FMFRP 0-63
Troop Construction
in the
Middle East
U.S. Marine Corps
PCN i'4U U00b30 00
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited
DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY
Headquarters United States Marine Corps
Washington, D.C. 20380—0001
19
FOREWORD
1.
December 1990
PURPOSE
Fleet
Marine Force Reference Publication (FMFRP) 0-63, Troop
Construction in the Middle East, provides information on
engineer—related support essential to military operations
conducted in the Middle East.
2.
SCOPE
This manual contains detailed engineer—related information useful
at the tactical and operational levels of war. It is provided as
a regional reference publication to assist in the planning and
conduct of MAGTF operations in arid environments.
3.
BACKGROUND
While the unique aspects of the desert environment have
a.
profound impact on MAGTF operations, most of the doctrine,
tactics, techniques, and procedures employed in operations in
The
other parts of the world apply to operations in the desert.
unique aspects to operations in the desert stem primarily from
the effects of heat and the scarcity of moisture, terrain
features, and vegetation. The challenge to MAGTF operations in a
desert environment is adapting to the arid climate and
conditions.
FMFRP 0-63 is a consolidated handbook originally
b.
prepared and published by the U.S. Army Civil Engineer Research
Laboratory and the U.S. Army Waterways Experimental Station in
1982.
4.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Comments on this manual are welcomed.
Submit comments to ——
Commanding General
Marine Corps Combat Development Command (WF12)
Quantico, VA. 22134—5001
5.
CERTIFICATION
Reviewed and approved this date.
BY DIRECTION OF THE COMMANDANT OF THE MARINE CORPS
M. P. CAULF LD
Major General, U.S. Marine Corps
Deputy Conunander for Warfighting
Marine Corps
Corps Combat
Combat Development
Development Conunand
Command
Quantico, Virginia
Disi:
I4UUUOb3000
2
PRE
PRE FACE
FACE
The hot, barren desert environment of the Middle East requires special
consideration in wartime planning and operations.
The purpose of this report
is to consolidate all engineer—related aspects of problems In base development
into a single source handbook covering construction problems in the Middle
East.
This document is designed to assist planners in the identification of
resource requirements for both men and material when preparing engineering
support plans and to provide builders in the field with various construction
techniques
techniques to
to facilitate
facilitate the
the use
use of
of their
their available
available assets.
assets.
FOR ThE
THE COMMANDER:
COMMANDER:
j1one1oEn
jloneloErk
iii
ineers
inee
rs
CONTENTS
Page
111
PREFACE
vii
LIST
LIST OF
OFTABLES
TABLES AND
AND FIGURES
1
2
3
•I•SS•V•• • • •445Søö •...5.S.
........v...............
......•
INTRODUCTION.............................
INTRODLJCTION.........
........ .........D.,...................
5S•••
........ • •.......O. S454*Øt• ••5•••••
1.].
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
Background. . . . . ... . .. .
Background....
. .. . .. .. . . ........ •Se•*••S SD. p•S54••• t•e•••5S
• • SSS•• Q•Sø••4••••tIS . S • ••S••
Objective.
. .. ... .
. .. ... .. .. .. ... .. ........ ••
Objective.. . . .
.........Q.....................
. .. .. .. .... .. .. •. ........ .........D....................•
.
Assumptions...
As suuIpt
BASE
2.1.
2.1
2.2
2.2
2.3
2.3
PLAN1NC
PLAN1NG AND SITING.........
SITING. ............................................
0e • S S S • • • • • • • S
I
nt rod uc t ion. . • ... • • ••. ... . . • . 4• • e• 4•• 4,54 • • • S • •
Introduction.........
Selection.. .. .
•....•....• ...-.......#...s..•I.ee..• •4
Site
Site Selection......
..................
Planning.. • . • • •. . •. . . .
Site
Site Planning.......
ions...
.........,.............•.......
of Desert Regions S4S5.4S•G•4•4•IS•••SS.SSS55
of
S •S••• •5..5e.4øIS................
S 44 ••44. . S
... .............o...•.
Approach and Scope....... 44•StS*
Characteristics
Characteristics
•..........e........................
..........................
1—1
1—1
1—5
2—1
2—1
'2—1
2—1
2—2
3—1
3.1
3.1
3—1
Introduction...... .. .. .. .. ........
. ........
. . ...............
. . . . ................
••••••••I••...........
Introduction...
...
.....•.
S
•........
.........
.
. ...........• ....•. ...••.•...•. .. .. ... . ...
Water and Wastewater Use Opportunities and Priorities...4.444..5
Priorities...........
Membrane
Sheeting
(Lines).....
. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . . . . . .
Membrane
Sheeting
(Linee).......................................
Water Consumption Planning Factors for Conetruction.............
V
3—2
3—2
3—7
3—10
3—10
3—10
3—10
...•.... . .
5.6
5.7
5.7
3—2
.......
..
..•......
............
........
...
EXPEDIENT
TECHNIQUES......
.... . ..... .. .. .. .....
EXPEDIENTWATER
WATERCONSERVATION
CONSERVATION
TECHNIQUES.......
Introduction....
....... .... ......•.. ..... ... .. •• • ......
Introduction......
5.1
5.1
Environmental Setting...........................................
5.2
5.2
Near—Term Water Supply
Supply Concept
Concept for
for Arid
Arid Regions.................
Regions................
5.3
. -... ..•.
... ..
. . ..
.. . ...........
..
Water Conservation
Opportunities......
. . -. .....
Conservation
Opportunities......
5.4 Water
5.5
5.5
3—1
3—7
DISTRIBUTION, AND
AND GROUNDING:
GROUNDING:
ELECTRIC POWER
POWER GENERATION,
GENERATION, DISTRIBUTION,
•......•........
... .. ...
SWA BASE
BASECAMPS..
CAMPS..........
S
4 4 4 •• S• S•
. 5
.
. .S .S.5S4 5 •4 S4 •.S
4
• I. •.4.5.4.•.4.• .S.• .• S
. .
. .S.S. S. S
. . 455
Introduction..
4.1
Introduction.. . . . .
•
e
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
S
4.2
4.2 Generation......
Generation..........
S55•5..SS5•••S54445S••ø5SS*II•5••5SS5••
4.3 Distribution..
Distribution..........
S..........................................
5,45 5 5 S SS.I54. •S4.. 554.4. S 455 S 55 •Ø•I S S .5e
Grounding.......
4.4 Grounding.....
•
3—1
•S.......
•....S..
..•
5
I—1
1—1
BASE PROTECTION......
3.2 General.............................. ......................'....
3.2
.... .......................
Explosive Excavation......
3.3
3.3 Explosive
Excavation............................................
•S•••5S S.•4•45•
•........ •• •4S5• ...•.....
3.4 Mine
3.4
Mine Use..
Use........
.......
4••4405
....... 5SS•S
Fortifications.. .......• . .
3.5
Field
Field Fortifications...
•.S
3.6
3.6
Overhead Cover for Prepared Position.
Overhead
Position. ....... •5•SS•••.............
cation aa cc3
3.7
Construction of
Construction
of Cotmnand,
Command, Cottrol
Control and Couni cation
(C3))
.......
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
....... ........
45•••••
Bunkers.
Bunkers . . . . . . . .•SSSte•S•5
S..
Special Camouflage
Camou flage Problems.................
Problems.......... .....,e ....... .............
3.8
3.8
.
S
.
S
.
S
.
S
.
S
..
•
.......
MineS
in
Shifting
Sands.
Placement
of
Mines
Sands........
3.9
.5. St .5 S S .5 5
.....'.
.....................
. . . . . . . . . • . . . . . , . . . ....
3.10
3.
10 Mine
Mine Removal..
Removal.........
...
t.
Effects of
of Temperature
Temperature Extremes
Extremeson
onHines...
Hines....
3.11
3.11 Effects
• S• S I 4 • 4 I •
5SS•••••
.
................
3 • 12 Mine Detector AN—PRS—7. .. .. .
3.12M1neDetectorAN—PRS—7.......
•.
. . . . •5S
. . . .5 .. S
.S
. S
. . .• 4
. ..
•5SSSSS
3.13 Visual
Visual Detection
Detection of
of Minefield
Minefield Intruders.....
Intruders........
•
4-•
•- 4.
Extreme Environment
Environuient
on on
SenaOr-...0...•.....,,.
Senaor..0........,. S. 4-.-..
3.14 Effect
3.14
Effect of Extreme
4
11
—1
1—1
11
3—11
3—1.1
4—1
4—I.
4—1
4—2
4—7
4—21
4—21
5—1
5—1
5—1
5-1
5—3
5—4
—3 7
5—37
5—59
5—62
CONTENTS (Cont'd)
Page
6
VERTICAL CONSTRUCTION................................................
VERTICAL
COSTRUCTLON..............
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
7
Introduction......................
Introduction....................................................
..
. ...
Improving Habitability....
Improving
Habitability............
.....
IndigenousBuildingMethodsandMaterials.......................
Indigenous Building Methods and Ma t erials . . . . . . . . . . .,. . . . . . . . . .
• . . • . . • . . • . . . . . • . . • p • . . • . • • • p •s
Prefabricated Structural Systems..
Systets..........
• . . • . . . .. . . . . . • .. . . • • . 4••••••
Tents...........................................................
Tents.............................
........
Facility Design
Design Drawlngs...............
Drawings..........
. ... .................
... ....... ..... ..
•..........t..tt.....••••t*pp
HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION.....
HORIZONTAL
CONSTRUCTION.........................
..... .... . ...... ... . . .. ... .. . ... .
. . . .
7.1 General......
7.1
.
General........................
7.2 Existing Coastruction..........
7.2
Construction................... .....................•..
..
Soils and
and Aggregates............
Aggregate8............................................
7.3
Soils
Horizontal Construction
. . . . . . . .. . . . .
7.4 Horizontal
Construction Techniques.......
Techniq ues . • . • ...••...................
Over Loose
Loose Sand...........................................
Sand......... .•.. S••••
7.5
7.5 Roads Over
Intermittent Stream
. . . . . .. . .. .. .. .. •. •. . . . .. •. . •. . . . . . .. •. . . .
Intermittent
Stream Crossing......
Crossing...
7.6
7.7 Control
7.7
Control cf
cf Drift•ing
Drift.ingSand........o...........................,......
Sand......
...................,......
•
•
......................,...
Control
7.8 Dust Control...................i.............................,...
....................•...
ConstructIon of
Construction
of C—13O
C—130 Airstrips..
Airstrips .................
7.9
7.9
..
..
7.10 Runway
Runway Bomb
Bomb Dacnage
Damage Repair......
Repair...............
7.10
..
.... .
P.S...... ...•.......
Foundtton Pads.....................................
7.11 Foundation
7.11
Pads
Field ldentification
identification of
of Soils......
Soils..
7.12 Field
7.12
. ... . .
. .. ..... .. ... ......... . . .
........•
.........
.
. . .......
........................
.............
•........5....5........•
•
1.5......
.
...... ......
.....
.
8
••
•..sss.ss.s....s.. ..•..•.. . .. .. . S
PORT
CONSTRUCTION.....
PORTCONSTRUCTION............
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Introduction..
.
Introduction
8.1
Dredgirg of Channels....
8.2 DredgIrg
8.2
Training of Personnel in Operation and Maintenance
8.3
• . . S 5. • S S P
of Local
Loca1 Materials—Handling Equipment ..........................
9
6—35
6—36
6—44
—
7—1
7—1
7—1
7—2
—
7—3
7—19
7—20
7-20
.7—20
7—22
7—22
7—23
7—23
7—28
7—30
7—33
.........................................
8—1
8—1
8—1
..... ... ..... .
POLTerminalFacilities................
POLTerminalacilities................ ..............
..•. S.S........
.........................
Lack. of Container—Handling Facilities.. .•........
.-. S••55•sP••••
RapId RtiovalofDebris................
Rapid
ReiovalofDebris................ . . . . . . . . . . .. ..P..
. . . . . ....
. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
InadequaceRoadNetwork.
Inadequace Road Network......... . . . . . . . . . . . . S....
...5.....*.
Through—Put Operations.......
Operations..... ......
Temporary Methods of
of Through—Put
8—2
P
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
6—1
6—1
6—1
6—9
.
S
Part
for Construction and Repair of Port
Lack of Materials for
Faci1itie. . .
Facilities
.
. ...
FACTORS
AFFECT1NGENtINEER WORKFORCE...........
FACTORSAFFECT1NGENGINEERWORKFORCE.....................
...........
. . • . . . . . ... ., ..••. . . •. . ..e..e.•.s••4
.
9.1
Introcuction.........................................
Introduction
...........
.•....•..•.......•
and Operational
Operational Effectiveness..........
Effectiveness.................
9.2 Health and
9.2
Engireering Equipment Maintenance..............
Maintenance...
9.3
9.3 Construction and Engineering
•
...........
10 1NDIGE4OUS CONSTRUCTION MATERI&LS.............
MATERI&LS.................. ..................
.
.. . ........ .... . . .
•...........e......•••••••o•••••••S•So••
Introduction
10.1 Introduction.
10.1
10.2 Construction Materials and Applicability
8—2
8—3
8—3
8—3
8—4
8—4
9—1
9-h. ]
9—1
9s.
9—1
9—5
9—5
10-i
10—1
10—1
. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . 10—1
... . . . .....
to Const.ructjon
Methods
Construction Methods
10.3 Cement
Cement Production
Production Facilities
Facilities (From
(From CEMBUREAU).
CEMBUREAU)................... 10—13
10.3
10.4 Concrete Block
Block Plants
Plants OperatinE
OperatinE in
in Mid—East......................
Mid—East...
10—16
....... ...........
....... ..... . .....
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS...
ABBREVIATIONS...... ............._._...........
..............••.••.••
Abbreviations—i
iNDEX
1NDEX.................,.........,.............................
Index—i
...... Index—i
vi
TABLES
Number
4.1
Allowable Ampacities of Insulated
InBul&ted Conductors
Rated 0—2000 Volts, 60 to 90°C:
Not More Than Three
Not
Conductors
4—12
Allowable Axnpacities
Allowable
Axnpacities of
of Insulated
Ineulated Conductors
Conductora Rated
Raed
0—2000 Volts, 60 to 90°C: Single Conductors
4—13
Allowable Liupacities
Allow&ble
Axnpacities of Insulated Conductors
Conductcre
250°C: Not More Than Three Conductors
Rated 110 to 2500C:
4—14
Allowable Ampacltiee
Ampacitiee of Insulated Conductors
Rated 110 to 250°C, and for Base and Covered Conductors
4—15
4.5
Electric Power Requirements
4—19
4.6
Propo8ed Schedule of Facilities
420
4.7
Electric Current Abroad —
5.1
5.1
Consuptiofl Activities
Desert/
Water Consuiuption
Activities for Desert/
Arid Climate
4.2
4.3
4.4
Characteritica
Characteristics
4—22
4—22
5—63
6.1
Analysis
Results of BLAST Analysis
6.2
Mortars
6—21
6.3
Property LimIts
Property
Umits
6—25
7.1
Engineer MRterials
for Horizontal
Horizontal Construction
Construction
Mter1als for
7—2
7.2
of
Comparison
Comparisoi of
7—9
7.3
Expected Perforaiance
Performance of
of Bituminous
Bituminous Mixtures
Mixtures Prepared
Prepared From
From
6—7
Desert Surface Types by Plan Area
Aregates Found in the Mid—East
Mid—E&st
7—14
7.4
Proportioning Guidelines
Proportioning
GuidelineB and
and Expected
Expected Perrormanre
Percoranre for
7.5
Miniium
Runway Requirements
Requirements for
forC—130
C—130
Miniatum Runway
7—27
7.6
7.6
Thickness Requirements
Requireenta for
Thickness
forCement
Cement Stabilized
StabilizedFoundation
Foundation Pada
Pads
7—31
7.7
7.7
Thickness Requirements for Asphalt
Laphalt Stabilized Foundation Pads
Pade
7—32
7—32
7.8
7.8
Settling Times for Small Particles
Particlee
749
7—49
7.9
7.9
Cast Test Reactions
Reactione
7—50
7—50
9.1
Schedules of
Schedules
of Work,
Work, If
If Necessary,
Necessary, During
During Accltitatising
Acclimatizing
Period
9—4
Water Requirements
Water
Reqoireents
9—4
9'4
9.2
7'I8
MadeWith
With
Aggregates
Aggregates
Found inFound
the Mid—E&st
in the Mid—East 7-I8
Ccr.te Made
Ccr.te
vii
F
ICURES
FIGURES
Page
Number
of
Southwest Asia
1—2
1.1
Political Map
1.2
ClImatic Zones
Climatic
1—4
2.1
Building Placement
2—3
2.2
Building Layout:
2.3
Parking Shades
2—4
2.4
Vegetation
VegetatIon
2—5
2—5
2.5
Effect of Wind on High Rises
2—5
3.1
Optimum Depth of Charge Burial and Crater Dimensions
For Optimally Buried Charges
Chargea in Dry Gravelly Sand
As Functions of Charge Weight
33
Dimensione
Optimum Depth of Charge Burial and Crater Dimensions
For Optinially
Optimally Buried
Burled Charges
Charges in
In Weak
Weak Sandstones
Sandstones and
Shales As Functions of Charge Weight
3—4
3.3
Explosive Barrier Ditching Designs
De8igns (Plan View)
3—5
3.4
Explosive Barrier Ditch Cross Sections
ExplosIve
3—6
4.1
4.].
Typical Semipermanent Portable Generator Site
4.-3
4—3
4.2
Expedient
ExpedIent TG Sunshade
Sunshade and
and Windbreak
Windbreak
45
43
4.3
Underground Muffler
4—6
4.4
Crossing,UGD
Typical Expedien.t
Typical
Expedient Road
Road Crossing,
UGD
4—9
4.5
4.5
Direct Burial of Cable Showing Proper Cable Spacing
and Depth
4—10
46
Man Base Camp)
Proposed Low Voltage Distribution Layout (1000
(1000 Man
4—16
4—16
4.7
Electric Distribution
Distribution Layout
Layout (1000
(1000 Man
Man Base Camp)
4—17
4.8
4.8
Typical High Voltage Distribution Layout
4—18
4.9
4.9
Expedient TG Grounding Grid
4—29
4.10
Grounding Using Sewage Drain
4—31
4.11
Expedient Grounding Pipe
4—31
4.12
Expedient Grounding Trench
4—32
3.2
East—West Orientation
viii
2—4
4-
FIGURES (Cont'd)
Number
Page
5.1
Schematic of Total Water Supply System
5—5
5.2
Savings
5—8
5.3
Water Chiller Concept
5—10
5—10
5.4
5.4
Shower Water Collection Basin
5—16
5.5
Shower Wastevater Reuse Unit
5—17
5—17
5.6
Rinsewater Reuse System
5—22
5.7
Laundry Wastewater Reuse Unit
5—23
5.8
Multiple Casualty Treatment
5—27
5.9
Sand
Sand Filter
Fiher
5—31
5.10
Field Expedient Water Distribution
533
5—33
5.11
Expedient Road Crossing Guard
5—42
5.12
Storage Container
544
5—44
5.13
storage Basin
Storage
5—45
5.14
HeflcopLr Washing
He11copL.r
Washing
5.15
Water dad
dnd Wastewater Use Opportunities and
Priorities
Facility
5—49
5—58
6.1
An East—West Buildiig—Oriented
Building—Oriented c1s
cis
6—3
6.2
Comforr.
and Discomfort
Discomfort
Lines;
Lines
Equal
Wetted Area
Comforr. and
Lines,
Linee of
Equal of
Wetted
Area
6—8
o.2
Traditiiinal Method
Traditirinal.
Method of
of Evaporative
Evaporative Cooling
Cooling
6—9
6.4
Concrete Block Manufacturing Process
Proceas
6—14
6.5
Adobe
6—19
6.6
Compressive Strength Test Set—Up
6—23
6.7
Modulus of Rupture Test Set—Up
6—24
6.8
6.8
Roundwood PoleB
633
6—33
6.9
TradItional Floor Construction (Iraq)
Traditional
6—34
Cement—Asbestos Panels
6—35
6.10
ix
FIGURES (Cont'd)
Number
6.11
Tent, General—Purpoee,
General—Purpose, Medium,
Medium, With Kit and Liner
6—37
6.12
Fly Configuration for Tent,
Tent1 General—Purpose,
General—Purpoee Medium
6-39
6—39
6.13
Extender Concept for Tent,
Tent1 General—Purpose, Large and Medium
6—40
6.14
Egyptian Army Tents
6—41
6.15
TEMPER Tent With Transition
6—42
6.16
A Complete TEMPER Tent System
6—43
6.17
Ground Anchors
6—44
6.18
Typical
Typical 24—ft—wide
24—ft—wide (7.3-is)
(7.3-is) Building
Building
6—45
6.19
Wall Sections
6—46
6—46
6.20
Concrete Block, Precast Concrete, and Poured—In—Place
Concrete Roof System
6—47
6—47
7.1
Block Diagram of Hot Desert Mount and Plain Terrain
Showing
Showing the
the Four
Four Engineering
Engineering Zones
Zones
7.2
7.2
Gradation Curves> Upper and Lower Limits; Beach
and
and Dune
Dune Sands
Sands
7—4
7,4
7.3
Gradation Curves, Sand Zone II, Desert Fill Zone XV
7—5
7—5
7.4
Gradation Curves
Curves,Upper
Upper and
and Lower
Lower Limits1
Limits, Silty
Silty Stone,
Stone,
Zone III
7—6
7—6
Gradation Curves,
Gradation
Curves) Upper
Upper and
and Lover
Lover Limits,
Liits1 Fan
Fan Gravel,
Zone
Zone II
II
7—7
7-7
Gradation Curves, Upper and Lover Limits, Sandy Stone,
Stone1
Zone III,
Zone
LII, and
and Stone
StonePavement,
Pavent, Zone
Zone XV
IV
7—8
Subgrade
subgrade Strength Requirements,
Requirements1 C—130 Aircraft,
Aircraft, Medium
Lift Forward Area Airfield
7—24
7—24
7.8
Minimum Runway Requirements for a C—130
7—26
7.9
Widening a No—Way Road
Road
7—29
7.10
Strength Teat
Breaking or
or Dry Strength
Breaking
7—39
739
7.11
Roll or Thread Test
7—40
7.12
Ribbon Test
7—42
7.5
7.5
7.6
7.7
x
FIGURES (Cont'd)
Page
Number
713a
7.13a
Wet Shaking Test (Initial Sample)
7—44
744
7.13b
Wet Shaking Test (Livery Appearance)
7—44
7.1k
7.13c
Wet Shaking Test (Squeezing the Sample)
745
_45
7.l3d
7.13d
Wet Shaking Test (Crumbling the Sample)
745
7.14
IdentIfication
Suggested Procedure for Hasty Field Ident{fication
7—48
78
8.1
typical Facilities in a Small Port in the Middle East
Typical
8—2
9.1
Gasoline Storage Life Based on a Gasoline With Storage Life
of 12 Months at 100°F
99
9.2
Probability of Equipment•Difficulty
xi
9—10
TROOP
CONSTRUCTION IN
IN TRE
THE MIDDLE EAST
TROOP CONSTRUCTION
EAST
QiAPTER 1 — INThODUCTION
1.1
Background
The planning efforts for base development and operational contingencies
The extremely
in Southwest Asia (SWA) (Figure 1.1) involve unique challenges.
harsh environment of the desert
de8ert and very limited local building construction
materials contribute to these challenges.
