experiment with the geese. Do you think his experiment would have the same results with human babies? Explain. Nina Leen/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images Jane Goodall, a well-known animal activist and scientist, has been dedicated to learning about animals since childhood. She studied chimpanzees in Tanzania and, having gained their trust, documented the complex social system of the chimps. Goodall made numerous discoveries about chimpanzees’ ability to communicate, to make tools, and to comfort each other; she learned about their social status signs and gender roles. Through her programs and writings, Goodall has challenged scientists to redefine their long-held ideas on differences between humans and other primates. In recognition of her work, she has received many awards and was appointed a United Nations Messenger of Peace in 2002. Goodall is still hard at work today, raising awareness and money to protect the chimpanzees and their habitat through her nonprofit organization, the Jane Goodall Institute (JGI), and JGI’s youth program, Roots & Shoots. Goodall founded the Roots & Shoots program in 1991 with 12 Tanzanian high school students who wanted to tackle problems in their community. Since then, the program has spread to over 50 countries, enabling young people to make changes that benefit people, animals, and the environment. According to Goodall, “There is a powerful force unleashed when young people resolve to make a change” (National Geographic, 2017; The Jane Goodall Institute, 2019). Jane Goodall is a well-known ethologist and animal activist whose studies of chimpanzees challenged previous ideas of how humans differed from other species. © Marc Mueller/dpa picture alliance archive/Alamy Stock Photo Evaluating Ethological Theory Contributions of ethological theory include a focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development and the use of careful observations in naturalistic settings. Criticisms include a belief that it places too much emphasis on biological foundations and that the concept of a critical or sensitive period might be too rigid. Ethological theories are closely tied to the evolutionary perspectives on which we focus in Chapter 2. Evolutionary theorists also see close ties between human and nonhuman development, but focus on the adaptive value and evolutionary history of physical and behavioural characteristics. Page 23 Bioecological Theory While ethological theory stresses biological factors, ecological theory emphasizes environmental factors. One ecological model that has important implications for understanding lifespan development was created by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005). Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, 1995; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) holds that development reflects the influence of several environmental systems. The theory identifies five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem (see Figure 1.9). Figure 1.9 Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory of Development Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory consists of five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. The microsystem is the setting in which the individual lives, as well as the individual’s genetic makeup. These contexts include the person’s family, peers, school, and neighbourhood, as well as the individual’s cognitive and physical health. Most direct interactions with social agents take place within the microsystem—with parents, peers, and teachers, for example. Also within the microsystem, the individual responds to health and safety needs. Bronfenbrenner reminds us that, at the end of the day, we are our own lifeline. The individual is not a passive recipient of experiences in these settings, but someone who helps to construct the settings for themselves as well as for others. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Urie Bronfenbrenner developed bioecological theory, a perspective that is receiving increased attention today. His theory emphasizes the importance of both micro and macro dimensions of the environment in which the person lives. Courtesy of Cornell University Photography The mesosystem involves relations between microsystems or connections between contexts. Examples are the relationship of family experiences to school experiences and healthcare experiences, as well as to extended family and peer experiences. For example, children whose parents have rejected or neglected them may have difficulty developing positive relationships with teachers, whereas children growing up in a supportive environment may start school with confidence. The exosystem consists of links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual’s immediate context. For example, a child’s experience at home may be influenced by a parent’s experiences at work. The mother might receive a promotion that requires more travel, which might increase conflict with the father and change patterns of interaction with the child. The macrosystem involves the culture in which individuals live. Remember from earlier in the chapter that culture refers to the behaviour patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group of people that are passed on from generation to generation. For example, Indigenous cultures differ from Asian cultures. Remember also that cross-cultural studies—the comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures—provide information about the generality of development. The chronosystem consists of the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as sociohistorical circumstances. For example, divorce is one transition. Researchers have found that the negative effects of divorce on children often peak in the first year after the divorce (Hetherington, 2006). By 2 years after the divorce, family interaction has become more stable. As an example of sociohistorical circumstances, consider how the opportunities for women to pursue a career have increased since the 1960s, or how technology has changed our communication strategies and our access to information. Responding to growing interest in biological contributions to development, Bronfenbrenner (2004) added biological influences to his theory and relabelled his ecological theory as a bioecological theory. Nonetheless, it is still dominated by ecological and environmental contexts (Gauvain & Perez, 2015). How Would You...? As an educator, how might you explain a student’s chronic failure to complete homework from the mesosystem level? From the exosystem level? Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page 24 Evaluating Bioecological Theories Contributions of bioecological theories include their systematic examination of the macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems and the attention to connections between environmental systems. A further contribution of Bronfenbrenner’s theory is an emphasis on a range of social contexts beyond the family—such as neighbourhood, religious, school, and workplace environments—as influential in children’s development (Gauvain & Perez, 2015). The theory has been criticized for giving inadequate attention to biological factors, as well as placing too little emphasis on cognitive factors. Growing up in a home with minimal resources influences social, cognitive, and brain development. Which of Bronfenbrenner’s biological systems are represented here? Charla Jones/Toronto Star via Getty Images In summary, there are many theories of human development. Each theory has strengths and weaknesses and they emphasize different aspects of development. Collectively, they provide a rich framework for understanding brain and behavioural changes across the lifespan. Figure 1.10 summarizes the key points and will be a valuable resource to which you might return throughout your reading of this book. Theory Issues Psychoanalytic Continuity/discontinuity, early versus later experiences Biological and environmental factors Discontinuity between stages—continuity between early Freud’s biological determination interacting with early family experiences and later development; early experiences experiences; Erikson’s more balanced biological–cultural interaction very perspective important; later changes in development emphasized in Erikson’s theory Cognitive Discontinuity theory; Piaget’s emphasis on interaction and adaptation; environment later provides the setting for cognitive structures to develop; information- development in Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories; no processing view has not addressed this issue extensively but mainly stages in Vygotsky’s theory or information-processing emphasizes biological–environmental interaction continuity between between stages early in Piaget’s experiences and theory Behavioural Continuity (no stages); experience at all points of and development important social Environment viewed as the cause of behaviour in both views cognitive Ethological Discontinuity but no stages; critical or sensitive periods Strong biological view emphasized; early experiences very important Bioecological Little attention to continuity/discontinuity; change Strong environmental view emphasized more than stability Contemporary 1. Positive psychology 1. Study of our strengths and resilience 2. Neuroscience and neuroplasticity 2. Study of the interconnection of the brain to our nervous system approaches Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Theory Issues 3. Dynamic systems 3. Belief that learning is connected to physical activity 4. Evolutionary psychology 4. Search for meaning in the relationship and adaptation of our genetic makeup and our environment Figure 1.10 Summary of Theories and Issues in Lifespan Development Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page 25 Contemporary Theories and Approaches The historical approaches we have discussed thus far are quite divergent; nevertheless, they have provided an important springboard for contemporary research. Traditionally, the processes of our biological, cognitive, and socioemotional development have been considered separately, However, contemporary researchers are seeking frameworks that integrate these processes and explain our development in a more coherent way. Four relatively new approaches are positive psychology, neuroscience and neuroplasticity, dynamic systems, and evolutionary psychology. You may also have noticed that psychology has traditionally been concerned with illness. Researchers and practitioners have directed much attention to identifying, understanding, and treating conditions such as anxiety, stress, sadness, depression, delusions, neurosis, and psychosis. In doing so, the prominent approaches you just read about have contributed a wealth of information, enabling us to better understand our motivations and cope with a host of disorders. Contemporary psychologists agree that all of this is important and helpful; however, in the words of “father of positive psychology” Martin Seligman, as a science, psychology is “not good enough.” In his TED Talk, Seligman discusses how positive emotion, flow, engagement, meaning, and gratitude contribute to happiness (Seligman, 2004). Positive Psychology In 1998, Martin Seligman was elected president of the American Psychological Association (APA) and altered the direction of research from the traditional disease model to understanding happiness and resilience. Although the term positive psychology was originally coined by Abraham Maslow, Martin Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (the parent of creativity) are considered the approach’s originators (Ackerman, 2018; University of Pennsylvania, n.d.). While not denying illnesses, positive psychology focuses on alternative methods of obtaining health. For example, rather than analyze the psychological underpinnings of alcoholism, positive psychologists study the resilience of those who have recovered. Research focuses on conditions that foster key components of happiness: generosity, courage, creativity, and laughter (Lambert, 2007). Additional studies have shown that five positive traits (love, hope, gratitude, curiosity, and zest) correlate highly with life satisfaction (Peterson et al., 2007). Historically, philosophers such as Aristotle, John Stuart Mill, and Bertrand Russell supported the premise that being true to yourself, cultivating your virtues, and living in accordance with those virtues are the underpinnings of happiness and life satisfaction. As Aristotle proposed long ago, happiness is the purpose of life, and living in accordance with one’s virtues is the way to achieve happiness (Peterson et al., 2007). Neuroscience and Neuroplasticity Fascinating discoveries about our