There is
io much
such published literature
concerning not only
only the
the effects
effects of
of the
the desert
desert envlronaaent
environment on
on material,
iaterial, equipequip—
bent, and facilities,
ment,
facilitie8, but
but also
also the
the unusual
unusual problems
proble8 aesociated
associated with
with construcconstruction and operation activities in
In such areas. A need exi8ts
exists to summarize
summarize all
all
engineer—related aspects
a8pects of the problem, and provide a single source of inforinfor—
ination for
mation
for planners
planners and
and engineer
engineer units
units to
to use for base development
development in
in SWA.
SWA.
1.2
Objective
ObJective
The purpose of this report is to consolidate all engineer—related aspects
of the problem in base development and provide planners and engineers with a
single source handbook covering construction problems and practiceB
practices unique to
the Middle East.
1.3
1.3
Assumptions
1.
The areas
area8 of concern are the desert regions
regionB of SWA.
2.
The facilities
used for
for up to 12
facilities will
will be
beu8ed
12 months.
months.
will
Strategic air and
and sea
sea lines
lines of
of communication
communication (LOC)
(LOC) will be lImited
limited to
to
3.
existing facilities.
Some areas in the theater of operations (TO)vill be.eubjeet
be.eubject .to hoe.—
ho8.—
tile fire; others will not.
4.
auBtere. Joint Chiefs of Staff
The staiidard
of con8truction
construction will
viii be austere.
standard of
(JCS) Publication 3 initial standard (0 to 6 months) will govern.
5.
The deploying forces
force8 will arrive in the TO per Time Phased Force
6.
Deployment Data with TOE equipment.
1.4
Characteristics of Desert Regions
in base
To provide some insight into the challenges that will be faced In
construction, it
construction,
it is
is important
important to
to understand
understand the
thecharacteriatics
characteristicsof'
of desert
desert
environments.
environnents.
1—1
—
+
SUDAN
Hill,
Figure 1.1.
• .M.Ct,
Political map of Southwest Asia.
SAUDI AIASIA
SAUDI
AASIA
*
,N._D.I.I
*
1.4.1
Terra
This
This region of the world contains three basic types of deserts: mountain, rocky plateau, and sandy or dune deserts. While each has itB
its own disdistinctive characteristics, they share common features
featureE of barrenness,
barrennese1 aridity,
and severity.
eeverity.
Because of
Because
of such
such Inhospitable
Inhospitable conditions,
condition most
most of
of the
the population
population
is concentrated along the coasts and the few major
wajor rivers
rivere where one can find
some relief from the heat and dusts and where water is more
iore plentiful.
Mountain deserts are
are areas.
areas of
of barren
barren hills
hills and
and Bteep—sided
steep—sided aountains
mountains with
with
intervening dry, flat
flat basins.
basins. Rainfall ig
infrequent and runs off rapidly to
is infrequent
produce flash floods
floods that
that erode
erode deep
deep gullies
gullies and
and ravines.
ravines. The ground surface
is badly dissected, with areas of exposed bedrock and stony
Btony soil.
Rocky plateau deserts are extensive flat areas where the surface is
strewn with broken rock, boulders and gravel.
Btrewn
TheBe areas are cut by steepThese
steep—
valleys, known as wadis, and contain scattered oases
walled eroded valleys,
oaseB around
which small villages often are found.
These deserts also contain salt flats,
flats)
areas where
areas
where the
the surface
surface is
is crusted
crustedwith
withsalt
ealtand
and underlaIn
undèrlan wfth
wth brine—
saturated Boil.
soil.
normally dry
dry in
in the
the summer
aumer and
They are normally
and marshy
marshy in
in the
the winter.
winter.
Dune or sand deserts are relatively flat,
flat) wind—eroded areas covered with
sand or gravel.
Greed and
Created
andshaped
shapedby
bythe
the wind,
.-ind,dunes
dunesconsist
consist of
of loose
loose sand
sand
of vriois
variousparirJe
parirJesizes
sizesand
andvary
varyin
inheighr
heighr from
from aa few
few feet
feet to
to several
several hundred feet.
generally hard
Areas between
beLwen the
the dunes
dunes are
are generally
hard with
with no
no distiict
distinct landlandmarks excepL
except fcr
fcr i occasional
occasional oasis.
i
It Lust
ut b bk'pt
keptininmind
mindthat
thatall
allthree
three terrain
terrain types
types are
are usually
usually not
not
ot
The
straggly
vegetation
can
range
from
sparse
straggly
to
to
con—
The
nt veel:atin.
veel:ation.
tiuou and
tir.uou
and 'rJeá depending on ground conditions. The native vegetation
vegetation will
will
usually be
usualLy
be low
low tt 1e
'e ground,
ground, though
though commonly
commonly 33 ft to 4 ft (0.91 m to
to1.22
1.22 in)
in)
vairie cri
cribebe seen.
seen.
I1h varierie
dccld
de.'cld
ft to 4 ft (0.91
Itlh
An
Ompaction
An linportan
1inportan feature
feature of nominal desert
desert soils is
is the
the surface
surface :0mpacti0n
pavement." This compaction is caused by
referred
referred to
to as
as "desert
"desert pavement."
This
action of rain (for compaction) and wind (to remove the fine particles). This
".sert pavei.ent'
pavei.ent' usually
usually is
is 1/2
1/2 in.
in. to
to 44 in.
in.. (1.77 cm
cm to
to 10.16 cm)
cm) thick
thick and
and
Most of the time
time troops
troopswili
will not
not break
break through)
through,.biitwith
bütwith
ciewhat frag!l. Most
cw exc
tl: tr-ked or wheeled vehicles usually will. Once the "desert
verent is breed, thethe
heavy
heavy
blowing
blowing
sand
sandand
anddirt
dirtconditions
conditions reported
reported In
in
raveneot"
It is in
In general this "desert pavement"
WII mUitry
the rule.
rule.
WII
inUitr reort..
rerort.sisisthe
between the
the dunes
dunes in
in the
the "sand
"sand deserts,"
deserts," the
the major
major portion
portion of
of
that is
is founv
four between
the
"Rocky
plateau
deserts,"
and
the
dry
flat
basins
in
the
"Mountain
the "Rocky p1ateu deserts," and the dry flat ba8ins in the "Mountain
deserts."
dser
ts."
soraet1jne
soraetlines
fragll.
trked
tl:
is bre"-ed,
1.4.2
CIim.
While deserL
While
desert regions of the SWA are-arid and generally have low humidity,
Figure 1.2,
1.2, aa map
ap of
some coastal regions have high humidity levels.
Figure
climatic zones, shows three climatic categories covering the Middle East:
desert; intirnediate
intermediate hot dry desert; and humid, hot coastal desert.
hot, dry disert;
Dest?rt
Desert area
area of
of SWA
SWA experience
experience aa wide
wide range
range of
of daily
daily temperatures.
temperatures. DurOuring the day, so1r
ing
solarradiation
radiationwarms
warmsthe
theair
airand
andground
groundto
toproduce
producesucnmertime
summertime
1—3
a-
Figure 1.2.
Climatic zones.
S
T
fl II
'
—
5U
—
S
•
a
a
ambient tempE-dtures
tempEdtures well
well over
over 100°F
100°F (38°C).
(38°C). At
hot—dry regions,
regions,
At night in the hot—dry
the heat dissipates quickly due to clear skies and low humidity, causing tem(10° to 21°C). Wintertime temperatureB are
peratures to drop 500 to 70°F (100
to 16°C) during the day to near
noticeably lower, ranging from 450 to 60°F (70
(7° to
freezing at night.
night. AreaB with high humidity have much lower day to night temperature swings.
8wings.
Along with the daytime heat, the region is exposed to almost incessant
Velocities near hurricane force are not infrequent during the day and
night throughout the year.
Such wind storms, often lasting for several days,
carry large quantities
quantitie8 of dust
du8t and sand, and are frequently accompanied by
rapid changes in temperature.
wind.
Characteri8tic of desert areas are the limited amounts of precipitation
Characteristic
and rapid evaporation.
evaporation. In desert regionB,
regions, rainfall is less than 10 in. (254
In the
year,
and
frequently
thi8
this
is
in the form of violent storms.
per
)
mountains and hilly areas, runoff is rapid and destructive,
de8tructive, while in the
flatter areas it is channeled through wadis to depressions and salt,
salt flat9
flat
where that
that which
which does
doe8 not
not percolate
percolate into
into the
the soil.quickly
soil.quicklyevaporates
evaporatesinn the
the
hot sun.
1.5
Approach
Approach and
and Scope
Scope
This study was conducted in two phases. Phase I involved:
(1) compilation of information based on actual field experiences and knowledge of laboratory personnel and other U.S. Army Corps of Engineers employees, and on a
review of literature pertinent to construction
con8truction in desert
de8ert regions,
region8, and (2)
Identification
identification of research area8
areas or problem area8
areas requiring additional study.
Pha8e II involved studying the identified problem areas
Phase
area8 and refining information from Phase
Phase I.
I. This report documents the work of Phase II, and replaces
the Phase I report, Theater of Operations Construction in the Desert: AA
book of Lessons Learned
Learned in
in the
the Middle
Middle East.
East.
As in the Phase I document, this report covers the various engineering
These include base
ba8e planning. and
disciplines involved in
ia base development.
siting (Chapter
(Chapter 2),
2), base
base protection
protection(Chaptsr.3).,
(Chaptsr.3) .electrical.genEration
and
siting
electrical, generation and
distribution (Chapter
(Chapter 4),
4) water
water supply,
supply, distribution,
distribution, and
and disposal
disposal (Chapter
(Chapter
5),
vertical construction
construction (Chapter
(Chapter 6),
6), horizontal
horizontal construction
construction (Chapter
(Chapter 7),
7),
S) vertical
Factors affecting the engineer work force
and port construction (Chapter 8).
For definitions of abbreviations used
u8ed in
are also considered (Chapter 9).
this
this report,
reports see
see page
page Index—l.
Index—l.
1—5
CHAPTER 2 — EAE PLANNING AND SITING
2.1
Introduction
For a base
ba8e to withstand a harsh
har8h environment and to keep occupants reasonreaaon—
ably comfortable, the location of a facility or installation
inetallation within a site
8ite
8hould be determined by analyzing the constraints and features
should
feature8 of the area.
analy8i8 should include the climatic constraints of solar radiOverall siting analysis
winds1 as well as the
ation, temperature, precipitation, and prevailing winds,
natural features
features of
of the
the ground
ground surface,
surface, such
such as
as topography,
topography ground
ground cover,
cover, and
and
drainage patterns.
pattern8. This chapter provides
provides some
some fundamental
fundamental considerations
considerations for
for
ba8e planning
base
planning and
and siting
siting in
in the
the desert
deBert regions
regiona of
ofSWA.
WA.
2.2
2.2
Site
Site Selection
Selection
factor8 must
mu8t be
be considered
con8idered in
in the
tbe .selection.of
selection of a.
Several factors
a. aite
site in
in an
an arid
arid
The site shall
hali preferably
preferably be
be in
in an
an area
area where
where water resources
resources are
are
available nearby (see Chapter 5).
The site must be easily
eaaily accessible by
existing roads, or the landform must allow a landing strip
Strip to be built
region.
nearby.
nearby. **
Areas where
where drifting
drifting sand
sand is
is aa
Areas
done, aa barrier
or fence similar
done,
barrier or
tIis cannot
problem Bhould
should be avoided. If tI4s
problem
to the temporiry
temporary snow fences uBed
used along
highways in
In the United States can be used to hold the sand; unfortunately, the
Perbonnel may take advantage of
sand
sand never
never melts
melts but
but only
only grows
grows and
and moves.
moves. Personnel
this by placing fences
fence8 where stockpiles of sand would be useful
u8eful for construction
tion or
or camouflage.
camouflage. Emulsified asphalt or crude oil can also be applied to
temporarily stabilize the soil.**
be
be
The drainage
because even
drainage of
of the
the site
site must
uu8t also
also be
be considered
con8idred becau8e
even though
though the
the
desert receives little rain, when it does occur, it is usually sudden and
inten8e and causes flash flooding even if the rainfall is
intense
i8 miles from the site.
Bite.
ehould be
be avoided.
Low—lying areas where there is
i8 a
8 likelihood of ponding ehould
Natural drainage swales
swale8 (wadis2
(wadis ehould
should be
be located
located and
and avoided
avoided because
because of
of the
the
*
likelihood of flaBh flooding.
flooding.*
Drainage and mosquitoes
mosquitoes may
may be
be aa problem
problem where
where there
there are
are salt
salt marshes.
marhea.
These areas should also be avoided; however, if they are properly drained and
graded, the hazards can
cat be removed. Light oils can also be applied to marshy
areas to kill mosquito larvae.
The hot Bummer
because it blows sand. In addition, the
summer wind is a problem becau8e
wind should be blocked during the hot part of the day,
days but should be used in
th
the evening to help cool the base.
ba8e.
S0n8,
Gideon Golany, Urban Planning for Arid Zones (New York: John Wiley 6 Sons,
1978),
1978). pp 7.
** Martin Evans, Iousing,
Housing, Climate
Climate and
and Comfort
Comfort (London:
Architectural
(London: The Architectural
Press, 1980), p 57.
***Golany, pp Il.
**.*Golany,
11.
*
2—1
the deserts
There are
irs •svsn
in the
deserts
There
seven landforma
landforma in
piedmont,
piedmont,play.,
playt,alluvial,
alluvial, fan,
fan,
floodplain,
coastalplain,
plain,eolian
floodplain, coastal
eolian
landforms
landforiis
——
bess
bees
andand
sand
sand
dunes,
dunes,and
andmesa.
mesa.
plain,and
andpiedmont
piedmont are
aremoat
moat suitable
suitablefor
for
concoastal plain,
con—
Thee. three
three landforms
landformsare
arethe
theones
onesmoat
moatlikely
likely to
to be
belocated
locatedwith
with
struction.
itruction. These
nearby.*
by the
However,
liowever,the
theexact
exactlocation
locationviii
will be
be dictated
dictated by
the
vater rssourcs,
water
resources nearby.*
militaryrsquirsmants.
military
requirements.
Of those,
the.., the
the mesa,
mesa
Of
A site's
A
site's elevation
elevation can
can influence its
climate. An
An increase
increasein
in elevation
elevation
its climate.
causes
u.es
thethe
temperature
temperaturetoto
decrease,
decrease,and
andthe
therelative
relative
humidity
hidfty and
and the
the wind
wind
ventilation to
ventilation
to increase.
increase. !4esas
Mesas and
andpiedmont
piedmontregions
regionshave
have
this
thischaracteristic;
characteristic;
however,
areare
notnot
as as
easily
however,mesas
mesas
easilyaccessible
accessiblebecause
because
of the
of the
straight
straightcliffs
cliff .
surrounding
.**
surroundingthem
them.**
The piedmont
The
piedmontregion
region is
is the
the area
area sloping
slopingdown
down from
from a mountain.
Slopes
facing away
away from
facing
frOmthe
theequator
equatorare
arepreferable
preferable because
becausethey
theyreceive
receivelea,
lessdirect
direct
solar radiation
radiationand
and therefore
therefore have
have lover
solar
lower temperatures
temperatures (Pigure
(Figure 2.1).
2.1). Slope.
facing west
west and
and southwest
southwest should
ofoftheir
facing
should be
beavoided
avoidedbecause
because
their increased solar
radiation and
and higher temperatur,es.***
temperatures.***
humidity along
along
Coastal plains slope
slope toward
toward the
the sea;
sea; because
because of the high humidity
the wind
windis
is an
an important factor in cooling. There may be a problem
the coast,
coast, the
with salt water entering the water
water table
table because
because of
of the
the nearness
nearness c.
o' the
the sea.
sea.
2.3
Site Planning
Two main factors must
must be
be controlled
controlled when
designing aa base
base in a hot, arid
when designing
region. The
The intense
intensesolar
solar
radiation
radiation
must
must
be reduced
be reduced
at critical
at critical
period.
periods
by
by
orientation and shading, and the hot, dry
dry daytime
daytime winds
windi must be reduced.
Reducing the amount of solar radiation
radiation that
that reaches
reaches the
the building
building surfaces
surface.
best
heat gain
gain in
th. heat
best way to reduce the
in the
ths base.
base.
Buildings should
Buildings
should be
bedesigned
designedwith
withtheir
theirlong
longaxis
axisoriented
orientedininananeast—vest
salt—vest
minimizethe
th. east
andvest
vestwall
will exposure (Pigurs
(Figure 2.2).+ Builddirection totominimize
east and
possiblein
in order
order to
to shads
shade
ings should also
also be
be placed
placed as
as close
close together
togetheras
ii possible
each other. Building overhangs, cantilevers, or arcades should be used whenand..buildLng vail....
ever possible
possible to
to provide,
provide•shad.
shadeforforwalkways
walkwaysandbuilding
valli... A
A cloth
canopy or some type of shada
shade netting can also be installed
installad between buildings
and ground
ground surfaces
surfacesisis the
the
and
to
to shad.
th. streets
valkvays.l
shad. the
streets and
and valkvay.."
Thestreets
,tr..ts should
The
•hould
be as
as narrow
narrow as
as practical.
provided
Shadeshould
ihould be
Shad.
be provided
b.comingunbearably
unbearably
if practical
if
practicalinin
parking
parking
areas
arias
to keep
to keep
theths
vehicles
vehicles
from
from
becoming
hot.
Shade can
be provided
provided by
by canvas
canvasororsome
sometype
typeofofnetting
netting (Figur.
(Figure 2.3).
2.3).
traveled .treets
.tr..ts and
and pedestrian
pedastrian valkvay•
walkway.should
should be
be paved
Only heavily traveled
•ince the
u—radiatemore
more
of ofthe
thepolar
polarradistion
radiation than vill
viii the
th.
the pavement
pavementwill.
viiira—radiats
•inc•
* Golany,
Golany, p 1.2.
12.
"
Gol.any,. p 1.6.
** Golany,.
16.
***Evan., pp 54.
54.
+ Victor Olgyay, Design
D.stiti With
WithClimate
Climets (Princ.toni
(Princ.toni Prineeten
Prineeton University
UniversityPress,
Prsss
1973),p p .
1973),
4+
+1' Kathisv
Lsthl.sst Kelly
Kelly and
and I,I. T.
T.Pehnadsl.back,
Pehcadiiback, Landsø.ping
Landseiping the
theIsudi
laudi Arabia
Arabia Desert
..ert
Delaney Priss,
(PhLlad.lphias The Delaney
(PhLled.iphias
40.
Press, 1976),
1976), p 40.
***y1
.
2.2
REFLECTED SUNLIGHT
STRIKES BUILDING
EXT
ENSIVELY.
EXTENSIVELY.
REFL.ECTW LIGHT
STRIKES LITTLE O
THE BUILDING.
BUILDING.
OPPOSITE SLOPE
AaSORBS LITTLE
A8SORBS
ENERGY BECAUSE
OF OBLIQUE ANGLE.
SUNLIT SLOPE
ABSORBS MOST OF
SOLAR RADIATION
BECAUSE ANGLE
APPROACHES 90
DEGR EES.
A. NORTh-SOUTH SLOPE
AS SUN ANGLE DROPS,
EAST SLOPE BECOMES
SHADED.
WEST SLOPE ABSORBS
ENERGY DURING HOTTER
PART OF THE DAY.
EAST SLOPE ABSORBS ENERGY
DURING COOLER MORNING HOURS
AND SO
50 IS
Is COOLER THAN THE
THE WEST
WEST
SLOPE.
B. EAST-WEST SLOPE
Figure 2.1.
Building placement.
2—3
Wf—>E
TH
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
LOW ALTITUDE
AF1ERNOON SUN
STRIKES ONLY A
SMALL WALL AREA
t
LOW ALTITUDE
MORNING SUN
'r
HITS SMALL
WALL AREA
HIGH ALTITUDE MIDDAY
SUN IS SCREENED BY
PAT
OVERHANG
SUN
NORTHERN
Figure 2.2.
_______
Building layout:
East—West orientation.
BUILDING OVERHANG
INDEPENDENT SHADE
Figure 2.3
Parking
shades.
The streets should be paved in light earth colors rather than
ground surface.
white (because of the glare) or dark colors, which would cause the area to
become quite hot.
Large open plazas should be avoided because they do not provide shade and
In addition, the wind will deflect into them and
viii become too hot to use.
cause turbulence and blowing sand.
Vegetation helps to reduce the amount of radiation which reaches the
ground, to hold the soil in place, and to reduce the amount of blowing sand
(Figure 2.4).* Therefore, vegetation should be protected whenever possible
during base construction.
*
Baiwant Slngh Saini, Building in Hot Dry Climate (Chichester; John Wiley &
Sons, 1980), p 86.
2—4
REFLECTED SUNLIGHT IS
BLOCKED EY
BY VEGETATION.
VEGETATION.
rrrrlin
I I )TH
JT(//flflHT1TH
1TTi 111H
1 11)
Figure 2.4.
Vegetation.
The heights of the buildings should be kept as low and uniform as possiThe
possi—
ble, with
with the distances between buildings no greater than the height of the
structures so the wind stays above the base. Taller buildings will create
structures
turbulence and eddies
ed1ies in
ir the base (Figure 2.5).
turbulence
Wind towers can be used to catch the wind and provide ventilation and
cooling for the building interiors.
Walled courtyards will provide protection
from the wind and offer shade.
perpendicular to
to the
the prevailing
prevailing winds
winds and
and be
be
Streets should be designed perpendicular
straight streete
streets should
should be
be avoided
avoided because
because
as narrow as possible. Long, wide, straight
rake conditions unbearable.
the wind, blowing sand, and heat will make
Many of the factors discussed here contradict those which must be considered for base protection and concealment. Base protection has not been
considered in this chapter; only the factors relating to climate—sensitive
design have been discussed.
PREVALING WiNO
PREVALING
WiNO
TAUER BUILDING
HLDING NCRESES
TAU.ER
NCRESES
W$ND SPEED
SPEED 88 TURBULtNCE
WIND
TURBULENCE
Figure 2.5.
Effect of wind on high rises.
7—c
— BASE
CHAPTER 3 —
BASE PROTECTION
PROTECTION
3.1
3.1
Introduction
This chapter discusses problems
problemB with base protection, which include
fortificationB1 and
camouflage, explosive excavation, mine utilization, field fortifications,
installation physical security. Most of these problems are common to all
theaters of operation
operation (To)
(TO) and
and are only slightly changed because of the peculiarities of the region under study.
In particular,
particular, the
the lack
lack of
of water,
water, tein—
temperature extrelDes,
extremes, and
and low
low humidity
humidity have
have little
little effect
effect on
on (or
(or affect
affect only
only
indirectly) base protection. However, two dominant characteristics
characteristic8 of the
region do have an effect:
the soil
8oil conditions,
conditions including
including dust,
dust, and
and the
the lack
of building materials.
3.2
General
A general rule is that successful camouflage is
i8 80 percent proper 8iting
aiting
and 20 percent treatment.
treatment.
In arid regions, featureless
or
flat
terrain
and
featurele9s
liuiited vegetation make camouflage of key elements
limited
elementB at
at fixed
fixed facilities
facilities particpartic—
ularly
ularly valuable.
valuable.
(See FM 90—3,
90—3. Desert Operations.) Dispersing easily idenIdentifiable features into irregular or nongeometrical patterns, avoiding open
plains, and keying into local natural terrain irregularities —— such as rock
drainageways —— are basic practices that can
outcrops, ditches,
ditches, arid
and drainageways
cantly increase a base's chance of surviving air attacks. When keying
camouflage to natural drainage features,
features1 however, caution must
oust be exercised
since such areas may be subject to flash flooding.
Thus, their potential for
incorporation
be somewhat
somewhat linited.
limited. Since Army
incorporation into
into the
the camouflage
camouflage plan
plan may
ay be
stock camouflage items may not be available for rapid deployment,
deployuent, local
materials can be used to fabricate acceptable alternatives. In all cases, a
total camouflage plan should be addressed on a force and unit basis, not on an
itet—by—item
item—by—item baais.
basis.
Best results
results can
can be
be achieved
achieved by
by aa auiall
small (6—
(6— to 10—man)
teaiiiassigned
team
assignedcamouflage
camouflageresponsibility.*
responsibility.* Local labor
labor should
should be
be used1,
used, if at
measuree. Contñgency
Contingency plans
plans
all possible, to construct expendient camouflage measures.
should be made ahead of time.
signifi-
3.3
Explosive Excavation
The need may arise to excavate large soil volumes for tank obstacles,
obetacles1
place storage
field fortifications.
fortifications.
The
place
storage below
below ground1,
ground, or
or euiplace
emplace field
The principal
principal
problems are (1) emplacing the explosives deep enough to use their full potential, and (2) predictIng
predicting the resulting crater.
Emplacement
3.3.1
3.3.1
cemented desert
The emplacement problem will be difficult in many of the ceaented
Drilling equipment and/or shaped charges offer the only practicel
soils.
soils.
*
Wherevr
Wherever the
words
man,
•men,
the words
man,
•men,
or their related
related pronouns
pronouns appear,
appear1 either
either as
a
words or parts of words (other than referring to a specific individual),
they have been used for literary purposes and are meant in their generic
sense to include both sexes.
3—1
Fig—
The crater dimensions can be approximated from the curves in FigWhIle these curves are recommended for general use,
While
use1 in the
Middle East they will give most accurate result8
results for TNT in dry granular sand
and weak rocks,
rocks1 the cage
case for which they were developed.
solutions.
ureB 3.1. and 3.2.
ures
3.3.2
Tank Obstacles
Obstacle8
The
The best explosive excavation system for tank obstacles is
ie a 4—in,
4—in. plastic pipe buried to about 6—1/2 ft (2 m) and pumped full of slurry
Blurry explosive.
exp]oeive.
This system can be primed with C—4 on one end,
end1 and the resulting linear ditch
can run several hundred meters. Two to three hundred is probably practical
without additional priming at intervals along the pipe.. A system such as a
large Ditch Witch or Badger Plow may not be available to emplace pipe, so Figures 3.3 and 3.4 are provided for explosives in boreholes.
Note that
that in
in addiaddition to the problem
problei of providing enough boreholes,
boreholes1 large amounts
amounta of explosives
are also required.
3.4
Mine Use
Mine warfare has required major engineering and logistical efforts in
previous desert combat. FM 90—3 points
points Out
out that
that in
in most
most cases,
cases1 dcs'ert
dcsert nine—
mine—
fields,
fields, because
because of
of the
the terrain,
terrain must
must cover
cover large
large areas
areas to
to be
be effective.
effective.
Two
possible problems that can arise in certain desert terrains and causediffi—
culty in using mines to prevent intrusion
intruBion are:
(1) certain cemented or gravelly soils will be difficult to dig for underground emplacement of nines,
uines, and,
and1
when dug
dug1 leave
leave an
an obvious
obvious signature;
signature; and
and (2)
(2) drifting
drifting sands
sands can
can cover
cover
scatterable mines, can cover buried mines
niinestoo
toodeeply
deeplyfor
formine
mineeffectiveness,
effectiveness
and can expose mines
iines that have been previously buried.
burled.
No solutions are suggested to these problems.
3.5
Field Fortifications
Command
CoTnmand posts
posts and
and underground
underground bunkers
bunkers will
will be
be difficult
difficult to
to construct
construct due
due
to
to lack
lack of
of beams,
beanis timbers1
timbers1 and
and general
general construction
construction materials.
materials. In one of the
Sinai campaigns,
caipaigns, existing
existing railroads
railroadswerewere.torn
tornup
up -so,
-s.o•.that
that rails.and
rails.andties
ties coul,d
couLd
be used to roof bunkers and fighting positions.
Full advantage must be taken
of expedient items that can be salvaged from existing or demolished buildings
in
in the
the TO.
TO. For the larger
larger structures,
Structures 8uch
such items
items as
as rails
rails and railroad
from demolished
demolished buildings,
buildings1 etc.,
etc.1 may be availcrossties, beams,
beams, and
and Joists frozn
Competition for such salvaged materials should be expected because of
able.
the general lack of timber and structural steel.
joists
36 Overhead
OverheadCover
Coverfor
forPrepared
Prepared Positions
Positions
3.6
In arid regions there will be few natural materials from which to build
overhead cover for
for prepared
prepared fighting
fighting positions
poeitionB such
such as
as positions
positions for
for Dragon
Dragon
and
and Law
Law antitank
antitark weapons
weapons and
and two—man
two-man fighting
fighting positions.
positions. Due to the extreme
temperatures, it may be just as important for overhead cover to provide shade
protection
protection from
from incoming
incoming fire.
fire. Dust
Dust and
and blowing
blowing sands
sands will
will be
be irritating
irritating to
to
the troops.
troops, may cause damage to the weapons, and can obscure the field of fire
weaponsp the dust stirred up from the backblast
during battle. For antitank weapons,
3—2
For Exp1o1vc Charge of
Otii Depth of Burial Example:
V z
=
D =
10 KG Buried at 1.3M (B),
Crater Depth (D) O.95M
Crater Radius (R)
2.OM, and
Crater Volume (V) — 5.3M3
Apparert Crater Volume
A-rent
Crater Radius
Apparent Crater Depth
'coo
.co
$00
$00
300
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ICC
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0.2
3.2
3
Figure 3.1.
£
2
3
6
d
C.
3
5
i
0.I
%OOC
Optimum depth of charge burial and crater dimensions for
optimally buried charges in dry gravelly sand as functions
of charge weight.
3—3
-I
C
B • Optiu
Optimum epth
epthofof3uriaJ
3uriaJ
V —
Apparent
Apparent Crater Volume
R
Apparent Crater
Apparent
Crater adius
adius
= Apparent
Appsret
Depth
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iT
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Figure
3.2.
3.2.
0.5
I
IH
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£50 sic,
£
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IC.
IIHI1
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Optimum depth of charge burial and crater dimensionS for
optimally buried charges in weak sandstones and shales as
functions of charge weight.
3—4
DOUBLE—OITCH DESIGN
DOUBLE—DITCH
SINGLE-DITCH DESIGN.
DESIGN
(2—MINUTE MINIMUM DELAY)
Dry Sand/Weak Rock
Dry Cemented Gravelly Sand
Dry
Dry Cemented Sandy C1y
Figure
J
4.4
•
I.• •.
I
I
i
*
VfM—LINE CHARGE
(IN—LINE
CHARGE SPACINGS)
SPACINGS)
110
175
75
(lb/hole)
(lb/hole)
Blasting Agent (Slurry)
Charge WI
Wt
4
4
I
•, •.
I
I
I
1
4
4
4
4.4
1
4
•. •0 •0 •• • • •S •
.• .• • • . •. •. . .• .
I
• • •i • • • • • • • •
100
150
150
275
TNT
Z
IC-,
I
I
I
I
3.3..
2 N DEEP
DEEP
Explosive barrier ditching designs (plan view).
ALL CHARGE HOLES
HOLES ARE
ARE
ROR I
RO
RD 3(IF USED)
HoI7(IFUsEo)
HoI7IFuSEo)
I'll'
Ic,
I
i
Ic,
I..,
NUMBER OF
INTENDED BARRIER LENGTH.
OF CHARGE
CHARGE IBtATIONS
LtATIONS AS NEEDED IOR
OR INTENDED
LENGTH.
TRIPLE—DITCH DESIGN
:
BRIDGING CAPAEVJTY)
-U BRIDGING
CAPAEVY)
(DEFEATS 30—U
(DEFEATS
(DEFEATS 18—M
BRIDGING CAPABILiTY
(DEFEATS
18-M BRIDGING
CAPABILiTY)
3.
2.
1.
Material
CHAR
ORIGINAL URACE
LOC*7,OH
LOC*7IOH
a. SINGLE
$NGLE DITCH
2•NINUTE NJMUM DELAY)
U•NINUTE
JIM AVLI
AVLB
SPAN
DOUBLE DITCH
(DEFEAU iBM
(DEFEAU
uN BRIDGING
BRIDGING CAPABILITY)
CAPABILITY)
Avta SPAN
.&lAvLaSP*N
ROW NO.
Ii
cc. TRIPLE
TRIPL( DITCH
1DEFEA1 -M MRDGINC
1DEFEAT
RDGNGCAPABIUTY;
tArAe,LITv;
Figure
3.4.
Explosive barrier ditch cross sections.
Sections.
and missile will not only give away the location of the position,
positions but can also
decrease the gunner's
gunner's field
field of
of vision
vision to
to the
the point
point where
where he
he may
may lose
lose his
his tartarget.
3.6.1
Possible Solutions
Use tubular sandbags for overhead cover.
These sandbags are about 79 in.
(200 cm) long and 10 in. (25 cm) wide when empty. When filled and arched they
can span a 24—in.
24—In. (60—cm) wide trench,
trench providing
providingoverhead
overheadcover
coverfor
forthe
theDragon
Dragon
and two—man fighting positions shown in TC 77—50, pp 49 and 12, respectively.
The tubular sandbag
sandbag should
should be
be filled
filled using
using soil
soil dug
dug from
from the bottom
bottom of
of the
the
position. The soil
Boil at the ground surface may be too dry for the filled bags
to arch properly. The arched bags will provide overhead cover for both shade
and protection froo fragmentation. This method does not solve the problem of
backblast.
backblast.
3.6.2
Special Consideritions
Tubular sandbags are used in Germany by the Army and by civilians for
flood control. These bags should be considered for inclusion as part of the
forces' sandbag
aandbag supply.
3—6
3.7
3.7
Constructici
andCommunications
Communications (C3)
(C3) BunkerB
Bunkers
Constructioi of
of Command,
Command,Control,
Controand
ba9e8 and strong points
pointB using
u8ing
Construction of C3 bunkers at operations bases
designs presently
presently in
in Army
Army field
field manuals
manuals requires
requires large
large quantities
quantities of
of uiaterials
materials
(concrete. timber,
tinber, and corrugated metal)
wetal) and considerable effort by engineer
(concrete,
troops. A force operating in remote and arid regions will have neither the
materials nor engineer support to construct
con8truct C3 bunkers using designs in the
field
field manuals.
manuals. Another problem in arid regions is the extreme temperature
that, without adequate ventilation, could make
nake staying in the bunker unbearable.
3.7.1
PosBibie Soiutiona
PosBibie
These 8helters
shelters can
can be
be fabricated
fabricated from
from
frane fabric shelters.
shelter9.
Use buried frame
iaterials
materials that will be found in built—up areas of the country and materials
brought in by the force. The frame for the shelter can be made either from
small—diameter (1—1/2— to 2—in.) steel
Bteel or aluminum
aluminun pipe connected with pipe
Frame spacing
Bpacing should
fitting or
existing structures.
structures.
fitting
or fron
from lumber
lumber taken
takenfroixi
from existing
be a maximum
and designed
designed tosupport
to.support 18
18 to
to 24
24 in.
in. .(460.to
•(460.to
aximuitiofof3030in.
in.(760
(6O mm)
m) and
The fabric cover, should be a neoprene—coated nylon fabric,
610 uim)
610
mm) of
of soil.
soil.
such as T—17 landing membrane,
menbrane, or possibly the fabric from which large water
Excavation for the bunker can be done using engineer
bladders are made.
iade.
Entranceways should be placed on both ends of the
equipment or
equipulent
or explosives.
explosives.
bunker
bunker for
for ventilation.
ventilation. If available, blowers should also be used to increase
nm) of soil cover will provide
the ventilation. Approximately 16 in. (410 mm)
adequate fragmentation protection.
3.7.2
Special
Casdrations
Several
frane—fabric shelters are being considered for type classificaframe—fabric
These shelters are
are lightweight,
lightweight, require
require little
little 8hippittg
shipping space,
space, and
and can
can
be erected rapidly by the users with engineer support
8upport required only for excavation and placement of soil cover. In recent years, these shelters have been
used by the Israelis.
tion.
3.8
3.8.1
Special Canoufiage
S,pecial
Camouflage Problenis
Problems.
Taiwaya, PlpelineB,
PipelineB, and Other Linear
Linear Featuree
Featuz'ee
racks,
racks, Twiwaya,
Bury pipes,
and use
use therpipes,avoid
avoidstraight
straight lines,
lines, and
therPossible
solutions. Bury
1.
1.
Possible solutions.
mal blankets and
and screens
screens to
to break
break up
up lines
lines and patterns
patterns of
of piping.
piping. Use
mal
Shadows must be elim—
elim
adhesives and
adhesives
and local
local soil
soil to
to ciatch
match background
background color.
mated. Use discipline to curtail tracking. Rake out connecting tracks to
Inated.
canouflage installations. Taxiways can be patterned by use of adhesives and
camouflage
Special fireproof adhesives are required.
local soils.
Do not employ
employ comlEon
common adhesives
adhe9ives on
on taxiways.
taxiiaya.
2.
Don'ts.
fire
fire from
from common
common adhesives
adhesives are
are hazards
hazards to
to jet
jet engines.
engines.
Loose sand and
Pipelines, off—road tracks, and taxiways are
Special consjderations.
considerations.
3.
all,highly
all
highly visible
visible linear
linear signatures
signatures and
and keys
keys to
to specific
specific target
target locations.
locations.
kush and
Brush
andscreets
screensused
usedrandonily
randomly along pipelines help reduce detectability.
material8 such as canvas, shrimp netting, screen, sheeting, straw,
Local materials
3—7
feathers, steel wool, and glass wool can be used to produce screens by tying
them to a mesh base 8upport of wire or cord.
Electrical
3.8.2
Power Generators
1. Possible
Possible solutions.
solutions. Emplace under cover of buildings.
Bury in
natural or dug ground cuts.
Cuts.
installation with
with screening.
ecreenirg. Use thermal
Cover installation
blankets and radiation shields
Bhields between generator and the expected angle of
incoming attack aircraft. Distribute generators to avoid regular signature
aignature
patterns. Employ antiradar screens.
Insulate exhaust stack8 and hot areas.
Bury
Bury power
power cables
cables where
where possible.
possible. Employ decoy thermal sources to destroy
de8troy
ground signature
Bignature of site. Exhaust hot air and gases into the atmosphere
atmoBphere from
shielded vents.
The detection and identification of generators by thermal
devices is a principal threat to site,
site1 unit, and activity identification.
2.
Don'ts.
Do not restrict air flow through generators. Do not exhaust
hot air onto objects and terrain (these will become secondary radiators).
Do
not rely on visual screens to hide from thermal detection.
Where possible,
poBsible,
avoid open
terrain.
open terrain.
3.
Special considerations. Use local materials
aaterials and labor to fabricate
needed camouflage.
In a thermal region, the main objective is to it heat
escape by convection while shielding radiation from detectors.
Hot gases are
not readily detectable, but surfaces warmer or colder than their backg.ounds
are.
Straw, brush, and old fabrics of various kinds can be used to produce
screening.
Tall 7'owr3
Tall
Towra and
and Antennae
3.8.3
1.
1.
Possible solutions.
Site tall features with concealment consideraconBidera—
tion.
tioi.
tower8 and antenEmploy open—web construction where possible for both towers
nae.
Pattern paint and apply shape distributors in accord with terrain using
local brush or similar material. Bury cable to towers (thermal target). Use
UBe
decoy towers to confuse force identity. Where feasible, use existing tall
structures for antennae emplacements.
2.
Don'ts. Do notcluster
antennae. Donotaddedge
Donotaddedge dlsrupt'or8
to
notclusterantënnae.
disruptors to
rotating antennae. Do not pattern paint rotating antennae. Color tone antennae to match background terrain, not the sky. Avoid making tracks between guy
wire anchor points.
nt add
towers.
Do not
add to
to visual
visual cross
cross section
section of towers.
3.
Special considerations. Antennae on tall towers are easily identified reference points for attack from the air. High winds
windB must be considered
for all camouflage measures.
3.8.4
Individual buildings
buildings and
and Shelters
ShZters
1.
1. Possible solutions. Use existing structures where possible and do
not modify their exterior appearance. Disperse new structures, shelters, and
tentage in
in nongeonietrical
nongeometrical patterns
terrain featureè.
featureè. Bury
patterns tied
tied into
into existing terrain
structures where forced to use open areas. Use adhesive and local
local soils
soils to
to
tone down exposed surfaces. Conceal shadows and destroy geometric shape of
structures by use of screening made from local materials applied to wire—
netting base. Especially screen all openings to prevent "black—hole effect.
3—8
Extend ground ;.attern with soil treatments uBing
using oils, dark earth, etc. Main—
Maintain random road
tam
road networks.
networks. Use decoy structures where appropriate to confuse
the attacker and provide false targets. Metal screening can reduce detection
by radar. Trash can be used to conceal vital buildings.
building8.
Screening materials
of local nature are available to help in the form of adhesives from milk, soyfabrics) canvas, and trash
traah
beans, flour, molasses,
molasses) etc. Garnish from straw, fabrics,
can also be used.
Supporting mesh can
can be
be made
made froni
from materials
materials such
such as
as chicken
chicken
wire and old fish nets.
2.
Don'ts.
Don'ts. Avoid
Avoid positions
positions in
in open—plain
open—plain areas.
areas. Avoid positions on
crests or ridges.
Do not alter exterior appearance of existing damaged buildings except
except to
to torte
tone down. Do not permit traffic and parking near critical
buildings
buildings or
or shelters.
shelters. Do not
use open
not use
open geometric
geometric patterns
patterns for
for tents
tents and
and vans.
vans.
other highly
highly identifiable
identifiable features at a distance
Keep antennae
antennae arid
and other
distance frog
from criticritical
cal headquarters
headquarters buildings.
buildings.