brain, its development, and its ability to accommodate and heal have opened doorways to relatively new and interrelated areas of study: neuroscience (the study of the brain, the nervous system, and the spinal column) and neuroplasticity (the brain’s ability to compensate for injury and disease). Thanks to modern imaging technology, contemporary neuroscientists can now observe how events trigger the formation of patterns in the brain in a self-organizing manner. Scientists are learning more and more about how the brain maps our personal narratives by connecting our experiences with neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine (Lewis, 2000). Research in the field is mushrooming, and for good reason. According to Brain Canada, “1 in 3 Canadians will be affected by a disease, disorder or injury of the brain, spinal cord or nervous system at some point in their lives” (Brain Canada Foundation, 2006). Brain Canada reports that 60 percent of Canadians who struggle with a mental illness say their health declined after the onset of COVID-19. Additionally, in recognition of the dire need for research related to youth mental health, Brain Canada has launched the Youth Mental Health Platform as a means to support research and provide an opportunity to collaborate on, develop, and share approaches and solutions for today’s youth with mental health challenges (Brain Canada, 2022). Motivated by his own experience as a former addict, Marc Lewis, formerly a professor at the University of Toronto and Radboud University in the Netherlands, uses neuroscience to understand the brain’s link to addictions. He proposes that the brain is attentive to all experiences and to our emotional responses to them (Lewis, 2012). Page 26 Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Other areas of investigation include the causes and treatments of Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, autism spectrum disorders, multiple sclerosis, and addiction (McGill University, 2019). Dynamic Systems The dynamic systems approach, introduced by Esther Thelen (Smith & Thelen, 2003; Thelen & Smith, 2007), provided a novel approach to the central question of human development: How does a helpless infant develop into a fully functioning adult? Most theories of development focus on a specialized topic, such as motor development, cognitive development, or emotional development. Dynamic systems theory, inspired by theories in mathematics, physics, and biology, provides a domain-general theory of development. Rather than relying on genetic programs or innate modules (e.g., for number, for language), the dynamic systems approach argues that development is probabilistic and emerges out of complex interactions between the developing organism and its environment. For example, crawling emerges when infants are strong enough and coordinated enough to locomote on their hands and knees, but are unable to walk upright; it is a solution to the problem of reaching a colourful toy that is out of reach. Crawling all but disappears as the infant learns to walk. Because the dynamic systems approach relies on complex, dynamic interactions with emergent (rather than pre-programmed) properties, this model (albeit complex) can be applied to numerous aspects of development. We will examine this model further in Chapter 3. Evolutionary Psychology Natural selection and survival of the fittest—Darwin’s signature theories put forward in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species—remain vital to today’s discourse. This theory emphasizes the function (adaptive value) of physical characteristics and behaviour; traits that increase survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations. Evolutionary psychology synthesizes modern evolutionary biology and psychology in searching to understand how brain and behaviour unfold across the lifespan. Evolutionary psychology is consistent with comparative approaches (e.g., studying nonhuman animals to understand human development) and with considering how what is adaptive changes across the lifespan. For example, the very poor visual acuity of newborns (who would be considered legally blind as adults) prevents their immature brains from becoming constantly overstimulated and ensures that newborns attend to the most important visual stimuli (e.g., parents’ faces and hand-held toys). We will explore this theory in more depth in Chapter 2. An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation No single theory described in this chapter can entirely explain the rich complexity of lifespan development, but each has contributed to our understanding of development. Psychoanalytic theory highlights the importance of the unconscious mind. Erikson’s theory best describes the changes that occur in adult development. Piaget’s, Vygotsky’s, and the information-processing views provide the most complete description of cognitive development. The behavioural, social cognitive, and ecological theories have been the most adept at examining the environmental determinants of development. Ethological theories have drawn attention to biology’s role and the importance of sensitive periods in development, whereas neuroscience is linking behavioural development to changes in neurons and the connections among them. Page 27 In short, although theories are helpful guides, relying on a single theory to explain development is definitely a mistake. This textbook instead has an eclectic theoretical orientation, which does not follow any one theoretical approach but rather presents what are considered the best features of each theory. In this way, it represents the study of development as it actually exists—with different theorists making different assumptions, stressing different problems, and using different strategies to discover information. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Research in Lifespan Development How do scholars and researchers with an eclectic orientation determine, develop, and revise theories? The scientific method discussed earlier in this chapter provides a guide. Through scientific research, theories are tested and refined (Christensen et al., 2015). Generally, research in lifespan development is designed to test hypotheses, which may be derived from the theories just described. Through research, theories are modified to reflect new data, and occasionally new theories arise. Below, we will discuss how data about lifespan development are collected and the types of research designs that are used to study lifespan development. We will also introduce some ethical considerations in conducting research on lifespan development. Methods of Collecting Data Whether we are interested in studying attachment in infants, the cognitive skills of children, or social relationships in older adults, we can choose from several ways of collecting data (Salkind, 2017; Trochim et al., 2016). Here we outline the measures most often used, beginning with observation. Observation Scientific observation requires an important set of skills. For observations to be effective, they must be systematic (Jackson, 2016). We need to have some idea of what we are looking for. We have to know whom we are observing, when and where we will observe, how the observations will be made, and how they will be recorded. Where should we make our observations? We have two choices: the laboratory and the everyday world. When we observe scientifically, we often need to control certain factors that determine behaviour but are not the focus of our inquiry (Stangor, 2015). For this reason, some research in lifespan development is conducted in a laboratory, a controlled setting where many of the complex factors of the real world are absent. For example, suppose you want to observe how children react when they see other people behaving aggressively. If you observe children in their homes or schools, you have no control over how much aggression the children observe, what kind of aggression they see, which people they see acting aggressively, or how other people treat the children. In contrast, if you observe the children in a laboratory, you can control these and other factors and therefore have more confidence about how to interpret your observations. What are some important strategies for conducting observational research with children? Charles Fox/Philadelphia Inquirer/MCT/Landov Images Laboratory research does have some drawbacks, however, including the following concerns: (1) it is almost impossible to conduct research without the participants knowing they are being studied, (2) the laboratory setting is unnatural and therefore can cause the participants to behave unnaturally, (3) people who are willing to come to a university laboratory may not fairly represent groups from diverse cultural backgrounds, and (4) people who are unfamiliar with university settings, and with the idea of “helping science,” may be intimidated by the laboratory setting. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page 28 Naturalistic observation provides insights that we sometimes cannot attain in the laboratory (Leedy & Ormrod, 2016). Naturalistic obse rvation refers to observing behaviour in real-world settings and making no effort to manipulate or control the situation. Researchers conduct naturalistic observations at sporting events, childcare centres, work settings, malls, and other places people live in and frequent. Naturalistic observation was used in one study that focused on conversations in a children’s science museum (Crowley et al., 2001). When visiting exhibits at the museum with their children, parents were more than three times as likely to engage boys as girls in explanatory talk. The gender difference occurred regardless of whether a father, a mother, or both parents were with the child, although the gender difference was greatest for fathers’ science explanations to sons and daughters. This finding suggests a gender bias that encourages boys more than girls to be interested in science. Laboratory research and naturalistic observation provide complementary approaches to the study of human development. Survey and Interview Sometimes the best and quickest way to get information about people is to ask them for it. One technique is interviewing them directly. A related method is administering a survey (sometimes referred to as a questionnaire) comprising a standard set of questions designed to obtain people’s self-reported attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic. Surveys are especially useful when information from many people is needed (Madill, 2012). In a good survey, the questions are clear and unbiased, allowing respondents to answer unambiguously. Surveys and interviews can be used to study topics such as religious beliefs, sexual habits, attitudes about gun control, and beliefs about how to improve schools. Surveys and interviews may be conducted in person, over the telephone, by mail, and over the Internet. One problem with surveys and interviews is the tendency of participants to answer questions in a way that they think is socially acceptable or desirable rather than to say what they truly think or feel. For example, on a survey or in an interview, some individuals might say that they do not take drugs, even though they do. Standardized Test A standardized test has uniform procedures for administration and scoring. Many standardized tests allow performance comparisons; they provide information about individual differences among people (Gregory, 2014). One example is the Stanford-Binet intelligence test. Your score on the Stanford-Binet test tells you how your performance compares with that of thousands of other people who have taken the test. One of the criticisms of standardized tests is that they assume a person’s behaviour is consistent and stable, yet personality and intelligence—two primary targets of standardized testing—can vary with the situation. For example, a person may perform poorly on a standardized intelligence test in an office setting but score much higher at home, where they are less anxious. Case Study A case study is an in-depth look at a single individual. Case studies are performed mainly by mental health professionals when, for either practical or ethical reasons, the unique aspects of an individual’s life cannot be duplicated and tested in other individuals. A case study provides information about one person’s experiences; it may focus on nearly any aspect of the subject’s life that helps the researcher understand the person’s mind, behaviour, or other attributes. A researcher may gather information for a case study from interviews and medical records. In later chapters we discuss vivid case studies, such as that in side of his brain removed at 7 years of age to end severe epileptic seizures. Chapter 3 of Michael Rehbein, who had much of the left Page 29 A case study can provide a dramatic, in-depth portrayal of an individual’s life, but we must be cautious when generalizing from this information. The subject of a case study is unique, with a genetic makeup and personal history that no one else shares. In addition, case studies involve judgments of unknown reliability. Researchers who conduct case studies rarely check to see whether other professionals agree with their observations or findings (Yin, 2012). Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Mahatma Gandhi was the spiritual leader of India in the mid-twentieth century. Erik Erikson conducted an extensive case study of Gandhi’s life to determine what contributed to his identity development. What are some limitations of the case study approach? Bettmann/Getty Images Physiological Measures Researchers are increasingly using physiological measures when they study development at different points in the lifespan (de Haan & Johnson, 2016; Kennedy et al., 2015; Zisner & Beauchaine, 2016). A physiological measure that is increasingly being used is neuroimaging, especially functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), in which electromagnetic waves are used to construct images of a person’s brain tissue and biochemical activity (Liem et al., 2021; Roberts et al., 2020). You will read about the brain’s neuroplasticity throughout the textbook, knowledge that relies upon fMRI and other techniques. Another physiological measure is heart rate, which has been used as an indicator of infants’ and children’s development of perception, attention, and memory (Kim et al., 2015). Further, heart rate has been used as an index of different aspects of emotional development, such as inhibition, anxiety, and depression (Blood et al., 2015). A third measure is cortisol, a hormone produced by the adrenal gland that is linked to the body’s stress level. It has been measured in studies of temperament, emotional reactivity, peer relations, and child psychopathology (Jacoby et al., 2016). As puberty unfolds, the blood levels of certain hormones increase. To determine the nature of these hormonal changes, researchers analyze blood samples from adolescent volunteers (Susman & Dorn, 2013). Yet another dramatic change in physiological methods is the advancement in methods to assess the actual units of hereditary information—genes—in studies of biological influences on development (Cho & Suh, 2016; Grigorenko et al., 2016). For example, in Chapter 11, you will read about the role of the ApoE4 gene in Alzheimer’s disease (Park & Farrell, 2016). Research Designs In addition to a method for collecting data, you also need a research design to study lifespan development. There are three main types of research designs: descriptive, correlational, and experimental. Descriptive Research All of the data collection methods that we have discussed can be used in descriptive research, which aims to observe and record behaviour. For example, a researcher might observe the extent to which people are altruistic or aggressive toward each other. By itself, Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com descriptive research cannot prove what causes a phenomenon, but it can reveal important information about people’s behaviour and provide a basis for more scientific studies (Leedy & Ormrod, 2016). Page 30 Correlational Research In contrast with descriptive research, correlational research goes beyond describing phenomena by providing information that helps predict how people will behave. In correlational research, the goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. The more strongly the two events are correlated (or related or associated), the more effectively we can predict one event from the other (Aron et al., 2017). For example, to determine whether children of permissive parents have less self-control than other children, you would need to carefully record observations of parents’ permissiveness and their children’s self-control. You might observe that the higher a parent was in permissiveness, the lower the child was in self-control. You would then analyze these data statistically to yield a correlation coefficient, a number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables. Correlation coefficients range from –1.00 to +1.00. A negative number means an inverse relation. In the above example, you might find negative correlation of --.30 between permissive parenting and children’s self-control. Such a correlation would mean that parents who are more permissive with their children are likely to have children who have lower self-control. By contrast, you might find a positive correlation of +.30 between parental monitoring of children and children’s self-control. Such a correlation would mean that parents who monitor their children more effectively have children with higher self-control. The higher the correlation coefficient (whether positive or negative), the stronger the association between the two variables. A correlation coefficient of 0 means that there is no association between the variables. A correlation coefficient of –.40 is stronger than a correlation coefficient of +.20, because we disregard whether the correlation is positive or negative in determining the strength of the correlation. A word of caution is in order, however. Correlation does not equal causation (Heiman, 2014, 2015). The correlational finding just mentioned does not mean that permissive parenting necessarily causes low self-control in children. It could also mean that a child’s lack of self-control caused the parents to throw up their hands in despair and give up trying to control the child. It could also mean that other factors, such as heredity or poverty, caused both permissive parenting and low self-control in children, resulting in a correlation between these two variables. Figure 1.11 illustrates these possible interpretations of correlational data. Figure 1.11 Possible Explanations for Correlational Data JupiterImages/Pixland/Getty Images Experimental Research To study causality, researchers turn to experimental research. An experiment is a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the behaviour being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant. If the behaviour under study changes when a factor is