Special considerations.
considerations. Use local materials
Special
iaterials and labor where possiBasic use of local
to structures
structures is
is valuable
valuable for
for tone
tone down.
down.
Ba8ic
local soil
soil 'adhered
adhered to
supporting
Screens made from straw, brush, rags, or shrimp netting tied to Bupporting
nettirg are good substitutes for inventory screening. Adhesives can be made
netting
from
from molasses,
mola8ses, oil,
oil, bituminous
bituminous emulsions,
emulsions, resins,
resins, glues,
glues, starches,
starches, soybean
soybean and
and
milk protein, and flour.
3.
3.
ble.
Open Material Storage Sites and Fuel Storage
3.8.5
Use natural
natural terrain
terrain features
features and
and lines
lines to
to stock
stock
Possible solutions. Use
Use broken ground, gullies, existing roadsides, and shadows of buildings to disperse supplies so that from a distance they appear as a part of the
natural order of things. Employ local materials such
euch as brush, straw, and
Use adhesive
adhesive and
and local
local
fabrics to break up linear patterns of stock supplie8.
supplies. Use
Disperse large
large items
items
soils to fabricate screens for covering larger items. Disperae
consistent with security. Create decoy storage sites in open areas using the
Patterns
Patterns can
can be
be created
created on
on the
the
usual military squares and piles of trash.
ground in arid areas with oil or other dark colorants to simulate stocks
8tocks of
stores by
by represent:lng
representing their
their shadow.
shadow. Use existing buildings where possible to
Where possible,
possible, employ
employ existing
existing fuel
fuel
pruvide both concealment and cover. Where
storage facilities. Bury bladders, keeping the shape of revetments Irregular.
screening to
to cover
cover .8hadow
shadow
Disperse into irregular geometric
geouetric patterns. Use screening
line and employ local soil as colorant. Vertical tanks should be emplaced
tra8h and treated paper can simuainst rocky outcrops or burled.
buried. Screening trash
Thermal insulation (such as foam) on paper or fabric
late rocky backgrounds.
covering can reduce infrared detection when used over tanks and bladders.
Screens of patterned canvas are suitable in desert areas if wind load is taken
into account.
1.
stores.
etablishing
Don'ts. Avoid stereotyped geometric ground patterns in etab1ishing
Avoid
creating
more
roads than
storage 8ites.
sites. Avoid use of open—plain areas.
necessary.
2.
Special considerations. Material storage is an inviting target.
3.
While moderately increasing
Increasing inventory
Inventory and
and controlling
controlling access
access are
are valuable
valuable
techniques, the use of passive measures to protect stores is worth the cost.
•Take
precautions when
when using
using natural
natural drainage
drainage features
features since
since they
they may
may be subTake precautions
ject to flash flooding.
3—9
3.9
Placement of Mines
MineB in Shifting Sands
sands may
may result
result in
in
Placement
Placement of
of mines
mines in
in areas
areas known
known to have shifting sands
buried mines being uncovered, thus making it easier for others to detect mine
locations. Mines placed
placed in
in wadis
wadis or
or other
other interiBittent
intermittent water courses may
may be
be
of IBines
mines
dislocated
dislocated or even detonated when rains
rains fill
fill these
these channels.
channels. Burial
Burial of
desert plateau
plateau areas
areas where
where the
the ground
ground is
is flat
flatand
andstony
stonymay
mayprove
provediff
diffiin desert
icult.
(Information source,
source, Landmine
Landmine and
and Countermine
Countermine Warfare1,
Warfare, North
North Africa,
Africa,
[Engineer Agency
1940—1943
1940—1943 [Engineer
June 1972J.)
1972J.) Possible
Agency for Resources Inventories, June
solutions include minefield locations carefully selected with full knowledge
of the possible adverse environmental impacts.
impactB.
3.10
Mine Removal
Featureless terrain without easily locatable landmarks makes finding and
removing friendly minefields difficult.
Possible solutions include starting
points located
located and
and recorded
recorded by.
by taking
taking azimuths
azimuths and distances
distances from
from more
more than
than
one landmark
landmark and
and ensuring
ensuring the
the landmarks
landmarksare
arethe
themost
mostperinanelit
permanent terrain feature
feature
available.
3.11
Effects of Temperature Extremes on Mines
Extreme
Extreme temperatures
temperatures and
and abrupt
abrupt daily
daily temperature
temperature changes
changes can
can affect
affect the
the
functioning of buried mines and create increased dangers from mine detonations
detonation8
in open—storage dump areas. Surface laying
laying of
of mines
mines caii
can increase
increa8e the
the temperature extremes that mines are subject to.
(Information source1,
(Information
source, Landuiine
Landmine and
and
Countermine Warfare, North Africa, 1940—1943 [Engineer Agency for Resource
Inventories, Juiie
1972].)
Inventories,
June 1972].)
3.11.1
Possjbl
Possibi Solutions
Solutions
This
This problem
problem was
was noted
noted from
from World
World War
War II
II experiences
experiences in
in North
North Africa.
Africa.
Current
Current landmine manuals indicate
indicate that
that U.S.
U.S. landniiiies
landniines are
are built
built to
to function
function in
in
temperatures as high as
a 125°F
125°F(51°C)
(51°C)and
andniay
may be stored in areas up to 160°F
Little information
information was
was found
found pri
on what,
what. has
has been,
been done
done to
to improve
improve the
the
(70°C).
ability of mines to fuiiction
in
these
extreme
temperatures
since
World
WarII.
U.
function in these extreme temperatures since World War
However, mines placed in a desert environment
eiwironment may reach temperatures greater
than 150°F (65°C) due to solar
8olar heating, especially if they are surface laid.
Little
3.11.2
Dont's
Dont
Do not store
Store mines in enclosed buildings where temperatures might exceed
150°F (65°C).
3.12
Mine Detector AN—PRS—7
Thi currellt
nonnietallicmine
minedetector,
detector, AN—PRS—7,
AN—PRS—7, does
does not
not function
funétion well
The
current nonmetallic
well
in soils
soils with
with au
an extremely
extremely low
low moisture
moisture content.
conteut. This problem was noted during the clearance
clearance of
of miues
mines at
at the
the Suez
Suez Caual;
Canal; however1,
however, no practical
practical solution
solution
is known.
3—10
3.13
Visual Detection of Minefield Intruders
Visual detection of minefield intruders will be hindered by afternoon
hot days.
days.
Between 1500 and 1700 hours, haze may
haze
haze in
in deserts
deserts on
on clear
clear, hot
limit visibility close to the ground to approximately 200 yd.
(Inforwation
(Information
Bource, Landmine and Countermine Warfare North Africa, 1940—1943 [Engineer
source,
aentry dogs or other sen—
Agency for
Agency
for Resources
Resources Inventories,
Inventories June 1972J.)
1972J.) Use sentry
aors to detect intruders during periods when haze limits
liiits ground visibility.
3.14
314
Effect of Extreme Environment on Sensors
Extreme environmental factors such as high temperatures, haze, winds, and
sandstorms can degrade 8ensor
sensor performance by creating excessively high false
alarm rates, reducing effective detection ranges,
rangeB, and causing mechanical and
Sandstorms could even bury the sensor comelectronic component failures.
Infrared sensors will be adversely affected by haze, ground fog, or
pletely.
Detection capabilities during high temperatures will be reduced
sandstorms.
because the temperature differentials between the target and the background
will be small. Extreme temperature fluctuations will make it difficult to
The radar's effectiveness
adjust the dynamic range of infrared equipment.
will be reduced during sandstorms due to reduced effective ranges and clogging
Acoustic sensors
of moving components (such as sweeping dishes) with sand.
will be adversely affected by background noises created by high winds and
Seismic sensors
sensors will
il1 be
blowing sand,
sand, which
which can
can clog
clog or
or abrade
abrade microphones.
microphones Seismic
Bolve
difficult to emplace and be less sensitive where bedrock is exposed. To solve
such difficulties, electronic components should be shielded from the sun and
cooled. Verifying sensors should be used to reduce false alarm rates. Low—
When pos1.0 GHz).
GHz).
frequency radars should
should be
be used
used during
during sandstorus
sandstorms (up
(up to
to 1.0
sible, alter terrain to extend effective ranges of sensors.
3—Il
3—11
CHAPTER 4 -- EJECTRIC POWER GENERATIONS
CHAPTER
DISTRIBUTION, AND GROUNDING:
GENERATION, DISTRIBUTION,
SWA
SWA BASE CAMPS
4.1
Introduction
This chapter considers aspects of electric power generation and distribution that present significant challenges to Army deployment and operations in
SWA
SWA environments.
environent8. Field engineerB
engineers can
can use
use this
thi8 information
infonnation as
a a guide to
probleniswith
withelectric
electricdistribution
di8tributionsystems
8yste8 in a desert environment,
specific problem8
and as
a an
an outline
outline of
of typical
typical distribution/generation
distribution/generation equipment
equipment expected
expected to
to be
be
u8ed.
The information
information collected
collected here
here i8
is applicable
applicable to
toArniy
Army base camps or
logistic complexes that may be built in areas
area8 forward of designated,
de8ignated, pre—
8tocked, intermediate staging bases
stocked,
base8 (ISB8),
(ISB5), and therefore to any region of
SWA.
Thi8 chapter is
This
i8 based on-the following assumptions:
a8sumption8:
1.
Base canips
camps will
will be
be developed
developed in
in an
an arid,
arid, sandy,
sandy, and hot enviromnent
environment
with high winds.
2.
Logistics and re—supply capability will be limited.
3.
Host nation power will be either unavailable or incompatible with
power deniand.
power
demand.
4.
4.
Use of organic TOE generators for more than a few weeks will not be
acceptable because of troop unit operational degradation.
5.
5.
Engineer support will be overtasked; shortages
shortage8 of experienced electric distribution specialists are expected.
6.
Base camps may have to be relocated for tactical or logistical
logi8tical reasons.
is required.
A more elaA very simplified
simplified electric
electric distribution
distribution system
system is
required.
borate or extensive system would not be feasible to construct or maintain
using presently available distribution
di8tribution equipment/materials. •A
A limited
11iited and
simplified power distribution system would
vould be compatible with currently considered levels of austerity
au8terity within the base camp. As an example of electric
utilities' austerity,
austerity recent
recent findings
findings indicate
indicate that
that the
the average
average electric
electric power
power
available at typical OCONUS Army bases is between 0.75 and 1.6 kW per man.
BaBe camp planning for SWA forward areas consider power levels of .10 to .20
Base
kW per man.
Certain ISB locations
location8 provide for total electric consumption of S
5
MW, whereas base camps will provide about 1 MW for equivalent size units.
Other considerations
con8iderations in this chapter are reliance on field—expedient
measures and common sense,
8ense, along with tactical considerations that may become
most scenarios which
important at
at later
later phases
phase8 of
of base
base camp
camp operation.
operation. In moat
important
include a base camp, both air superiority and positive region control are
assumed. This assuniption
assumption may
may not
not hold
hold for
for extended
extended periods.
The electric power distribution system considered here is intended to
support a typical 1000—man base camp. Although larger base
ba8e sizes of 3000— and
4—1
4—1
5000—man capacity
5000—man
capacity are
are being
being planned,
planned,ititisisrecocnmended,r
recommended, for
for simplicity and
and
least demand on electric
electric distribution
distribution expertise1,
expertise, that
that the
the 1000—man
1000—man distribudistribution network be duplicated as necessary
necesgary to accommodate these larger camps.
Extension of completely centralized distribution (i.e.,
(i.e.1 using larger generagenera—
tore and longer trunk lines) would necessitate use of higher voltages, additors
tional types
types of
of equipment1,
equipment, and
expertise in
in distribution.
distribution.
and personnel
personnel with more expertise
At this stage in the
the planning
planning for
for base
base camp
camp development1,
development, exact
exact ——
— or even
approximate —— power demand profiles have not been specified because of ongorevisione in Army Facility Component System (AFCS) facilities for use in
ing revisions
SWA.
Since any distribution system must be tailored to match a known demand,
specific
specific recommendations
recommendations for
for generation/distribution
generation/distribution equipment
equipment size
size are
are not
not
included here. However, examples of typical distribution systems, and those
proposed
proposed by
by other
other studies,
studies, are
are included.
included. General principles for using these
systems are considered.
4.2
Generation
Army
Army standard
standard tactical
tactical generators
generators (TGs)
(TGS) are
are recommended
recommended for
for base
base camp
camp use
use
during initial and temporary phases of base camp occupation. T.- DOD's bbile
Electric Power
Electric
Power Progracu
Program (MEPP)
(MEPP) monitors
monitors development1,
development, standardization,
tandardization1, and
and proprocurement of these units. Particularly applicable to base camp distribution
are the 60
60 kW,
kW, 100
100 kW1,
kW, and
and 200
200 kW
kW sizes.
sizes. The entire line of available TCs
TGs is
described in MIL—STD—633E. Recent base development studies* have incorporated
the low voltage 100 kW TC with parallel operation to meet austere 1000—man
camp demands of 100
100 kW
kW or
or 200
200 kW.
kW.
The 100—kW diesel generator produces
120/208 V 3 4 44 wire
wire or
4 wire
wire electrtc power.
Its specified
or 240/416
240/416 V, 3 4) 4
mean time between failures (MTBF) is 24 days, which means a back—up generator
is needed on site.
For best reliability1,
reliability, the
the older
older TG
TG should
should be used as the
back—up. Principles of TG selection and matching of generator size to
specific load balancing configurations are explained in TM 5—766 and TM 5—765.
4)
TG sets
sets are designed
an integral
integral housing
housing to
to permit free—standing
designed •with
with an
traditional environments.
environments. However, extended operation of TG8
operation in traditional
TGs in
the harsh
harah desert
desert environment
environment must
must be
be approached
appraached with
with provisions
provIsions for
for additional
additional
the
protection from
from intense
intense solar
solar radiation,
radiation, wind
wind blown
blown dust,
dust, and
and eicroaching
etcroaching sand
Band
protection
dunes. Field experience has shown -that with additional environmental protection,
tion1,TCs
TCscan
can perform
perform satisfactorily
satiafactorily in
in desert
desert areas.
areas. These generators have
been known to continue satisfactory operation, though at reduced power levels,
levels,
when so protected — even at ambient air temperatures over 125°F (52°C).
Figure 4.1 is an
an example
example of
of aa portable
portable 'FG
TG protective
protective structure.
structure. This is
used for the smaller 15—kW and 30—kW TGs. For larger
uBed
larger TG5,
TGs, it
it is
is recomn2ended
recommended
that a sandbag walled structure be partially buried in the soil. •The
The floor
floor
should be reinforced with a layer of sandbags or 4 in. (100 mm)
mm) of
of concrete1,
concrete,
if available, and provide for TG tiedowns.
tiedowns. The structure must allow 3 to 4 ft
of ventilation
(0.91
ventilation space
space around
around all
allgenerator
generatorsurfaces1,
surfaces, except
except
(0.91 to 1.22
1.22 in)
m) of
ft
*
Staff
Study, Army Facility
Facility Component
Component System
System (416th
(416th Engineer
Engineer Coimnand,
Command, 10
10 July
July
1981); Value
Value Engineering
Engineering Study,
Study, AFCS
AFCS (416th
(416th Engineer
Engineer Command,
Command, 25
25 March
March
1981);
1981).
1981).
4—2
1
act
Figure 4.1.
Typical semipermanent portable generator site.
•:P
i;s.
Where wood
wood and
and roofing
roofing materials
materials are
are not
not available,
available, aa pole
pole and
and
the bottom. Where
canvas system can be erected over the walls to provide a sun shade. A 2— to
(0.6096— to
to 0.9144—in)
0.9144—rn) ventilation
ventilation space
space must
must be
be provided
provided between
between the
the wall
wall
3—ft (0.6096—
Note that this
top
top and
and canvas.
canvas. Such a shelter is shown in Figure 4.2.
arrangement can be adapted for evaporative cooling of radiator ventilation
air, if water is available. The pole and canvas arrangement baffles the ventilation air and removes some sand and dust particles.
Siting of the TG5
TGs or TG shelter is also important in reducing environmental
tal effects
effects and
and in
in making
making the
the general
general distribution
distribution system
system as
as effective
effective as
as posposFactors to consider in TG siting include the following:
sible.
1.
The demand for electric current over relatively long distribution
cables produces significant voltage drops, which dictate the use of
larger cables or transformers between the generator and load. To
reduce the need for transformers in low voltage systems, generators
should be placed as close as practicable to the largest
large8t power demand
In austere base camps, these
the8e large power demands usually
facilities.
come from the dispensary and mess halls.
2.
Existing terrain features and drainage contours should he used to
minimize exposure of units to prevailing winds. Winds in most of SWA
blow from either the northwest or southeast.
3.
It will be easier to ground the generator if the TG is placed near
natural or constructed water sources (i.e., near high water table,
underground streams or piping systems, and near waste water disposal
(See Section 4.4.)
sinks).
Where multiple
multiple TGs
TG5 are
are to
to be
be used
used in
in parallel
parallel or
or separately,
separately, on—line
on—line gengenWhere
erators should be sheltered separately to minimize overheating potential.
Backup generators used as standby may be sheltered with an on—lineTG. Due to
large amounts of heat given off by the generators, TGs should not be placed
downwind of
of other
other operating
operating generator
generator units.
units. It should be remembered that TGs
downwind
are not
not designed
designed for
for indoor
indoor operation,
operation, and
and should
should not
not be
be housed
housed in
in aa comcomare
pletely enclosed facility.
facility. The shelters described above are intended for use
as a sunshade and windbreak.
Other options may become necessary in base camp power generation. Figure
4.3 shows an exhaust muffler used by several on—line generators. The exhaust
from the TG shelter is piped into underground fuel drums and finally expelled
above ground into a water—filled drum. A larger body of water is normally
recommended
recommended where
where water
water is
is plentiful.
plentiful. The water level must not be higher than
Thi8 muffler
muffler system
system should
should be
be at
at least
least 25
25ft
ft(6.35
(6.35in)
m) from
from
the generator set. This
the generator to normalize back pressure. Additionally, the muffler intake
and
and exhaust
exhaust pipe
pipe should
should be
be the
the same
8ame size
size and
and matched
matched in
in cross—sectional
cross—sectional area
area
to the generator's exhaust pipes.
This muffler system and subsurface generator shelter significantly reduce
noise and heat signature emissions, a drawback to conventionally emplaced TGs
in
in base
base camps.
camps.
When experienced generation/distribution personnel are not available for
extended periods, it is essential that generators (particularly those in
4—4
24'
I
12
I
•1
—12
MA USE EVAPORATIVE
cOOLERS
Figure 4.2.
Expedient TG sunshade arid windbreak.
4—5
EXHAUST FROM
GENERATORS
WATER
SOIL LEVEL
2
8 PIPE
I" HOLE
5 GALLON DRUMS
CRUSHED ST0.
EXPEDIENT NOISE MUFFLER AND EXHAUST SMOKE REDUCER.
Figure 4.3
Underground muffler.
parallel configurations) be equipped with appropriate power lev•ing governors
and voltage regulators.
This equipment allows startup, lo3d transfer, and
shutdown of generators with a minimum of personnel expertise and generator
adjustments. The Woodward governor and Basler voltage regulator have been
used reliably for this.
Note, however, that compatible governing and regulating equipment to insure most efficient operation may not autocnatically be
shipped with the TG.
It must be specified or procured separately.
Particular
attention should be given to proper connection and adjustment when paralleling
precise power generators.
For operations in extremely hot regions, additional radiator.capacity can
be obtained by using add—on cooling towers (for larger TGs) or add—on radiator
extenders. Because Army generators have not generally been employed in extensive desert operations, these add—on devices are not commonly used.
They are
available, however, and have worked well in allowing continued operation of TG
Where water
above its rated ambient temperature (normally 125°F 152°C1).
sources are available, evaporative cooling of TG ventilation air ay bE feasible.
This method works well in hot and dry weather, Do not attempt to cool
In a very short
TG radiators by direct application of water to the radiator.
time, the radiator will be damaged because of scale and oxide formations on
the metal surfaces.
Another important aspect of power generation is TG behavior at ambient
temperatures above the generator rating.
At elevated temperatures, hot generator parts less efficiently convert mechanical power from the TG diesel
engine to electric power. ThereforeD TG output will be somewhat degraded
However, a TG will conabove its rated temperature (ambient 125°F [52°C]).
tinue to operate until one of several protective devices is automatically
triggered. Cut—off switches include:
4—6
1.
High water temperature
2.
High oil temperature
3.
Low fuel level
4.
Low oil pressure
5.
High alternator temperature.
Exceeded safety levels of any of these switches will shut down the diesel
In mission—critical situations, these safety cut—offs can normally be
manually overridden using the procedures in the TG operator's manual. However, it is recommended that low oil presBure
pressure and high alternator temperature
cut—offs never be overridden. These two safety circuits prevent irreparable
damage to the set. As noted earlier, TGs can continue operation above 125°F
(52°C) ambient
ambient when adequate shelter and cooling techniques are used.
Other
(52°C)
protective devices on TGs
TG5 deal with improper paralleling, poor load balancing,
and distribution system short—circuiting. These cut—offs are not directly
related to temperature.
temperature.
engine.
The newer TGs are designed to operate in sandy and dusty environments.
However, extended and continuous operation in conditions of wind driven dust
and high temperatures can be expected to reduce TG MTBF.
Older generator sets
were often fielded with slip rings or brushes and unsealed generator housings.
These units are particularly susceptible to premature failure because dust and
sand accelerate wear to these components. At higher temperature operation,
seals and lubrication boots tend to relax, allowing entry of dust or sand to
bearings
bearings and
and rotating
rotating windings.
windings.
To prevent
prevent wear,
wear, personnel
personnel must
must maintain
maintain and
and clean
clean TGs
TGs carefully.
carefully.
SWA
To
contingency units should insure that adequate replacement parts are available
Older
for generator items particularly susceptible to sand and dust
dugt abrasion.
units should be used as backup generators; thir on—line use must be minimized
during extremely dusty and windy periods. Use of low—residue cleaning solvents and
and compressed
compressed air
air on
on nonnioving
nonmoving parts
parts is recommended
recommended for
for cleaning
cleaning of
of TG
TG
components.
components. Do not apply oil or grease to abrading surfaces because this will
Most.Importantly,
1mportant1y generator
generator
attract and bind more sand to the treated areas. Most
operators and maintenance personnel must anticipate potential problems due to
sand
sand and
and dust.
dust.
4.3
Distribution
It is
is recommended
recommended that
that underground
underground (UGD)
(UGD) and/or
and/or on—the—ground
on—the—ground (OGD)
(OGD) disdisIt
tribution
tribution of
of electric
electric power
power be
be used
used exclusively
exclusively for
for Army
Army base
base camps
camps conconThis recommendation is based on several considerations, two
structed in SWA.
driving ones being conatruction/maintenance
construction/maintenance costs and timeliness of emplacement.
In
In most
most commercial
commercial applications,
applications, overhead
overhead distribution
distribution (O}iD)
(O}iD) is
is less
less
expensive to install and maintain than the conventional UGD due to ample sup
sup—
plies of poles and easy access to the wires. However, Army units in SWA generally will not be able to take advantage of the economies associated with
4—7
4—7
Additionally, base
ba8e camp time phasing may preclude the time—consuming
construction of OHD and allow only OGD initially. The following consideraaccount:
tions
tions should
Bhould be taken into
into, account:
ORD.
initially.
1.
logistics/transport sys
sysPoleB and wood for
would overtask logistics/transport
Poles
for crossarins
crossarms would
teals because
because these
these items
items are
are not
not locally
locally available in
tems
In $WA.
SWA.
2.
Poles and wood 8tructures
PoleB
structureB warp and beome brittle when exposed unprotected to dry and hot desert climates.
3
3.
Use of poles
poles will
will require
require special
special equipment
equipment and
and techniques
technques for
for setsetting and for stringing conductors.
4.
ORD systems
Bystems expose
expose conductors
conductors to
to intense
intense solar
aolar radiation,
radiation, high
high temtem01W
abrasive
blowing
sands,
and
wind.
These
cause
both
peratures, abrasive
peratures,
maintenance/repair costs.
coats.
reducjed conductor
conductor rating
rating and
and increased
increased maintenance/repair
reducjed
5.
Construction of 0RD
DUD requires
requires more
more on—site
on—site expertise
expertise than
than UGD.
UGD.
6.
01W requires more construction time and labor.
7.
ORD is more susceptible to enemy actions.
Although 01W
OHD systems are used in SWA, extensive expenditures of money,
manpower, and time
time are
are involved
involved in
in both
both their
their constructioii
construction and
and maintenance.
maintenance.
In general, Army engineers will not have the construction resources for OHD
systems.
for use
use at
at base
base camps
camps because
because it
it elimelimA simplified UGD is
is reconimended
recommended for
conduits)
inates many
noted above.
inates
many of
of the
the problems
problemsnoted
above. With this system, the conduits,
Instead, the primary and secondary
manholes, and
manholes,
and vaults
vaults are
are elitiinated.
eliminated.
and junction
junction
cables are buried
buried directly
directly in
in the
the ground,
ground, and
and the
the transforniers
transformers and
noted) however,
boxes are housed
houBed in enclosure8 above the ground. It should be noted,
that this
thie simplified UGD is not readily adaptable to distribution system
Bystem
OHD are adaptable to serBer—
growth or extension. Both the conventional UGD and DUD
vice extension.
The nature of deployment into a base
ba8e camp may dictate that electric utIlutilIn this
thi8 case, OCDcan be allowed. This
ities be provided on short notice.
method provides expedient layout and recovery of the distribution system and
does not become as labor—intensive
labor—inten8ive as UGD. For extended base camp operations,
however) it is reconunended
that OGD
OGD be
be protected
protected from
from sunlight
sunlight and
and blowing
blowing
however,
recommended that
cross roads
roads or
or heavily
heavily traveled
traveled
sands as
as much
much as
a practicable.
practicable. Conductors that cross
lanes must be routed underground. A recommended technique for crossing roads
show8 cables
cable8 on either side of the road
is shown in
In Figure
Figure 4.4.
4.4. This sketch shows
protected by sandbags
aandbag8 from sun, wind, and foot movement. Sandbag protection
is essential
es8ential for OGD and can be used
u8ed to help stabilize trenches for UGD.
Schedule 40 polyvinyl chloride (PVC) conduit with a diameter of 3 to 4 in.
En applications
(76 to 102 mm) is suitable for expedient raceways under roads. In
where excessively
excessively high
high roadway
roadway temperatures
temperatures are
are expected,
expected, schedule
achedule80
80 chlorichlorinated PVC (CPVC) should be used, if available. In temperatures over 90°F
(32°C)) there should
(32°C),
8hould be no more than three per raceway to prevent unnecessary
u8ed as
a aa raceway,
raceway, conduit
conduit must
must also
also have
have at least 60
cable derating. When used
percent air space in conduit croas—section.
4—8
•
II
I
S
S
S.
ROAD
SURFACE
BASE
COURSE
SCHEDULE 40
• NOT TO EXCEED
3 CONDUCTORS
PVC CONDUIT
PER CONDUIT
SANDBAGS
Figure 4.4.
Typical expedient road crossing, UGD.
In particularly hot areas, or where OGD may present certain safety
hazards, the simplified distribution 'BysteaF ehould •be buried in a trench-.
Figure 4.5 depicts a typical trench raceway. The cables must be buried at a
depth of at least 18 in. (460 mm) to take advantage of reduced soil temperaBackf tiling trenches with sandbags (never.rocky soil) is recommended,
ture.
followed by loose area topsoil. Other on—hand materials such as boards, logs,
and angle iron, could also be used to protect OGD and UGD from penetrations
and breakage.
Planning guidance for use of transformers, bus bars, junction boxes,
voltage sectionalizers, and cable types is given in TM' 5—684,
For
TM 5—765, TM 5-766, and Corps of Engineers Guide Specification CE 303.06.
base camp applications, the totally enclosed non—ventilated (TENV). dry
transformer is recommended where high temperatures and blowing dust are pre—
valent Dry transformers are generally lighter than the oil—insulated type,
pedestals,
-
4—9
SM MINIMUM BETWEEN CABLES
Figure 4.5.
.
Direct
burial of cable showing proper cable spacing
and depth.
E1ectritPower
(Front
the Field, FM 20-31)
and are essentially maintenance—free.
To reduce transformer derating at high
temperatures, a sunshade and reflective painting on transformer surfaces
should be provided.
In general) an overheating transformer will be too hot to touch with bare
hands.
When overheating occurs, the power. load through the transformer must
be reduced.
Continued use at overheated conditions will permanently damage
the windings and insulation materials. The Navy, in response to U.S. Marine
Corps (USMC) demand for a rapidly installed distribution system, has reeently
developed a family of copper cab]çe assemblies: and skid—mounted distribution
panels designed for use with Mobile Electric Power's (MEP) 15 kW 30 kW, and
100 kW low—voltage TGs.
In general, the Army's distribution and generation equ1pmen is intended.
to
readily accept only copper wire cables'. A recent base development study
has proposed the use of aluminum—stranded conductors instead of çqpper conduc—
tore to reduce transportation/logistics loads.* An electrically equivalent
amount of aiwninum wire weighs only half as much as copper wire. If large
amounts of distribution cable were needed for base camp utilities, then the
weight savings with aluminum cable might justify its use. Also) relatively
new processes in aluminum alloy applications to cable have elilinated much of
the creep" and "loosening tendency so characteristic of earlier aluminum
cables. Yet the use of aluminum cable in the conetructionof a distribution
system matched to commonly available Army equipment and electric part8
requires considerably more expertise and supervision to insure proper assembly.
Particularly in the corrosive soils of many SWA regions, improper connections of copper to aluminum will result in system failures and safety
*
Staff
Study, Army Facility Component System (416th Engineer Command, 10 July
1981)
4—10
hazards.
hazards.
It is therefore recommended that copper conductors
coQductor8 be used for base
camp power
camp
power disribution.
disribution.
The recommended cable
cable types
types for
for base
Underbase camp
camp u8e
use are
are those
those naeeting
meeting Underwriters Laboratorie8
Laboratories (UL) requirements for type Underground Service Entrance
This cable is designed for underground applications in wet or dry
(USE).
aoil.
soil.
The insulation 18
is vulcanized or chemically cross—linked
cr088—linked polyethylene
at
rated to 194°F (90°C)
(90°C) at continuous
continuous operation.
Stranded copper conductorB
conductors in
this type of cable are recommended to provide better cable flexibility and
re—u8e potentials
re—use
potentials (as
(as opposed
opposed to
to single-strand
single—strand conductors).
conductors). Where these
that jacketed
jacketed conconcables are intended
intended for
for extended
extended OGD
OGD use,
use, it
it is
is recoonnended
recommended that
centric neutral conductors be used. These will provide additional system
safety if the cable is broken by rodents, or by personnel or vehicular movements.
ments. Typical wire sizes expected for base camp use are #4, #6, and #8
The use of corrosion-resistant
copper—8tranded USE.
corrosion—resistant
American Wire Gauge (AWG) copper—stranded
disconnect/plug-in type cable connectors is recommended (particularly for OGD)
disconnect/plug—in
to facilitate both repair and recovery.
Although this cable's
cable's insulation
inBulation Is
is rated
rated up
up to'194°F
to194°F (90°C),
(90°C), the
the cable's
cable's
current—carrying ability,
ability, or
or ampacity,
ampacity, begins
begins derating
derating at
at an
an ambient
ambient air
air ternternperaturre of 86°F (30°C). This là
is because the current in the cable generates
Tables 4.1
its own
own heat
heat in addition to heat absorbed from the environment.
through 4.4 give ampacity derating data for typical distribution cables.
These tables show
8h0w that at hot desert temperatures,the allowed current load is
reduced to about 65 percent of the allowd current at 86°F (30°C). Neglect of
this derating scheme at high ambient temperatures viii
will compromise the distribution cable reliability, and can directly lead to both fire and safety
Normally, larger conductors can be
Do not
not overload
overload conductors.
conductors.
hazards.
hazards. Do
Additionally, In
in
installed to handle larger currents at high temperatures.
systems, larger conductors
conductorB will be necessary
nece8sary to prevent excessive
low—voltage 8ystema,
In general, voltage
voltage drops for cables longer than a few hundred feet.
For example, allowdrops of between 5 percent and 10 percent are acceptable.
4 wire
wire 120/208
120/208 VV system,
systems aa 10—kW
b—ky
ing 10 percent voltage drop and using 3
using #8
#8 AWG
AWG stranded
stranded copper
copper can
can be
be placed
placedaamaximum
maximumofof700
700ftft(213.4
(213.4in)
m)
load using
Other
from the generator; #6
#6 AWG
AWG allows
allows aa maximum
maximum run
run of
of 1100
1100 ft
ft (335.3
(335.3 in).
m).
from
voltage drop configurations are discussed in detail In
in TM 5—765.
Figures 4.6 through 4.8 are examples of conductor layout
-iayoutpatterns
patterns that
may be adopted for base
baee camp use. These examples are presented only to illus"order of magnitude" distribution system
Bystem sophistication (or simplicity).
trate "ordEr
A dispersed and nonlinear approach to the 1000—man base camp is shown in
Figure
Figure 4.6;
4.6; Table
Table 4.5
4.5 gives
gives facility
facility power
power loads.
loads. No lighting is supplied to
This system
troop barracks, and other facilities are electrically austere.
A more typical
uses low—voltage and one 100 kW TO with one 100 kW TO standby.
for
Figure 4.7;
4.7; the
the legend
legend for
outlinedin.
in. Figure
and Blightly
slightly less
less austere
austere base
base camp
camp is
is outlined
the figure is in Table 4.6. This 1000—man base camp also provides no lighting
In moat
most base
base camp
camp developnients,
developments, these
these troop
troop areas
area8
to enlisted troop areas.
area8.
may initially .be
.be aa "tent
tent city"
with
Improved
levels
of
electric
power
becoming
city" with Improved levels of electric power becoming
Figure 4.8
available as
aa the camp moves into temporary construction phases.
illustrates a typical "generic" layout which includes Bome
higher
voltage dis
some
dis—
For
this
layout,
dry
transformers
rated
at 5 kVA
tributin to outlying areas.
tributIn
are used to step up to and down from a 2400—V transmission
tran8mi3sion line voltage.
4—li
4—11
Table 4.1
Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductors
Conductor8
Not
More
Than
Three Conductors R
Rated
Rated 0—2000
0—2000 VoltB,
Volts, 60
60 to
to 900C:
90°C:
tWPA
IWPA
70—1981,
National
Electrical Code
permiB8ion from
(Reproduce with permission
Quincy,
National
Fire
Protection
Association,
Inc.,
Quincy,
Copyright C 1980,
official
cotplete and
M& 02269. This reprinted material is not the complete
MA
which is
is represented only by
by
the NFPA
NFPA on
on the
the referenced
referenced subject
subject which
position of the
Registered
National
Electrical
Code
and
NEC
are
the standard in its entirety.
Quincy, MA
Trademarks of the
the National.
National Fire
Fire Protection
Protection Association,
Association, Inc.)
Inc., Quincy,
02269.)
Not
Not More
MoreThan
TbanThree
ThreeConductors
Co ducto us
In Raceway
Rvewsy or
or Cable
Csbe or
oi Earth
Ambient Temperature
Temperatureofof30C
30C(86F)
(86F)
Based on Ambient
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(Directly
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the uvercurrent
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aluminum,
For
For dry
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wt Iocalloni
location..
4—12
Table 4.2
Allowable
Allowable Ampacities
Ampacities of
of Insulated
Insulated Conductots
Conductor6
Rated 0—2000 Volts, 60 to 90°C: Single Conductors
(Reproduced with permission
permission from
from NFPA
NFPA 70—1981, National
National Electrical
Electrical Code
Code'
Copyright© 1980,
National
Fire
Protection
Association,
Inc.,
Quincy,
MA
National
1980,
reprinted material
material is
is not
not the
the eocnplete
complete and official position
position of
of
02269. This reprinted
the NFPA on the referenced subject
BubJeCt which is represented only by the standard
in its entirety.)
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580
880
$80
940
940
SIN
•rc
We
eve
355
405
455
..
....
....
•
20
30
30
45
55
55
55
53
75
100
l00
115
35
£35
155
80
105
120
140
165
165
190
165
12
£0
W
B
8
6
4
3
2
I
395
375
375
415
330
315
375
415
425
450
450
0
00
00
000
0000
250
230
300
330
350
400
485
4R5
545
595
515
585
85
645
670
513
515
585
645.
670
610
695
750
730
600
700
750
730
800
900
180
210
240
Th0
280
2i
300
255
300
330
315
620
645
700
750
190
220
255
220
350
350
625
62
1130
710
710
S55
855
1260 1260
795
950
1370
1370 1370
$75
1050
1470 1470
1150
1410
960
CONNICTION
PACTONS
COICTION PACTOfiS
1000
1130
1130
30
45
55
55
80
105
120
140
695
750
.
800
800
905
903
1020
905
1020
1125
1220
£220
1125
£125
£220
1220
500
£000
1000
1230
1230
1500
£500
1730
1750
2000
2000
For
blssl t..p.aiuu'I.
mufliply 5,.
For a.bIsuI
e. ampacitI..
ewi,
WC, muflIpl
porat.rs.oyor
.,. 10C,
m,.orn.. ewii
ovs by
byS,
thi,raprI.t.
ov.
o...olIos
factor Ic
to d.Isrh,.
5,•msx.
mail. £iuiSI.ut
vrI.I.
..1Ios
fsc*.c
d.Ist..
e.
£iuIIIM
um slIo.bI.
elloumbi. load cesoI.
T.mp.FF
T.ip.
C mum
AbIut
Amblest
Tuip
Tsii.
31-40
41-50
41-SO
51-60
J4O
61.70
61-70
71-80
.82
.58
....
....
....
.88
.75
.5
.38
.35
.90
.91
.9!
.80
.67
.67
.12
.52
.0
.30
.71
.71
.51
.58
.41
41
.82
.38
.SS
....
....
....
.18
.75
.58
.35
.3$
....
.90
.90
.80
.80
.67
.52
52
.30
.30
.91
.91
.ez
.82
.71
.11
.58
.58
.41
.41
86-104
86-104
105-122
105.112
123-141
142-138
142-ISS
159-176
159.176
fThe load current rating
r.ting and
and the
the oveicunct
oveicuncet pro4ecion
protection br
br theic
ducton
these a,cducton
exceed. 20
shaU noi
shall
not exceed.
20 amperes
amperel for
for II AWO,
AWO,25
25amperes
Imper r for
12 £2
AWO,
AWG,
and
and40
40ampere.
ampere.
foe IC
10 AWO
AWOcopper;
copper cc
cc 20
20 UflC1
ampereslot
lot12
12AWO
AWO and 30
30 .Jnpcres
Jnpcre8 for
tor £0
tO AWC)
AWO amalv-
minum md
inum
and ppcr-dad
ppa-dad b&minua.
.b&mlnua.
Fcc dry
Foe
dry location.
ocilioni
only.
ooy.
SeeS75'C
7$Ccolumn
columufoe
(orwet
wt locatlonL
kicatlom
4—13
Table 4.3
Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductors
Not More Than Three Conductors
250°C:
to 250°C:
Rated 110 to
R
permission from
froui NFPA
NFPA 70—1981,
70—1981, National
National Electrical
Electrical Code
Code
(Reproduced with permission
Copyright© 1980, National Fire Protection A8soclation,
A8sociation, Inc., Quincy, MA
is not the complete and official position of
02269. This reprinted material ie
the NFPA on the referenced subject which is represented only by the standard
in
in its
its entirety.)
entirety.)
Not More
More Than
Thin Three Conductoci
In Rctwsy
Co*ductc,ci In
Rflcrwsyor
or Cable
Cable
Baaed
Baied on Ambient
Ambient Temperature
Temperatureof
of 30C
30C (86'F).
(86F).
I
la
TsnipirsI. NaU,,q
$10-IS
Cs.dvcls,.S..
Ts,,,irsI.
NSUn ololCendeol.,.
S..ThbIe
ibIe $lO-1$
UEC 110C
IZEC
200C 2WC
1101 200'C
11EC
I1EC
12VC OC
121rF) IVF)
tZ3DF) 12171)
1230'F)
3SVF) (352'?) (452'?)
(230?) (nrF)J43erF)
(257'?) penn
(412F) (230F)
*WC
**0C
TVPE$
TYPED
AVA,
AVA.
AVL
JWU
ASS
lbs
(3.fl
TYPEs
TYPED
TYPE
T1PL
Cl
Al
CIA
*ib
2
1
TYPI*
A. CA,
A,
*A.
np
Fir
TYPII
TYPED
TYPI.2
TYPED
PAH,
P1*11,
*Y*,
AU,
Tn
rn
FIPd.
Pu
PU
.
SCM
MCU
TYPIC
TYPU
Al
*iA
*IA
JYL
CYL
TYPIC
TYPZ*
A, CA
A,
M
AWI
Awl
.
MCM
SCM
mutt
rnCktt
OR
NICktL.
NICAIL.
COATIS
CaAI5
CePPU
COPPER
COPPEI
COPPER
30
35
35
45
14
12
12
30
30
30
40
40
50
50
65
85
40
55
55
55
70
95
120
75
95
93
120
145
45
170
195
220
6
4
lOS
ItS
40
30
50
65
90
115
3
120
l4
145
145
133
U3
135
22
ISO
150
163
170
ISO
200
230
265
310
HO
210
240
240
275
190
225
JO
tO
60
O
80
B
8
0
I
0
160
90
190
00
000
0000
215
215
245
213
275
315
45
345
390
390
250
3U0
300
350
400
420
470
fl5
325
560
360
580
500
600
700
700
730
750
800
BOO
600
680
1000
OOO
1300
1500
130
30
61.70
61-70
71-73
71-75
76-80
76-10
11-90
91.100
91-100
101-120
121-140
141-160
161-180
181-200
lI-2OQ
230
250
il5
285
340
250
280
315
370
30
40
50
95
lOS
125
ISO
170
195
215
115
tOO
lOG
113
115
135
160
180
250
275
420
450
310
333
33
380
425
455
470
485
560
650
630
705
105
500
545
54$
600
620
620
....
...
....
.,..
....
...
640
730
73O
.. ..
....
840
4O
....
...
25
25
35
43
60
80
333
33
380
380
.
31.40
31.40
41-45
46.50
46-30
51-55
56-60
325
l6
785
2000
AmRl.nt
AnuI.n
Temp. C
Tirp.
C
I3
ALUMINUM 0!0!COPPER.
ILUNINUM
C0PIUCLAD ALUMINUM
65
90
90
210
245
270
305
335
360
405
440
45
485
500
520
20
600
12
Il
30
45
55
75
95
10
10
ItS
8
6
4
3
3
130
2
150
ISO
180
ISO
00
ll
I
200
225
270
2O
....
. ...
..
. .....
...
.....
....
....
....
..,.
....
....
.
.
.....