manipulated, we say that the manipulated factor has caused the behaviour to change. In other words, the experiment has demonstrated cause and effect. The cause is the factor that was manipulated. The effect is the behaviour that changed Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com because of the manipulation. Nonexperimental research methods (descriptive and correlational research) cannot establish cause and effect because they do not involve manipulating factors in a controlled way (Kantowitz et al., 2015). Page 31 Independent and Dependent Variables Experiments include two types of changeable factors: independent and dependent variables. An independent variable is a manipulated, influential experimental factor. It is a potential cause. The label “independent” is used because this variable can be manipulated independent of other factors to determine its effect. An experiment may include one independent variable or several independent variables. A dependent variable is a factor that can change in an experiment, in response to changes in the independent variable. As researchers manipulate the independent variable, they measure the dependent variable for any resulting effect (Gravetter & Forzano, 2016). For example, suppose that you wanted to study whether pregnant women could change the breathing and sleeping patterns of their newborn babies by meditating during pregnancy. You might require one group of pregnant women to engage in a certain amount and type of meditation each day, while another group would not meditate; the meditation is thus the independent variable. When the infants were born, you would observe and measure their breathing and sleeping patterns. These patterns are the dependent variable, the factor that changes as the result of your manipulation. Experimental and Control Groups Experiments can involve one or more experimental groups and one or more control groups. An experimental group is a group whose experience is manipulated. A control group is a comparison group that is as much like the experimental group as possible except for the manipulated factor (independent variable). The control group serves as a baseline against which the effects of the manipulated condition can be compared. Random assignment is an important principle for deciding whether each participant will be placed in the experimental group or the control group. Random assignment means that researchers assign participants to experimental and control groups by chance. It reduces the likelihood that the experiment’s results will be due to any pre-existing differences between groups (Gravetter & Forzano, 2016). In the example of the effects of meditation by pregnant women on the breathing and sleeping patterns of their newborns, you would randomly assign half of the pregnant women to engage in meditation over a period of weeks (the experimental group) and the other half not to meditate over the same number of weeks (the control group). Allowing the women to self-select (i.e., choose whether to be in the experimental or control group) could lead to biased results. For example, women who choose to engage in meditation might engage in other behaviours that promote newborn sleep. Figure 1.12 illustrates the nature of experimental research. Figure 1.12 Principles of Experimental Research Imagine that you decide to conduct an experimental study of the effects of meditation by pregnant women on their newborns’ breathing and sleeping patterns. You randomly assign pregnant women to experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group engage in meditation over a specified number of sessions and weeks. The women in the control group do not. Then, when the infants are born, you assess their breathing and Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com sleeping patterns. If the breathing and sleeping patterns of newborns whose mothers were in the experimental group are more positive than those of the control group, you conclude that meditation caused the positive effects. Time Span of Research Researchers in lifespan development have a special concern with the relation between age and some other variable. To explore these relations, researchers can study different individuals of different ages and compare them, or they can study the same individuals as they age over time. Cross-Sectional Approach The cross-sectional approach is a research strategy that simultaneously compares individuals of different ages. A typical cross-sectional study might include three groups of children: 5-year-olds, 8-year-olds, and 11-year-olds. Another study might include groups of 15-year-olds, 25-year-olds, and 45-year-olds. The groups can be compared with respect to a variety of dependent variables, such as IQ, memory, peer relations, attachment to parents, hormonal changes, and so on. All of this can be accomplished in a short time. In some studies, data are collected in a single day. Even in large-scale cross-sectional studies with hundreds of subjects, data collection does not usually take longer than several months. Page 32 The main advantage of the cross-sectional study is that the researcher does not have to wait for the individuals to grow up or become older. Despite its efficiency, though, the cross-sectional approach has its drawbacks. It gives no information about how individuals change or about the stability of their characteristics. It can obscure the hills and valleys of growth and development. For example, a cross-sectional study of life satisfaction might reveal average increases and decreases, but it would not show how the life satisfaction of individual adults waxed and waned over the years. It also would not tell us whether the same adults who had positive or negative perceptions of life satisfaction in early adulthood maintained their relative degree of life satisfaction as they became middle-aged or older adults. Longitudinal Approach The longitudinal approach is a research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more. For example, in a longitudinal study of life satisfaction, the same adults might be assessed periodically over a 70-year time span—at the ages of 20, 35, 45, 65, and 90, for example. Longitudinal studies provide a wealth of information about vital issues such as stability and change in development and the importance of early experience for later development, but they do have