00
000
0000
250
250
00
300
350
400
500
600
700
750
8O(i
soc
1000
1000
:.
1500
1500
.
2000
.
COP
RECYIO N FACTORS
COPPECTIO
ttn,p.t.tvr.. over
ForlmbIIn
ambient tempetatur..
30'C, multiply
muIJpIy 1,10
smpseItI.s
Io
9,0 amp.eItI.s
unr 30C.
iCewn
lb.,. bj
cor..Ilcn 1501.,
9. dat.rmk,s
iiewn lbov.
bj I9.
V. appropriate
spproptIst. corT.Ucn
Iselor So
dà.imk,s
0,.
mubsum
atlowabi.load
loadcun•M.
cuner,t.
,• muum
stiowabi.
.94
.90
.87
.$7
.83
J3
•79
•9
.71
.66
.61
.95
.92
$9
.89
.86
.83
.3
.76
.72
.68
.6 -.
.50
.61
SI
5
.96
.94
.91
.89
.87
82
.79
.76
.71
.2
65
.6S
50
29
.91
.81
.87
.86
.84
.80
.
.77
.69
.59
94
94
90
87
.95
.92
.89
83
.86
.83
.76
7
3
.95
.79
.91
.89
.87
J7
.83
.80
.71
.66
.61
.61
.30
.50
.72
.59
.6
.72
.69
.61
51
....
....
...
....
....
... .
.91
.87
.86
.84
.B4
.80
.77
.77
69
59
MIb4u,t
Mibteuit
Teio.
TsI'I. V
87-104
7-lO4
IO-l3
105.113
114-122
123-131
132-141
U2-141
142-!sg
142-158
159-167
159-161
168.176
168-176
177-194
195-212
95-2I2
213-248
249-284
285-320
321-356
357392
351-392
39343
393437
201-225
4—14
Table 4.4
Allowable Ainpacities
Aznpacities for Insulated Conductors
Rated 110 to 250°C, and for Bare and Covered Conductors
(Reproduced with permission from NFPA 70—1981, NatIonal
National Electrical Code
Copyright© 1980, National Fire
Fire Protection
Protection Association,
Association, Inc.,
Inc., Quincy,
Quincy, MA
MA
02269.
This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of
the NYPA on the referenced subject which is represented
repre8ented only by the standard
In its entirety.)
Single Conductors
Conductors in
in Free
Free Air,
Air,
Baaed
Based on Ambient
Ambient Temperature
Temperiture of
of 30°C
30°C (86F).
(86F).
$Is
$Iu
iWi
*w
AU
'
T.pir.IuraRuii,,l
T.p.,.lur.
MI,,lO(
o(C.ndvcloi.
Condvcloi. 1..
1,. TIbIa
TIbI. 315.t$.
39.1$.
itrC l2C
Sir.
•.rs 250C I,oc
125C 200°C
200C Sir,
(230F)
(230F) (251°fl
(392r) and
(2301)(287°F)
(2F) (3orF)
(3OF) (312F)
(31VF) ri (412F)
(412F) (230°F)
(2SPV) (3SPF)
' TYPtI
iwli.
TYPtI TYPES
1WU
TW(
UPES TYPES
TYPU flP(S °°'
nd
at
z
A. &A
Al
*Y*.
A. AS,
AA.
PFP.H,
EVA.
AVA.
CS
CS
aiA
*iA
SIA
SYL
AIA
Vip,
AVL
avt.
VIP,
iirc ifl°C
lire
iflc ierc
eeoc iorc
ioec
iii 1I ri
Wi
F(PR
FEPI
WIi
N
N
MCM
''liti
uc.
due-
tui
pç' ttui
pç°
liti
Slat
$bt
AU
Au
EM
51CM
NtCkfl
NICkEL
DI
NICkEL
NICREL
COATED
COATCO
CDPP(
COPPER
COPPIR
COPPER
14
12
10
8
40
6
44
120
160
180
50
65
85
3
2
I1
0
00
000
0000
250
250
300
350
400
500
600
700
700
750
800
900
1000
1500
2000
Ambirnit
Amblnt
Tump. CC
Tump.
31-40
31-40
41-45
46-SO
46-50
51-55
56-60
61-70
71-75
71-75
76-80
76-80
fiI-90
81-90
91-100
101-120
121.140
12I•140
141-160
141.160
161-180
181-200
201-225
70
90
125
IO
170
195
210
210
245
285
330
225
22
265
305
355
385
445
445
495
555
60
610
665
765
855
853
940
410
475
415
530
590
980
1020
.
40
50
..
.
1165
fl65
1450
1715
40
45
30
50
70
55
75
100
135
135
180
180
40
95
130
175
200
200
230
270
310
360
415
490
210
240
280
325
370
430
430
510
60
80
55
ItO
7C
7C
145
210
285
335
100
13C
ISC
I5C
175
205
235
275
320
370
410
.
. .
.
630 ..
..
7I(
7I( ........
780
78( .. ....
8I( . ...
81(
845
84S . ...
905
965 TTT
TTT
.
.
.
.... .... ....
)240
1240
95
125
140
.
40
55
70
tOO
100
135
133
150
ISO
12
tO
55
80
fib
8
tOO
44
3
22
60
80
105
140
175
175
205
300
345
240
275
320
370
310
255
290
335
400
385
435
415
415
460
460
475
520
595
510
555
55
635
675
745
775
805
o5
720
795
125
855
855
930
930
990
II7
30
45
45
165
185
220
..
.
.
1005
lO4
1045
1085
50
.0
65
165
190
220
253
255
. ...
...
510 .... .
10
555 -..... .
710
70
815
910
40
390
450
545
605
725
725
850
46C
65
ALUMINUM
MUM
MUMOR
oi COPPERCQPPN.
CLAD
CLAD ALUMINUM
aLUMIMUM
.
..
.
.
.
..
.
...
. ...
. ...
. .....
. . .
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.. ..
..
.
.
..
.
.
....
115
135
160
185
185
215
250
290
290
320
360
400
435
490
560
S60
615
640
670
725
770
770
985
1165
1215
1215 . . . . 1175
1403 . . . . 42S
1405
142S
CORRECTION FACTORS
CORRECTION
FACTORS
t,mp*r.hnls
tunp*ratinI,
RullilpIp Ih
haampicitiss
.mpIcItIss
SOC, iII;pIy
80°C,
.
.
.
For •mbInt
•mbl,nt
d.•qmIns
$iown
ffi.
s,own abo.
aboa.b bp
ffi .ppropii.I.
.pproprlot. cor,.cI$on
corrIcIIonfacto,
f.elo. totodalormln,
hi m.Iuuim
he
mialnwm etlowabi.
stiowabi.load
bid cunsnI.
cun.nI.
.94
.95
.93
.96
....
.90
.8
.87
.83
.79
.71
.66
.61
.50
.92
.89
.86
.83
.76
.72
.94
.91
.89
.87
.82
.79
.19
.68
.76
.61
51
51
.71
.71
.65
50
29
....
•...
....
.
.
.
.
94
94
90
87
83
.79
.79
.95
.92
.89
.86
. ...
..
.. ..
.S3
.83
.91
.87
.86
.84
.80
.77
69
S9
39
.91
.95
.81
.87
.86
.14
.84
.80
.77
.69
.59
.S9
.91
.89
.87
.71
.61
.76
.76
.72
.69
69
.83
.80
.72
.72
.59
.54
.50
.43
.50
.61
.30
4—15
.66
51
51
.
.
.
.
..
.. .
..
...
.
.
6
I
0
00
000
0000
250
300
350
400
5OO
600
700
750
S00
800
900
1Q00
1Q00
1500
2000
mbIlt
Ainiltit
Tamp. I
IIIP.
87-104
t05-113
105-113
114-122
123-131
I?3-131
132-141
142-ISI
142-151
159-167
168-176
177-194
195-212
195-2t2
213•248
2)3-248
249-24
249-284
285-320
321-356
357-392
357-392
393-431
393-437
——
——
———
-——
CO HQ
CO
HQ .SUPL.Y
.SUPL.Y
(
/
/
/
'I—'
/
\
STOREROOM
0.6KW
\\
/
HQ 8
/CO HQ
B
TRAINING
&SPLY
BSPLY
ROOM 19KW
ROOM
//
I
\
MAiN EXCHANGE
MAiN
EXCIIANGE
(PX)
O.5'KW
BATH HOUSE
HOUSE
HO
KITCHEN&&DII
KITCHEN
DII
AREA 13.KW
I3.KW
0.95KW
0.95KW
II
/
/
CENTRAL. GENERATOR
CENTRAL.
GENERATOR
IOOKW OUTPUT
OUTPUT
\\\
an HQ+SPLY
q+SP%Y
Bn
2KW
WATER PLANT
//
CO. HQ +
BATH HOUSE
HOUSE
/
/
/
DISPENSARY
47.9 KW
47.9
KW
0.5KW
——
—
—
MAIN
MAIN ROAD
Figure 4.6.
(1000—man base camp).
layout (1000—man
low—voltage distribution
Conceptual low—voltage
distribution layout
Component
System
Study, Army
Army Facility
Facility
Component
System
(From Staff Study,
10 July
July 1981].)
1981].)
Engineer Command,
[416th Engineer
Command, 10
4—16
446
I
I
PS
PS
3-100 KVA
3-100
KV
200 A
F USE D
NEC I
TO POWER
POER SOURCE
SOURCE
NOTE
PP- POWER PRIMARY
PS- POWER SECONDARY
Figure 4.7.
camp).
base camp).
Electric distribution layout (1000—man base
Concept.
AFCS Concept.
4—17
LEGENO
TRANOR,DY TYPE
- --TRANVOR,DY
-
£I ccuIT BEAXEA
BEM(EA
-— CISTRBUTION
CISTRBUTIO WTOtIT
WTOtIT
o UAD
NOTED
BULCNG. LED AS NOTED
BULCNG,
-o GEPRAT
WRAT
_..
— .- —
OUThOO 5JI-NOtI(T
OUTDOcl
5JI-NOtI(TMILL
MILL
CITRAL *RfA
CITRAL
*RfA
3*CPS
3*3
Figure 4.8.
Typical high—voltage distribution
di8tribution layout.
(From Electric Power
Power Generation
Generation it
in the
the
Field, FM 20—31)
20-31)
Any distribution
distribution system
system constructed
constructed in
in the
the field
field will
will be
be susceptible
susceptible to
to
corrosion of unprotected metal surfaces. In SWA, many regions contain soils
with both
both mineral
mineral and
and salt
salt deposits
deposits that,
that, when
when combined
conbinedwith
withmoisture,
moiature form
form aa
very corrosive
corrosive environment
environment for
for electt'ical
electrical power equipment eitheron
eitheron or
or under
under
the
the ground.
ground.
In dry and sandy
aandy areas, this corrosion is a problem wherever Army
operations introduce water to the soil
aoil (i.e.,
(i.e.1 latrines, water purification
unit (WPU)
(WPU) discharge,
discharge, mess
mess kitchens,
kitchens, dispensary,
dispensary, etc.).
etc.).
unit
In coastal regions
regions
where local water tables are relatively high, the soil and sand
aand are usually
moist enough to produce
exposed electric
electric distridistriproduce aevere
severe corrosion
corrosion problema
problems •for
for exposed
bution equipment. Many SWA coastal regions also have prevailing sea breezes
carrying 8alty mists
miata that can cause high rates of damaging corrosion. For
example, at 8everal
several locations
locations in
in the
the PerBian
Persian Gulf1,
Gulf, painted
painted chain
chain link
link fencing
fencing
has
has corroded
corroded so much that it is falling off its posts. The fences had been
built less than a year earlier.
To counter these adverse effects
effecta of high temperatures and corrosive
corro8ive
soils, personnel must strictly comply with distribution equipment derating
criteria, and the
the entire
entire distributIon
diatributon systems
systems must
must be
be inspected
inspected frequently.
frequently.
If personnel
per8onnel are not aware of tire effects of corrosion and high temperature,
and do not
not maintain
maintain distribution
distribution aystetus
systems regularly, Artuy
Army distribution
dietribution of
of elecelectric power
power itt
ut SWA will be less reliable
tric
reliable and
and less
less safe. General maintenance
maintenance of
of
UGD/OGD consists
conBista primarily of continuous
continuoua inspection of cable connections, dis—
tribution equipment, and equipment housings for signs
signa of overheating and corrosion; then hot spots are removed and corroded areas
areaa cleaned, tightened, and
4—18
Table 4.5
Table
45
Electric Power Requirements
(From Staff Study, Army Facility Component System
[416th Engineer
10 July
July 1981))
1981))
Engineer Command,
Couand, 10
Facility/Function
Number
Unit Load (kW)
Total Load
Total
Load (kW)
Bath House
3
0.5
1.5
Camp Exchange
1
0.65
0.65
Training/Work Area
2
1.9
1.9
3.8
Dispensary
1
47.9
47.9
47.9
Guard House
1
0.5
0.5
HQ & Unit Supply—Co.
5
0.36
1.8
HQ & Unit Supply—En.
1
0.36
1.8
Kitchen (Limited Facility)
2
Dining Facility
4
Maintenance Shop
1
2.1
2.1
Store House
1
0.6
0.6
Water Plant
1
4.0
4.0
4.0 (est)
27.0
13.5
3.8
.95
Total:
95.65 kW
Where splices are made in distribution cables, the connectors
should be coated with an electrical grade anti—oxidant grease, then
Where poBsibIé1
posibIé, UGfl
UGfl splices
splices
tape—wrapped to enclose the grease andconnector. Where
These aboveground
should be made in aboveground junction boxes or pedestals.
connection housings should be constructed of non—metallic materials, if availIn dry dusty areas,
areas aboveground
aboveground connections
connections to
to distribution
distribution panels,
able.
pedestals, and junction boxes should not be grease—treated (unless aluminum to
copper contact is wade), but should be cleaned regularly with 8olvent
solvent to
coe8tal regions, all exposed
remove dust
dust or
or sand,
sand then
then tightened.
tightened. In moist coastal
connection8 should be treated with anti—oxidant grease and protected from soil
connections
Corrosion—resistant paint can also be used to protect nonelectric
contact.
Light—colored or even
parts of distribution equipment from the environment.
paintB can be applied to equipment housings to help reduce
reflective white paints
overheating
overheating problems.
problems.
protected.
Wbn exposed to SWA intense sunlight, cables with less than 1940F
194°F (90°C)
insulation rating, or any cable carrying current above rated load,
loads may experience plastic flow of conductor insulation due to molecular relaxation at high
4—19
Table 4.6
Proposed Schedule of Facilities
(Front Value
(From
Value Engineering
Engineering Study,
Study, AFCS
AFCS
Engineer
Command,
25
March
1981])
[416th
No.
Facility
Tl
Ti
Troop Housing Enlisted
T2
Troop Housing Officer
Quantity
Total Sq Ft
920 Man
8O Man
80
Buildings
BuildingS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
99
10
11
11
12
13
14
15
16
Bathhouse —— 80 Officer
Officer
Bathhouse —— 500 Man
Camp Exchange
Day Room
Dispensary —— Troop
Guard House
HQ & Unit Supply —— Co
IQ
& Unit Supply —— Bn
IQ &
Messhall 400 Men
Kitchen & Mea8hall
Kitchen & Messhall 70—Officer
Latrine, Composite
Shop —— Motor Repair
Storehouse
Fire Protection —— Water
Water Supply —— Potable
Generator/Bldg (3—1001kw
(3—1001kW 3 00 120/208)
120/208)
11
2
1
2
1
1
5
1
2
1
6
1
1
2
—
—
400
2000
2000
4800
1600
1200
4000
2000
15,000
15,000
1600
1200
2400
2000
2000
(20,000 gal)
gal)
(10,000 gal)
(10,000
300 kW
300
temperatures.
This condition allows the contours of the enclosed wire stranding to become visible. Where actual thinning of the insulation accompanies
accompanie8
short-circuiting may occur. To minimize this probthis relaxation, damaging short—circuiting
lem, first
first insure
insure that
that the.
the. highest—rated
highest—rated.cable
is made
made available
available (usually
(usually
lem,
cable is
cable should
should be
be protected
protected from
from direct
direct sunlight
sunlightin
initorage,
storage,
194°F [90°C]). The cable
and extreme care should be used when handling the cable in hot temperatures.
Where
Where this
this plastic
plastic flow
flow of
of insulation
insulation is
is observed,
observed, experienced
experienced distribution
distribution
specialists should
should inspect
inspect the
the damage
damage and
and perform
perform cable
cable teats
tests as
as necessary.
necessary.
specialists
(TM 5—684 outlines typical UGD cable testing procedures.) If test
equipment/personnel. are not available, replace the damaged cable section.
Desert rodents have disrupted UGD/OGD systems by gnawing through insulain8ula—
Extended OGD trunk lines are particularly susceptible to this problem;
however, rodent damage may occur even within the base camp. Where rodent
attacks on OGD/UGD systems
8ystems have been noted, common practiàe
practice should include
burial of poison (such as zinc phosphide) in the trenches as the cable is
laid.
laid.
Various traps and poisoned bait can be used for OGD. Most important,
however is an awareness of-the potential problem. Indications are that human
sweat
sweat on the cables attracts the rodents. The use of gloves in laying the
tion.
4—20
cable, and regular inspection of OGD for
for sign8
signs of
of rodent
rodent attack
attack will
will help
help
eliminate this
thi8 problem.
often included
included in
in SWA
SWA scenarios
scenario8 ——
—— and
A major aBsu!nption
assumption often
chapter
and in
inthis
this
chapter
that host nation electric
electric power
power willwill-not
not be
be available
available for,
for, or
or is
is not
not
compatible
Countrie8 in SWA do
compatib1e with, base camp power demands. However, many countries
have limited electric power distribution networks that would be useful when
troops start to build the base camp.
If host nation power is available, its
it8
use should be planned to supplement existing
exi8ting base camp generation capability;
thiB would vastly reduce fuel consumption.
this
The base camp must1
must, however, mainmain—
tain its own internal generation/distribution system in case host nation power
tam
is cut off.
Most power grids in SWA ue power generated at 50 Hz, 1 or 3 4,
4,
which
ca8es to power electric lights
light8 and heating elements.
element8.
which can be used in many cases
However, only equipment specifically designated as compatible with 50—Hz power
are designed
designed for
for 60
60 Hz,
equipment/utilities are
should be so connected. Most Army .equipnent/utilitie8
Hz,
Table
lists
4.7
listB
and operating them at 50 Hz will cause
cauBe permanent damage.
Thie table
electric power characteristics available in various
variou8 SWA countries. This
indicates the diversity
diver8ity of electric power within SWA. It should be noted that
ho8t nation power is generally very poor; frequency stathe quality of this host
bility and voltage regulation are substandard, and high—level voltage tranconvert and regulate
sients are possible. Appropriate power conditioner to convert-and
host nation commercial power for Army
Arty uses is not available now.
—
4.4
is
Grounding
GroundIng
8ystem, appropriate elecIn any electric power generation/distribution Bystem,
trical grounding
grounding of
of equipment
equipment such
such as
as generator
generator sets,
Bets,transformers,
transfonners junction
junction
boxes, and bus bars is generally very important to insure both safe and reliable operation of the system.
8y8tem. Traditional Army guidance requires 25 ohm
resistance to
to ground,
ground, or
or less,
les8, at
at all
all normally
normally grounded
grounded locations.
locations. However
resistance
However,
the nature of the soils in many SWA locations will not permit this level of
In
assured grounding with traditional ground rods or expedient techniques.
8andy regions,
region8, 25 ohm or less groundings to earth
especially dry, rocky, or sandy
can only be obtained using more involved and equipment—intensive methods that
outline8
may.not b available to base camp
caap engineers.
engineer8. Therefore, this chapter outlines
field engineers, and that will provide
grounding methods that are available to fiel4
adequate by expediency" grounding levels consistent with both time phasing of
base camp construction and the distribution system
sy8tem used.
The
are:
The basic objectivee
objectives of grounding are:
1.
2.
To minimize damage and service
8ervice interruptions due to all possible
electrical faults, including lightning
lightnthg discharge.
To reduce
reduce overvoltages
overvoltages and
and re8ultant
resultant in8ulation
insulation daaiage
damage due tt both
both
normal operation (switching surges, static buildup) and abnormal
operation (lighting, faults).
fault8).
3.
topèr8ofls
To minimize injuries to
persons near electrical equipment by providing a low resistance path to the earth.
4.
To minimize
minimize noise
noise in
in commtrnication
communication and
and control
control circuits by
by establishestablishing a solid electrical reference.
4—21
Table 47
Electric Current Abroad —
Characteriatic8
Characteristics
Number
of
of Phases
Nominal
Voltage
Number
of Wires
Frequency
Stability—
Stable
Enough for
Electric
Clocks
a.c.60
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
13
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
220/380
220/380
.220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
24
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
Yes
!es
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yea
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
!es
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
ac.50
a.c.50
1
110
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
110
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
2
Country and City
Type and
Frequency
of Current
of
Afghanistan
Afghan
is t'an
Charikar
Farab
Farah
Ghazni
Gulbahar
Herat
Jalalabad
Jalalabad
Kabul
Kandahar
Kunduz
Kunduz
Maimana
Mazar—i—Sharif
Paghinan
Paghman
Pul—1—Khumri
Pul—i—Khumri
1,3
1,3
1,3
Egypt
Alexandria
Aeyut
Aswan
Aewan
Benha
Beni Suef
Cairo
Damanhur
Damietta
Heliopolis
.