drawbacks (Cicchetti & Toth, 2015, 2016). Longitudinal studies are expensive and time consuming. The longer the study lasts, the more participants drop out—they move, get sick, lose interest, and so forth. Participants who remain in the study may be dissimilar to those who drop out, biasing the outcome of the study. Those individuals who remain in a longitudinal study over a number of years may be more responsible and conformity oriented than the ones who dropped out, for example, or they might have more stable lives. Cohort Effects A cohort is a group of people who are born at a similar point in history and share similar experiences as a result, such as living during World War II or growing up in the same city around the same time. These shared experiences may produce a range of differences among cohorts (Kadlecová et al., 2015; MacDonald & Stawski, 2016). For example, people who were teenagers during the Great Depression are likely to differ from people who were teenagers during the booming 1990s in their educational opportunities and economic status, in how they were raised, and in their attitudes toward sex and religion. People who were postsecondary students during the COVID-19 pandemic might differ from those who were in a well-established career. In lifespan development research, cohort effects are due to a person’s time of birth, era, or generation but not to actual age. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com In 2018, Amy Bombay, an assistant professor of nursing and psychiatry at Dalhousie University in Halifax, was interviewed by CBC News regarding her research on the ongoing impact of residential schools on Indigenous individuals. Residential schools were introduced in Canada by colonial authorities in the early 1900s, and the last school closed in 1996. Their impact is an example of a cohort effect, albeit one that continues to affect subsequent generations. You will read more about Bombay in Chapter 2. © Amy Bombay Cohort effects are important because they can powerfully affect the dependent measures in a study ostensibly concerned with age (Carstensen et al., 2015; George & Ferraro, 2016). Researchers have shown that it is especially important to be aware of cohort effects when assessing adult intelligence (Schaie, 2021). Individuals born at different points in time—such as 1920, 1940, and 1960—have had varying opportunities for education. Individuals born in the earlier years had less access to education, and this fact may have a significant effect on how this cohort performs on intelligence tests. Page 33 Some researchers have found that cross-sectional studies indicate that more than 90 percent of cognitive decline in aging is due to a slowing of processing speed, whereas longitudinal studies reveal that 20 percent or less of cognitive decline is due to processing speed (MacDonald et al., 2003; MacDonald & Stawski, 2015, 2016; Stawski et al., 2013). Another more recent example of a cohort effect occurred in a study in which older adults assessed in 2013–2014 engaged in a higher level of abstract reasoning than their counterparts assessed two decades earlier in 1990–1993 (Gerstorf et al., 2015). Cross-sectional studies can show how different cohorts respond, but they can confuse age changes and cohort effects. Longitudinal studies are effective in studying age changes, but only within one cohort. Various generations have been given labels by the popular culture. Figure 1.13 describes the labels of various generations, the historical period for each one, and the reasons for their labels. Consider the following description of the current generation of youth, and think about how they differ from earlier youth generations: They are history’s first “always connected” generation. Steeped in digital technology and social media, they treat their multi-tasking hand-held gadgets almost like a body part—for better or worse. More than 8-in-10 say they sleep with a cell phone glowing by the bed, poised to disgorge texts, phone calls, e-mails, songs, news, videos, games, and wake-up jingles. But sometimes convenience yields to temptation. Nearly two-thirds admit to texting while driving (Pew Research Center, 2010, p. 1). Generation Historical Period Reasons for Label Millennials Individuals born in First generation to come of age and enter emerging adulthood (18–25 years of age) in the twenty-first 1980 and later century (the new millennium). Two main characteristics: (1) connection to technology and (2) ethnic diversity Generation X Individuals born between 1965 and 1980 Described as lacking an identity and savvy loners; value work–life balance Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Generation Historical Period Reasons for Label Baby boomers Individuals Label used because this generation represents the spike in the number of babies born after World War born between 1946 and II; the largest generation ever to enter late adulthood in North America 1964 Silent generation Individuals born Children of the Great Depression and World War II; described as conformists and civic minded between 1928 and 1945 Figure 1.13 Generations, Their Historical Periods, and Their Characteristics How does the youth experienced by today’s Gen Z differ from that of earlier generations? Hero Images/Alamy Stock Photo Conducting Ethical Research Researchers who study human development and behaviour confront many ethical issues. For example, a developmentalist who wanted to study aggression in children must design the study so that no child would be harmed physically or psychologically; they must get permission from the university to carry out the study; they must explain the study to the children’s parents and obtain consent for the children to participate. Participants (or their parents) need to know their rights as a participant and the responsibilities of researchers to ensure that these rights are safeguarded. Today, proposed research at colleges and universities must pass the scrutiny of a research ethics committee before the research can begin. In Canada, three research councils fund and govern research: the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC), and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). All councils fund research in lifespan development, and high ethical standards are ensured by the Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans. This code of ethics instructs psychologists to protect their research participants from mental and physical harm. The participants’ best interests need to be kept foremost in the researcher’s mind (Jackson, 2016). Participants (or their guardians) need to provide informed consent; data must be confidential or, when possible, anonymous; and participants and/or their guardians need to be debriefed about the purpose of the study after participating. Page 34 Lifespan development is a fascinating field. It involves people of all ages, a wide range of methodologies, and many different levels of analysis (from neurons to individuals to group interactions). Whether you are principally interested in neuroscience, cognitive psychology, or social/personality psychology, understanding how abilities and behaviours develop and change over time is an exciting enterprise. Now that you have the basics, let’s begin! Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Summary The Nature of Development Three key developmental processes are biological, cognitive, and socioemotional. Development is influenced by an interplay of these processes. Development is multidimensional, plastic, contextual, and a co-construction of biology, culture, and the individual. Context includes normative age-graded influences, normative history-graded influences, and nonnormative life events. The Canadian Psychological Association has become the national voice for promoting relevant research, education, and practice. The Lifespan Perspective Development is lifelong and involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss. Dramatic increases in life expectancy have piqued interest in development during later adulthood. Studying lifespan development has many benefits, including improved social policies. The lifespan is commonly divided into the prenatal period, infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. A full evaluation of age requires the consideration of chronological age, biological age, psychological age, and social age. Three developmental patterns of aging are normal aging, pathological aging, and successful aging. Three central questions in the study of development are nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and stability versus change. Developmental science can help society address several issues, including parenting, education, diversity, and the relationship between age and happiness. Theories of Development According to psychoanalytic theories, including those of Freud and Erikson, development primarily depends on the unconscious mind and is heavily couched in emotion. Cognitive theories emphasize thinking, reasoning, language, and other cognitive processes. Three main cognitive theories are Piaget’s cognitive development theory, Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory, and information-processing theory. Behavioural and social cognitive theories emphasize the environment’s role in development. Two key behavioural and social cognitive theories are Skinner’s operant conditioning theory and Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Ethological theory stresses the biological and evolutionary bases of development. According to Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory, development predominantly reflects the influence of five environmental systems—microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. Page 35 Contemporary Theories and Approaches Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Positive psychology, neuroscience and neuroplasticity, dynamic systems, and evolutionary psychology are providing novel insights about development across the lifespan. No single theory can explain all of human development. An eclectic theoretical orientation incorporates the best features of different theoretical approaches. Research in Lifespan Development The main methods of collecting data about lifespan development are observation, survey (questionnaire) and interview, standardized test, case study, and physiological measures. Three basic research designs are descriptive, correlational, and experimental. To examine the effects of time and age, researchers can conduct cross-sectional or longitudinal studies. Lifespan researchers are especially concerned about cohort effects. Researchers have an ethical responsibility to safeguard the well-being of research participants. Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Key Terms behavioural and social cognitive theories biological processes Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory case study cognitive processes cohort effects context continuity–discontinuity issue correlation coefficient correlational research cross-cultural studies cross-sectional approach culture descriptive research development dynamic systems approach eclectic theoretical orientation Erikson’s theory ethnicity ethological theory ethology evolutionary psychology experiment gender hypotheses imprinting information-processing theory laboratory lifespan perspective longitudinal approach naturalistic observation nature versus nurture question neuroplasticity neuroscience nonnormative life events Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com normative age-graded influences normative history-graded influences Piaget’s theory positive psychology psychoanalytic theories social cognitive theory social policy socioeconomic status (SES) socioemotional processes stability–change issue standardized test theory Vygotsky’s theory Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Page 36 2 Biological Beginnings © MedicalRF.com/Getty Images CHAPTER OUTLINE THE EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE Natural Selection and Adaptive Behaviour Evolutionary Psychology GENETIC FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT Genes and Chromosomes Genetic Principles Chromosome and Gene-Linked Variations THE INTERACTION OF GENES AND ENVIRONMENT Behavioural Genetics Heredity–Environment Correlations The Epigenetic View and Gene × Environment Interaction Conclusions about Heredity–Environment Interaction PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Get Complete eBook Download by Email at discountsmtb@hotmail.com Get Complete eBook Download link Below for Instant Download: https://browsegrades.net/documents/286751/ebook-payment-link-forinstant-download-after-payment
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