Heiwan
Ismaila
Kafr el Zalyat
Zaiyat
Kena
Luxor
El Maadi
El Mansura
El Mahalla
Minia
Port Fouad
Port Said
Port 'Tewik
Tewik
Port
Sohag
Suez
a.c.0
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
l3
1,3
a.c.50
1
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.S0
a.c.50
a.c.5O
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
4—22
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Table 4.7 (Cont'd)
Country and City
Tanta
Zagazig
Iran
Abadan
Ahwaz
Behshahr
Ghazvin
Ramadan
Isfahan
Karaj
Kashan
Kerman
Kermanshah
Kerrnanshah
Khorramshahr
Khorrainshahr
Masjed Soleyman
Masjed
Soleyman
Meshed
Pahlevi
Pahievi
Qom
Resht
Rezaiyeh
Shiraz
Tabriz
Tehran
Yazd
Type and
Frequency
of Current
Number
of Phases
Pha8es
Nominal
Voltage
Number
Number
of Wires
Frequency
Stability—
Stable
Enough for
Electric
Clocks
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
220/380
220/380
2,3,4
23,4
2,3,4
No
No
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
YeS
Yes
yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
YeB
Yea
Yes
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/360
220/380
2.4
2,4
2,4
2,4
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
a.c.50
a.c.5O
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.5O
a.c.5O
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
13
1,3
1,3
230/400
230/400
230/400
230/400
230/400
230/400
230/400
230/400
2,4
2,4
2,4
24
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yea
YeB
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
YeB
Yes
a.c.50
Iraq1
Iraq1-
Baghdad
Basra
asra
Kirkuk
Mosul
Israel1'2'3
Israel'2'3
Beer
Beer Sheba
Sheba
Haifa
Holon
Natanya
Petah Tiqva
Ramat—Can
Rehovot
Tel Aviv
4— 23
Table 4.7 (Cont'd)
Frequency
Stability—
St
abi I. ity—
Stable
Enough for
for
Electric
Clocks
Type and
Frequency
of Current
Number
PhaseB
of Phases
Nominal
a.c.50
1,3
220/380
2,3,4
2,3,4
Yes
Irbid
NabluB
Nablue
Zerqa
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
2,3,4
2,3,4
2)3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
Yes
Ye8
Yes
Yea
Yes
Yea
!es
Yes
Kuwait
Kuwait
a.c.50
1,3
240/415
2.4
Yes
Chtaure
Dhour el Choueir
Sidon
Sofar
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
ac.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1)3
1,3
1,3
1,3
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Tripoli
Tyre
Zahlèh
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
1,3
110/190
110/190
110/190
110/190
110/190
110/190
110/190
110/190
110/190
220/380
110/190
110/190
220/380
2.4
No
No
Yes
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
13
1,3
1,3
1,3
2,4
2,4
2)4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
127/220
230.400
127/220
230/400
230/400
230
127/220
127/220
230
230
127/220
230/400
230/400
127/220
127/220
2,4
2,4
2,4
2)4
2,4
2,4
2,4
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
220/440
23
No
Country and City
Jerusalem
Jeru8alem
Jordan4'5
Amman
Lebanon6
Aley
Aley
Beirut
Bhamdoun
Brumniana
Libya7'8
Al Aziziyah
Azlziyah
Barce
Ben Gashir
Benghazl
Benghazi
Derna
El Baida
El.
Baida
ifoma
lioms
Misurata
Sebha
Tagiura
Tobruk
Tripoli
Zavia
Oman
Muscat
1
4—24
Voltage
Number
of Wires
2,4
2,4
1
Table
T&ble 4.7 (Cont'd)
Country
Country and City
Pakistan9
Abbotabad
Bahawalpur
Hyderabad
Islamabad
Karachi
Lahore
Lyallpur
Lyalipur
Montgomery
Multan
Murree
Peshawar
Quetta
Rawalpindi
Rawalpindi
Frequency
Stability—
Stable
Enough for
Electric
Clocks
Type and
Frequency
of
of Current
Number
Phases
of Phaees
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
13
1,3
1,3
13
1,3
1,3
l3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
230/400
230/400
230/400
230/400
230/380
230/400
220/380
220/380
2)0/400
230/400
230/400
230/400
230/400
230/400
230/400
230/400
a.c.60
a.c.50
a.c.60
a.c.50
a.c.60
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.60
a.c.60
a.c.60
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
127/220
220/380
127/220
230/400
127/220
230/400
127/220
127/220
230/400
230/400
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,3,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
24
Yes
No
Yes
lee
Yes
lee
Yes
Yes
Yea
Yes
Yes
Yes
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.30
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.S0
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
240/415
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yea
Yea
Yes
Ye
Yes
Yea
Yes
Ye8
Yes
YeB
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yea
Yes
Yea
Yes
Yes
Yea
Yes
Nominal
!ie
Number
of Wires
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
23,4
2,3,1,
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Saudi Arabia10"1
Saudi
Arabia'°"
Al Khobar
A].
Khobar
Buraydah
Dammam
Mofuf
Hofuf
Jiddah
Mecca
Medina
Riyadh
Taif
Sudan12
Atbara
Ed Daner
Ed Dueitn
Ed
Dueim
El Obeid
Massa Heissa
Heisaa
Juba
Kassala
ICassala
Khartoum
Khartoum N
Kosti
Malakal
Omduriuan
duriuan
Port Sudan
Sennar
Shendi
Wadi Ralfa
4—25
Table 4.7 (Cont'd)
Country and City
Wau
Syria
Aleppo
Damascus
Dayr—Al—Zawr
llama
Horns
Homs
Latakia
Turkey13
Adana
Adana
Adapazari
Adapazarl
Afyon
Ankara
Balikesir
Bursa
Eskisehir
Gaziantep
Istanbul
Izmir
Izmit
tzmit
Kayseri
Konya
Malatya
Malatya
Manisa
Mersin
Samsun
Sivas
Trabzon
Zonguldak
Yemen
(Arab Rep.)
Hoelda
Hoeida
Sana
Taiz
Type and
Frequency
of Current
Number
of Phases
Nominal
Voltage
a.c.50
1
240
a.c.50
1,3
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
1,3
L,3
1,3
1,3
115/200
115/200
220/380
115/200
115/200
115/200
115/200
115/200
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.5O
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
13
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
1,3
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
a.c.50
a.c.50
a.c.50
1,3
1,3
1,3
220
220
220
4—26
Number
of Wires
Frequency
Stability—
Stable
Enough for
Electric
Electric
Clocks
22
Yes
2,3,4
No
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
No
No
No
No
No
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,.3.,.4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
2,3,4
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Ye8
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
2,3
2,3
2m3
No
No
No
Table 4.7 (Cont'd)
Note a
1
A grounding conductor is
ie required in the electrical cord attached to appliappli—
ances.
anc
e8.
A. grounding conductor is
18 required in the electrical cord attached to appliances.
3 The neutral wire
wire of
of the
the secondary
aecondary distribution
diatribution system
systemis
i grounded.
grounded.
2
4
5
of the
the secondary
secondary distribution
distribution system
eystem is
The neutral wire of
grounded.
ie grounded.
A grounding conductor is required in the electrical cord attached to appliances.
6
7
8
9
9
10
.11
12
The neutral wire of the secondary
aecondary distribution
diBtribution system
eyBtem is grounded.
Electric current
current is
is now
now continuous
continuous in
in 'ost
o8t of the cities and
and large
large towns.
towns.
aystem is grounded except
The neutral wire of the secondary distribution system
in
in the case of Sebha.
The
The neutral wire of the secondary distribution
diatribution system
eyetem is
iB grounded.
Grounding
Grounding conductors
conductors are
are not
not required
required and
and many
any houses
houses are
are not
not vired
wired for a
eeparate ground.
separate
8tandardized at
&t 60
Power supply being standardized
60 Hz,
Hz, 127/200
127/200 V.
A grounding conductor
conductor is required in the electrical cord attachedto app3i—
appli
ances.
13 The neutral wire of the secondary
Becondary distribution
dietribution system
eystem is grounded.
4—27
The key words in these
these objectives
objectives are
are mininiize"
miuiniize and
and reduce." It is not
possible
possible to produce a system in which
which each
each of
of these
these quantities
quantities of
of riek
risk and
and
Neverthele8s theobjectives
theobjectives gust
must
performance degradation
degradation is
is reduced
reduced to
to zero.
zero. Nevertheless,
performance
be satisfied by any grounding technique known to be good engineering practice.
camp
basecamp
Levels of
of adequate
adequate grounding
grounding have
have been
been identified
identifiedfor
for
Army
Armybase
Levels
operations, where
operations1
where personnel
personnelexpertiBe,
expertise, materials,
materials, time,
time,and
and special
specialequipment
equipwent
maybebelimited
may
limitedor
or not
not available:
available:
1.
1.
600 V
Low—voltage
distribution
system
(i.e., generation
generation at
at 600
V or
or less)
less)
Low—voltage distribution
systei
(i.e.
4
weeks)
deployed
only
for
a
a
ahort
short
period
period
of
of
time
time
(approximately
(approximately
0
0
to
to
4
weeks)
deployed only for
(LVST).
2.
2.
for on—line
use over
diBtribution system
syBte constructed
on—line use
over
Low—voltage distribution
constructed for
longer periods of time (4 weeks to 2 years)
longer
yearB) (LVLT).
3.
High— and
and medium—voltage
medium—voltage distributioi
distributioi systems
systems (i.e.,
(i.e. generation
generation at
at
greater than
than 600
600 V)
V) deployed
deployed for
for ahort—term
ahor—term operation
oper8tion (HVST).
(HVST).
4.
4.
High— and medium—voltage distribution constructed for on—line, long—
term operation (BVLT).
(HVLT).
recommended grounding
grounding techniques
techniques to
to be
be used
used within
within each
each of
of these
these levlevThe recommended
camp8 constructed in arid, sandy,
els are discussed below. They apply to base camps
or rocky areas where local water tables are very low,
lowe and to scenarios where
ample water supplies are not readily available. In coastal regions and other
locations where water tables are high and soils are relatively moist, traditional
tional grounding
grounding methods
methods normally
normally provide
provide excellent
excellent grounding,
grounding, because
because of
of the
the
high mineral and Bait
salt content of most SWA soils. In these regions, corrosion
of ground connections is a significant maintenance problem because corroded
terminals/connections
terminals/connections develop
develop their
their own
own high
high resistance.
resistance. This corrosion can
be reduced by frequent, regular inspection, maintenance,
maintenances an4 treatment of
ground connections,
connections, as
as described
described earlier.
earlier.
ground
the generators should be grounded with a standard driven ground
LVST:
should be laid horizontally in a
Where rods cannot be driven, they 8hould
trench about 18 in.
in. (460
(460 mm)
mm) deep.
deep. and.cove.red.
and, covered, wtth
with soil
soil (not
(not rocks)..
rocks). The distribution system'B
system's neutral wire must be connected through the generator to
neutrals
this ground. As long as this three—phase system has a grounded neutral,
further deliberate grounding at other locations is not required.
rod.
this situation is probably most typical for small
Bmall base camp operaThe generators should be placed on an electrically gridded platform
(either concrete
concrete or
or sandbags)
sandbags) that
that is
is tied
tied to
to aa standard
8tandard ground
ground rod
rod driven
driven aa
(either
Figure
4.9.
in
A
gridded
platform
is
shown
in
Figure
4.9.
gridded
platform
is
shown
few feet away from the platform.
large enough
enough to
to permit
permit the
the generator
generator operator.to
operator to stand
stand on
on
The platform must be
be large
The
generator
and
the
distribution
system
it while attending
attending the
the generator.
generator.
Other
neutral wire must al8o
also be connected to this ground grid and ground rod.
dietribution equipment
equipment (e.g.,
(e.g., transformers,
traneforers, junction
junction boxes,
boxes pedestals,
distridistribution
pedestals, distribution panels) must also be locally grounded by standard ground rods. As
arailability permits, the generator and other local ground rods should
water a'ailability
be treated with salt
salt solutions
solutions poured
poured directly
directly on
on and
and around
around the
the rod
rod to
to
saturate the soil. This treatment should be repeated as necessary to keep
LVLT:
tion.
4—28
COPPER
COPPER WIRE
WIRE
6 AWG
(TIES GRID TOGETHER)
GRID LACED ON
GROUND UNDER
SANDBAG
SANDBAG PLATFORM)
PLATFORM)
I FOOT SPACING
GRID WIRES
CONNECTED
CON
NEC1tD
GROUND
ROD
GROUND ROD
Figure 4.9.
Expedient TG grounding grid.
moist
soil in
oiet the soil,
in contact
contact with
with the
the rod.
Normally 3 lb of aalt
Normally,
salt per gallon of
water (0.36 kg/L) gives
give8 a good saturated solution for this applie&tion.
applic&tion.
HVST:
use of high or medium
iedium voltages
voltagee in base camp operations lay be
necessary when:
1.
The base camp receives
receives electrical power from
froi large
large Army
Army
tribution complexes.
electric
2.
Host nation power
power is
is used
used
3.
Transformers
TranBformers are used to extend electric service within the base
dis-
camp.
Along with traditional grounding of generators,
juncgenerators transformers,
transformera, and junction boxes
boxes for
for short—term
short—term use,
u8e, it
it is
i easential
essential to have grounded
grounded neutral
neutral disdiB—
tribution, using the standard
etandard driven ground rod or trench buried rod in rocky
In addition
addition to
to 'this
'this initial
initial grounding,
grounding, aa dedicated
dedicatedground
groundwire
wiremust
u8t be
be
areas.
run from the generator grounding rod to all grounded locations on the base.
laid in
in existing
existing OGD/UGD
OGD/UGD recevays
receways or in
This extra
extra wire,
wire, orcable,
orcable, may
may be
be laid
4
separate trenching,
trenching, or
or can
can be
be forred
formed using
using the
the concentric
concentric neutral
neutral of
of 33
It provides
provide8 a common
coimon ground plane that is normally
norially provided by
wire
wire cables.
the soils. This grounding wire is necessary to provide adequate safety for
perBonnel operating
personnel
operating electrical
electrical equipment.
equipent.
for syst reliability and
and personnel
personnel safety,
aafety, this
this longer—term
longer—t.r
IIVLT:
HVLT:
for
scenario require8
scenario
requires that
that the
the IIVST
BVST grounding
grounding BysteiD
system described
described above
above be augmented
augmented
with:
with:
4—29
1.
Gridded ground planes
planee for generators
generatora and surface—mounted transformers
(see Figure 4.8).
4.8).
2.
Direct contact of the grounding system with a known permanent water
source
such as
as the
the local.
local. water
water table.
8ource, such
It is anticipated that some form of water well viii
will be present in base
camps whereHVLT applies.
applie8. In this case, the grounding plane/dedicated ground
wires ehoüid
ehoüId be connected to the metal veil
well casing, or,
separate copper
copper conconor, aa separate
ductor can be lowered Into
into the well to make contact with the water. If a
water well is
ia not available, other drilling operations will be necessary to
establish positive electric contact with the local water table. Also of prime
pruDe
importance in this
this groundir*g
grounding system
system is
is the
the continuous
continuous and
and frequent
frequent inspection
inspection
of
of grounding
grounding connections
connections and
and dedicated
dedicated ground
ground wires
wires for
for electrical
electrical continuity
continuity
and low resistance
reeistance of connections. Cleaning of corrosion from, and protection
of, these connections is critical in manta1ning
aintaining good system reliability and
safety.
The preceding
preceding outline
outline of
of "adequate
"adequate grqpnding
grqpnding levels
levelswas
wa developed
developed based
based
on assulnption8
assumptions of
of construction
construction in
in very
very dry,
dry, sandy, and rocky
rocky terrain.
terrain. Personhigh-resistance electrical path
nel standing on such soils form a relatively high—resistance
to ground, as do driven ground rods.
In low—voltage systems, then, even a
direct 'short to ground through a soldier
8oldier will not be a significant health
hazard, though an unpleasant electrical shock could be sensed.
gensed. In high— and
aediwn—voltage systems, however, this type of short through personnel could
aediwu—voltage
produce fatal electrocution. TherefQre, a dedicated ground wire should be
used
used for
for high—voltage..aystems.
high—voltage.aystems. In
In effect, this extra wire serves the
the same
same
purpose as the
purpose
the soil
soil in
in normal
normal moist
moist environxnents.
environments. It insures that faulting
currents are driven back to the generator, thus tripping appropriate circuit
protection devices. Concentric
Conèentric neutral cables used in UGD or OGD can be used
uaed
to provide this dedicated ground wire.
The following discussion
site selection factors that should be
diacuesion outlines Bite
considered before
consideired
before emplacement
emplacement of
of the
the generation/distribution
generation/distribution system
system to
to improve
improve
the system's
aystem's grounding effectiveness:.
effectiveuess'. As noted earlier, arid and sandy areas
of
solutions-for.
-for.;grou.ndingelect-r.ic
grou.ndingelectr.ic
of SWA
SWA with
with low
low water
water tables
tables allow
allow ño1dea1'•
ño1dea1•8oiut1on8
distribution systems
distribution
systems with
with traditionally
traditionally available
available Army
Army grounding
groundingequiplEent.
equipment.
However, other regions In
in SWA may provide at least reasonable opportunities
for good electrical grounding when sites
aite8 are selected carefully.
Existing water sources such as oases,
oases,-river
river beds,
beds, or
or underground
underground 8treaas
streams
often indicate that
that local
local water
water tables
tables are
are high
high enough
enough to.
to be
be contacted
contacted with
with
driven ground rods. Deep wells can be
be used
used as
a described
described earlier
earlier to
to easily
easily tie
tie
the entire groundfng
groundfng system
systet to
to earth
earth potential
potential using
using dedicated
dedicated grounding
grounding
cables/grids. These water sources cait also be used
ueed to dampen the 8011
soil around
local ground rods.
If a base camp is developed in an area that is already built up,
up then
then
electrical
electrical contact
contact with
with existing
existing water
water piping
piping systems
systems éan
can provide
provide excellent
excellent
ground conditions.
eonditions. The rebar in reinforced concrete can also be used like
horizontal.ground
horizontal,ground rods.. Another good location for grounding would be in—place
metal
sewage systems.
systems. Finally, existing metal fencing can be used to conetal sewage
con—
struct
.truct electrical grid8 for TG and transformer
tranaformer platforms.
4—30
In base camp locations where such structures or water sources are not
avai1abe, distribution
available,
distribution grounding
grounding can
can be
be inproved
improved by
by driving
driving ground
ground rode
rods near
near
mess hal.s
and
or into operational waste water dumps or sinks.
For instance, mess
hal1s and
latrtnes may use septic tanks or cesapools.
iatrtnes
cesspools. Sewage liquids are normally very
conductive. Site selection
seection should
should provide
provide enhanced
enhanced grounding
grounding at
at least
least for
for
TGs. However, care should be exercised to insure that this ground connection
Figuro
Figure 4.10 shows grounding
does not endanger personnel should a fault occur.
using wastewater drainage. The drain
drain pipe
pipe must
must iiot
not be constructed
constructed with
with meta'.
metal
materials.
Plastic or PVC is recommended if the sewage drain is used for
grounding.
grounding. This will prevent the possible
poeBible injectton of current into the water
source (i.e., latrine
1atrine or mess hail).
hall).
Two expedient techniques for local grounding are particularly applicable
applicab'e
uBed
to the small, isolated TG in field applications. The first can be easily used
in deep, loose, dry sand where a quick—fix" ground is needed. Figure 4.11
shows how an 8—ft (2.4—rn) section of galvanized steel or copper clad pipe can
GROUND LEVEL
—--.-..
d Rqd
Rqd
(
\
\N
Moist
//
::o//:o
—I
—I
8 ft
I1md
__
End
Soil Region
Grounding uBing
using sewage drain.
Figure 4.10.
I—
Septic Tonk
0
.1
p
Galvanized Pipe
3/4 ID.
3/4
ID. Golvonized
holu —I2p*r
holes
()—I2p*rfoot
footXXI/8'dla.
I/8'dla.
Figure 4.11.
Expedient grounding pipe.
4—31
Bolutlon to the rod/sand
rod/Band
be modified to aid immediate introduction of salt solution
After
being
driven
into
the
ground,
the
perforated
pipe
iB filled
is
interface.
through a funnel with a solution of 15 lb salt/5 gal (6.8 kg/18.9
kg/l8.9 I.)
1.) water.
The salt solution percolates into the sand and provides
ptovides a conductive soil for
eva—
current flow. This ground remains effective until the solution either evaporateB or drains
drains away
away from
from the
the rod,
rod, usually
usually in
in several
several hours
hours or
or aa few
fe days.
porates
days.
This procedure tends to corrode the pipe very quickly, however,
however1 so additional
pipe
pipe will
will be
be needed
needed occasionally.
occa8ionally. Also, the grounding clamp/wire connection
must be kept clean and corrosion—free for good results.
The second technique, which is
iB most
mo6t u8eful in rocky terrain where rods
rodB
Bare
copper
are difficult to drive, has been loosely
looBely called a "caunterpoise.'
wire is laid in a horizontal trench and is covered with soil
Boil and salt solution
treatment, if available. More wire in the trench, usually 1—1/2 ft (0.5 in)
deep1, provides
deep,
provides aa better
bettet ground.
ground. A "counterpoise" of this type is shown in
Figure 4.12. With this technique, too, the wire becomes unrecoierab1e after
aeveral salt solution treatments.
several
Note1 however, that some field users have
Note,
used this type of ground successfully
Buccessfully without salt solution treatment.
Another expedient grounding method that may be applicable is direct ground
This technique
technique iB
is
connection to field urinal
utinal tubes driven into the soil.
Boil. This
recommended
recommended only
only for
for short—term
short—term use.
use.
haB outlined levels of grounding that are acceptable
Though this chapter has
in
in an
an expedient
expedient sense,
sen8e, it
it is
is nevertheless
nevettheleBB emphasized
emphasized that
that grounding
grounding protection
protection
of less than 25 ohms resistance to earth is desirable and should be a goal of
*6 AWGBARE
BARECOPPER
COPPERLACED
LACEDIN
IN TRENCH
.*6AWG
TRENCH
—20
_____ _____
_____ _____ _____
(top view)
(side view)
viewT
_____
—IS
TRENCH
(FILLED)
TRENCH (FILLED)
WIRE
Figure 4.12.
Expedient grounding trench.
4—32
_____
iistribution engineer —— even in SWA base camps. To determine
the electric distribution
determine
the grounding status
grounded locations,
statu8 of base camp grounded
locations, it
it is
is recommended
recommended that
that
on—site capability be provided for ground re8istence
re8istance testing.
Te8ting proTesting
cedures and appropriate test equipment are discussed in TM 5—765.
Although
dry,
grounding resistance
resistance of
of less
les8 than
than 25
25 ohms
ohms will
will not
not be
be possible
possible in
in some
8ome dry,
sandy area8
areas of SWA, the traditional techniques of deeper ground rods, rods
rod8 in
parallel, and rods treated with salt solution will significantly decrease the
high local
local resistance,
resistance, and
and will
will improve
improve electrical
electricalay8te!n
system reliability and
and
reliability
Bafety.
safety.
4—33
CHAPTER 5 — EXPEDIENT WATER CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES
5.1
Introduction
The objective of this chapter is to identify practical and expedient
water conservation measures that can help reduce the logistics burden of water
supply in SWA. The selection of techniques and new equipment has been limited
to those that would not overburden the military logistics
logi8tics system and would be
consistent with the training and skill
8kill levels of those
tho8e who would employ them
under tactical conditions.
In fact, selections
selection8 reflect realistic, low—cost
measures that can be readily implemented.
To accomplish this work, the water—consuming activities of a representative military force that might be deployed to SWA were examined.
Then a
detailed analysis was made of each activity to identify opportunities to:
1.
Control excessive water usage
2.
Minimize water lose
losB through evaporation, spillage and contamination
3.
Reuse water by internal recycling or elsewhere by some other activity
Substitute water
Substitute
water of
of le8ser
lesser quality
quality where
where it
it has
hasbeen
beencu8tollary
customary to
to use
use
fresh water.
4.
5.2
5.2
5.2.1
Environmental Setting
General
The desert conditions found throughout SWA present a variety of problems
for a military force operating there. For the U.S. Army deployed in desert
warfare operations, major concerns will be the general shortage of water and
ever—present dust.
To provide some insight
inaight into the conditions that will be
faced, especially those related to water availability, it is appropriate to
understand the military
military implications
implications of
of water
water in
in the
the desert
desert environment.
environment.
Limited amounts of precipitation and rapid evaporation are characteristic
of desert
deaert areas.
In SWA rainfall is less than 10 in. (254 mm) per year and
frequently this is in the form of violent storms.
In the mountains and hilly
areas
runoff is rapid and destructive, while in the flatter areas it is channeled through wadis to depressions
depression8 and salt flats where that which does not
percolate into the soil quickly evaporates in the hot sun.
5.2.2
Military Implications
The single most important characteristic of desert areas is the lack of
water.
Surface water is limited to a very few rivers and intermittent streams
that benefit
benefit from
from the
the sparse
apars rainfall.
rainfall. Except for areas primarily along the
coast, s,ibsurface
subsurface water
water iB
is also
also limited,
limited, and
and that
that which
which can
can be
be obtained
obtained from
from
wells is generally unfit to drink because of the high salt content and the
Consequently, a military
presence of minerals such as calcium and magnesium.
potable water from any available
force must be prepared to produce its own potable
5—1
supplies, and to be diligent about conserving water, regardless of its
supplies1
ite quality
and use.
The American soldier is not indoctrinated to use water sparingly. Consequently, part of his training before deploying to SWA must include intensive
instruction on water conservation. Such training should be accompanied by
measures to make water less available. This will reduce the temptation to
this1 particureturn to wasteful habits. The most effective means of doing this,
larly
larly for
for activities
activities in
in Corps
Corps rear
rear areas
areas and
and the
the Communications
Communications Zone,
Zone1 is
is to
to
prohibit the installation of piped water systems
Bystems and waterborne sewage facilities in base development complexes.
Without a piped water system, each organization or troop complex must
have enough storage capability for at least one day's water requirements.
Some units which currently do not have storage facilities, but would need them
thei
aviation1 and
for
for operational purposes, include the field laundry and bath, aviation,
Any unit which uses collapsible fabric tanks muSt
muBt minimize
engineer units.
unitB.
water losses due to evaporation and dust contamination by securely covering
careful attention
attention to
toprotecting
protecting potable
potableand
and non
the tanks at all times. Even careful
potable water supplies might not prevent contamination; therefore,
therefore1 the capability to treat and recover such water should be available. This suggests
retention of ERDLator equipment in the Army supply system to augmer.t the portable reverse osmosis
osnosis water purification unit (ROWPIJ).
Actual potable and nonpotable water consumption can be reduced below the
20 gal (76 L) per man per day water consumption planning factor for arid
environments by diligent application of the conservation measures presented in
muet be
this chapter. Conservation must begin with the individual soldier; he must
be taught
taught about
about the
the nany oppormade aware of the need to save water and must
nust be
assisted in
in
tunities to reuse wastewater for some other purpose. He must be assisted
this effort by everyone up the chain of command. There is no substitute for
command emphasis on water conservation.
Planners can also play a major role in the conservation effort. For
example, activities which require large amounts of potable water should be
located
located near
near water
water terminals
terminals and
and tank
tank farms
farms to
to minimize
minimize transportation
transportation
requiremente and losses during handling. In addition, facilities that may use
requirements
nonpotable
nonpotable water
water should
should be
be sited
8ited near
near aa suitable
suitablegenerator
generatorofôfwastetater
wástetater
e.g., wastewater from laundry and shower units could be used for concrete mix8oil compaction,
compaction1 and dust control needed for the installation of storage
ing, 8011
depots.
Planning should also consider installation of a pipeline for transporting
seawater or brackish water,
water1 either of which can be used for concrete,
concrete1 soil
cement, soil
soil compaction,
compaction1 and
and dust
dust control.
control. The two latter tasks will probably
cement,
be major engineering efforts because the limited existing road networks in
countries will
will need
need to
to be
be expanded
expanded to
to provide
provide adequate
adequate lines
lines of
of corn—
commany SWA countries
munications,
munications1 and the deterioration of roads from heavy truck traffic will
demand continuous maintenance. Another significant advantage of a nonpotable
water
water pipeline
pipeline would
would be
be the
the convenience
convenience of
of large
large quantities
quantities of
of nonpotable
nonpotable
Biological1 Chemical (NBC) decontaminating purposes, should
water fo' Nuclear, Biological,
the need ever arise.
5—2
5.3
Near—Term Water Supply
Supply Concept
Concept for
for Arid
Arid Regions
Regions
Gnral
General
5.3.1
This section describes the near—term operational concept for managing
water resources
reaources in an arid environment.
In addition, it. includes background
information about the various types
types of
of water
water resources
resources of
of such
such areas
areas and
and the
the
useB that can be made of each.
uses
Water Supply Concept
5.3.2
Within the
responsibilities in water re8ource
the Army,
Army, responsibilitieB
shared
resource management are shared
The engineers
by engineer, combat service support, and medical organizations.
locate water supplies, drill wells,
wells) and install pipelines; combat service support units operate water purification equipment, pipelines, and waste distribution facilities; medical organizations insure that the quality of water is
adequate
adequate for
for its
its intended
intended purpose.
purpose.
Water supply support of a force in an arid region is to be developed in
three phases:
1.
1.
The deployment
deployient phase is the entry of combat units into a combat zone.
Potable water (enough for immediate survival
8urvival purposes) is to be carried in
Reindividual canteens, 5—gal (19—L) cans, and other authorized equipment.
supply will be by tactical aircraft with delivery in 500— and 50—gal (1890—
and 190—L) fabric drums or air—dropped in expendable 6—gal (23—L) bags/bozes.
bagB/boKes.
During this
During
phase, potable
potable water
water consumption
consumption Is
is at
at the
therate
rateof
of7.2
7.2gal.
gal
this phase,
(27.3 L) per man per day.
2.
In the lodgment phase,
phase, when
when follow—on
follow—on forces
forces arrive
arrive in
in the
the objective
objective
area, aerial water resupply is gradually replaced as an in—country water sup8up—
ply system is established.
Combat Service Support units arriving with purification capability will start water management operations near the seashore or
additional water
water resources
reBources are
arerequired,
required
other major source of water. When additional
Engineer elements will identify potential well sites and begin drilling.
Large—scale purification, storage, and distribution operations are then fol—
followed, enabling
enabling combat
combat units
units to
to replenish
replenish water
water supplies
suppliesat
atsuppiy.points
supplypoints
During this phase, when the ashore
aghore water supply
using organic water trailers.
system is put into operation, water consumption level increases to an austere
rate of 11.7 gal (44.3 L) per man per day.
The buildup phase begins once the lodgment area is firmly estaThis includes the arrival of additional support units to install and
operate water pipelines/hoselines
pipelinea/hoselinea and
and tank
tank farms,
farms, and
and to
to begin
begin line
line haul
haul
8torage
operations using water tanker trucks. When the water production and storage
aystem is fully developed,
system
developed, aa 1—day
1—day reserve
reserve supply
supply of
of potable
potable water
water is
is to
to be
be
maintained at
at brigade,
brigade, division, corps, and task force levels for a total of 4
maintained
days within the area of operations.
days
operation8. With completion of the buildup phase,
gal (71.5
water conawnption
consumption reacheB
reaches the full requirement rate of 18.9 gal
(71.5 L) per
man per day. This is enough to satisfy the demands for drinking, maintaining
proper standards of hygiene, medical care, food preparation, equipment operaopera—
tions, and construction.
3.
blished.
5—3
Much of the equipment required for the above water supply system
sy8tem has been
developed by the U.S. Army Mobility Equipment Research and Development Command; the individual equipment items are illustrated
illu8trated in Figure 5.1.
5.4
Water Conservation Opportunities
5.4.1
General
This
Th18 section discusses
discus8es water—demanding activities
activitie8 that are expected to be
performed by a U.S. military force deployed to a hot arid region such as SWA.
each activity,
activity, the
the related
related water
water requirements
requirements (quality,
(quality, quantity,
quantity, and
and posposFor each
For
sible
sible sources)
8ources) are
are described
de8cribed and
and specific
specific potential
potential water
water conservation
con8ervation measmea8—
ure8 are suggested.
ures
8uggested.
qualitie8 and types of water are menThroughout this section, various qualities
To aid the reader, the following descriptions
de8criptions of each are provided:
tioned.
tioned.
8tanPotable water has been examined and treated to meet appropriate standards and
and declared
declared fit
fit for
for domestic
domestic consumption.(food
consumption(food preparation)
preparation) byre8ponbyrespon
sible authorities.*
1.
2.
Nonpotable water has
ha8 not been examined, properly treated, and
approved
approved by
by approporiate
approporiate authorities
authorities as
as being
being safe
safe for
for domestic
dome8tic consumption
consumption
water8 are considered
con8idered nonpotable until declared pot(food preparation). All waters
able.
*
able .*
3.
Seawater obtained offshore at a location removed from a sewage outtt is very salty, and contains suspended
fall is normally relatively clean.
8and and
and probably
probably some
some bacteria.
bacteria. This water can be used, without
particles of sand
any adverse
adver8e effects, for construction, housekeeping
hou8ekeeping tasks, firefighting,
showering
8hovering and laundering. It should
8hOuld not be used where continued use could
corrode critical metal surfaces. When used for showers, laundries, and per—
sonal hygiene purposes, calcium hypochiorite
hypochlorite should
8hOuld be added to the water to
protect against
again8t disease—causing organisms. Potable water can be produced from
seawater u8iflg
using the
seawater
the ROWPUs.
ROWPUs.
Surface water
water and
and well
well water
water containIng
containIng •a
•a high
highcOnceittration
cOnáentration of
of salt
salt
8alt content is much less than found in seawater, but
is called brackish. The salt
is
is high
high enough
enough to
to give
give the
the water
water aa distinctive
distinctive salty
salty ta8te.
taste. Brackish water
may contain dissolved
and iron
iron salts
salts which
which make
make
dissolved calcium,
calcium, sulfur,
sulfur, magnesium1,
magne8ium, and
the water difficult to lather (forms curds),
curd8), and when heated leaves hard
mineral
mineral depocits
deposits on
on the
the wetted
wetted surface
surface of
of the
the container.
container. Surface brackish
water may be expected to contain microorganisms, while brackish well water
8hOuld contain few or none. As with seawater, brackish water can be used for
should
construction, firefighting, and general housekeeping tasks. It is not generally recomiended for those purposes where it is to be heated to near boiling
Potable water
water can
can also
also be
be produced
produced from
from it
it by
by reverse
reverse osmosis
osmosis
temperatures. Potable
treatment.
4.
5.
Fresh water has
ha8 no apparent salty
8alty taste, but when found on the surface (river, stream, oasis) it may contain suspended
8uspended materials, dissolved
*
TB
MED 229.
TB MED
229.
5—4
FLt
•s:
Figure 5.1.
Schematic of total water supply system.
7'
-d
S4
minerals, fecal matter, and bacteria and other disease—causing organisln8.
organisin8.
When obtained from wells or an in—country municipal water supply system it
will normally be clean in appearance with no significant odor. On the other
drinkable (pot(pothand, it can dissolve mineral Baits and bacteria. To make it drinkable
able), disinfection through chlorination with specified residuals of free
When it
available chlorine (TB MED 229) is often the only treatment required. When
contains significant amounts
auounts of dissolvei
dissolved Baits
salts of magnesium, sulfur, and
iron, drinking It
Iron,
it may often cause an increased laxative effect. Fresh water
can be used for most
most cleanin,g
cleaning and
and nonconsumptive
nonconsumptive purposes
purposes without
without purificapurificaTo make it potable, treatment using conventional water purification
tion.
procedures (ERDLator) is normally adequate. When dissolved mineral content s
too
too high,
high, it
it can
can only
only be
be purified
purified by
by reverse
reverse osmosis
osmosi5 treatment.
treatment. To assume
that any one municipal water supply in the Middle East Is
is potable (by U.S.
standards) would be a mistake. Most countries in the region do not treat
water to the standards required by the Army. Therefore such water sources
must first be examined and declared suitable for human consumption by medical
authorities,
authorities, as cited above. Surface fresh water sources can also be a major
health hazard. These waters, primarily rivers,
river9, are. used by nearby inhabitants
to
to dispose of all forms of human waste,
waste, andand- hence
hence are
are potential
potential sour'ces
sour'ces of
of
pathogenic organisms.
organisms. They also harbor a variety of other organisms which may
pathogenic
infect the human body simply through bodily contact with the water. .The
The moat
most
dangerous is a blood fluke (spawned from a snail) which may enter the body to
cause a disabling disease known as Schistosomlasis.
Schistosomiasis.
it
The concepts and suggestions in this section are based on engineering
judgment and military—tested experience and can save water in a desert
environment. Although valid, a critical aspect in the implementation of any
suggestion presented
presented here
here is
is approval
approval by
by appropriate
appropriate U.S.
U.S. Artny
Army Medical
Medical DepartDepartment authorities at all levels of command. The
The Surgeon
Surgeon General
General of
of the
the DepartDepartment
ment of
of the
the Army
Army is
is responsible
responsible for
for insuring
insuring that
that sanitary
sanitary control
control and
and sursurveillance of field water supplies from source to consumer 18
is accomplished and
making
making such
such recommendations
recommendations as
as may
may be
be necessary
necessary to
to protect
protect the
the health
health of
of the
the
individual soldier, and consequently the various commands.
Whenever in this report the use of water of a lesser quality than that
prescribed
prescribed for
for potable
potable waters
waters ——
—— such as for showers, laundries, and bathing
is suggested,
sugge8ted, it must
must be
be noted
noted that
that the.
the practice
practice should
should only
only be.impiemented
be.impiemented
after the advice and approval of competent medical and engineer personnel have
been obtained.
—
Water Conservation
Conservation
5.4.2
can be
be learned
learned from
from some
some of
of the
the water—conserving
water—conserving habits
habits of
of the
the
Much can
region's inhabitants. The basic water conservation principles below, which
should be followed by a military force in the field, are generally observed by
desert people:
I.
1.
Make each soldier aware of his responsibility to conserve water by
avoiding wasteful
wasteful practices
practices and
and being
being ever—conscious
ever—conscious that
that there
there is
is some
some useful
useful
avoiding
purpose for wastewater or unsuitable (e.g., hot) potable water.
2.
Place command emphasis on water conservation and water reuse.
5—6
3. Protect
3.
Protect potable water from all sources of contamination,
contaminationb including
sand and du'.
4.
Do not dispose
dispo8e of water of any type without considering alternative
us e 8.
uses.
5. Prohibit
5.
Prohibit water
water thievery from storage container8and
container8and pipelines,
pipelines, and
and
the indiscriminant use of expedient showers.
of centralized
centralized pressure
pressure water
water 8yateins
syBteins for
for temtemAvoid installatioii
installation of
porary facilities needed to support a ni1itary
nilitary force in the field.
6.
Use expedient human waste
va8te disposal techniques instead of vasteborne
vasteborne
sewage
sewage systems.
7.
The potential savings in water to be realized by the application of the
specific techniques discussed in the remainder of this chapter can be significant, as indicated in Figure 5.2. Estimates
cant1
EBtimates are shown
shown for
for two
two groups
groups of
of
activities:
those that require only potable water and those that can e
nonpotable water if available. In each instance,
are measured
measured
instance, the
the -savings
savings are
against the water consumption planning factors contained in TRADOC Pamphlet
525—11.
con8umption levels shown in Figure 5.2 for each of the
The reduced water consumption
major activities reflects the benefits from:
(1) installation of water saving
devices and procedures (full figures), and (2) the additional savings if
The latter
wastewater treatment and recycling are employed (ghosted figures).
savings are those associated with laundry and shower operations,
operationsb and have been
estimated
estimated to
to be
be an
an 80
80 percent
percent reduction.
reduction. These benefits should be verified by
field testing treatment procedures. However, as indicated in the following
discussion of various water—consuming activities,
activitiesb there are many opportunities
to use the wastewater. Although the quantities of water are relatively small
difficult to
to quantify,
quantify they
aggregate.
and difficult
they could
could be
be significant
significant in the aggregate.
The use of water of lesser quality is also regarded here to be a viable
method of conservation. Especially in SWA where the dissolved mineral content
can be quite high,
highb any opportunity to use local water and avoid the costly
reverse
reverse osmosis
osmosis treatment
treatment process
process has
has both
both logistic
logistic and
and economic
ecoaomic advantages.
advantages.
These benefits are most apparent when it comes to water required for construc8eawater or brackish
tion (concrete mixing,
mixingb soil compaction,
compactionb etc.). Untreated seawater
water is quite satisfactory for most theater of operations construction that
is
is only
only intended
intended for
for short—term
short—term use.
use.
As shown in Figure 5.2,
S.2b the projected minimum savings in potable water
from the application of all conservation measures discussed above is about 3.7
gal/man/day (14.0 L/m/d),
L/m/d)b or a reduction of 26 percent from the established
consumption planning
planning factor
factor of
of 14.3
14.3 gal/iran/day
gal/man/day (54.1
(54.1 L/m/d).
L/m/d). Likewise,
Likewiseb the
amount (4.6 gal/man/day [17.4 L/m/d]) of fresh water required for activities
that do not involve ingestion of water (lower portion of Figure 5.2) can be
reduced about 80 percent bya combination of recycle/reuse and water quality
If viewed from the standpoint that potable water only
reduction measures.
would be produced and used by all activities identified in Figure 5.2, the
projected savings becomes even more significant. The overall savings in potable water could amount to 7.4 gal/man/day (3.7 gal/man/day + 3.7 gal/man/day)
5—7
in
40
to—
8
22
>"
00
0
U
2
VI"
a
4.0
2
I..
0S
REQUiREMENTS
S
0
a
to
-I
a
a
0
qj
Ii
2.
1.0
1.6
WATER CUAUTY REOUCUON
(NONPOTABLE
LIEU OF POTABLE)
SEA WATER IPI LIEU OF FRESH)
PECYCEIREUSE
WATER CONSUMPTION PEOUCTION
(TRADOC PAs 528-Il)
PLANNING FACTOR
LEGEND
1111111111
>
II
2
0
I
U
I-
I0
S
0
2
I-
Figure 5.2.
o.e
FRESH OR POTABLE WATER REQUIREMENTS
I
2
a
0
0
2
POTABLE TER
0
a
4
a
2
2
)..
Savings.
I
1
VI
to
In
01
4
0
4%)
3.?IBO%)
09
co.PosnL SAVWIG$ ARE NOT ADDITIVE
1?I
(28.0 L/in/d)
L/in/d) which
which is
is aa 39
39 percent
percent reduction
reduction prom
prom the
the unadjusted
unadjusted consumption
consumption
(28.0
planning fat-r of 18.9 gal/man/day (71.5 L/m/d).
5.4.3
Activity:
Drinking
Water
Hot, arid,
Hot1,
arid, external
external conditions
conditions and
and Strenuous
strenuous activity required
required of
of aa
The
body
rid8
it8elf
of
this
soldier cauBe
body
temperatures
to
increase.
cause
rids itself
heat by the evaporation of sweat. Thia natural cooling system is efficient)
and the body continues to function well if its water losses are replaced.
When they are not, dehydration takes place, and with it there is a correspondcorre8pond
to progress,
progres8,
ing loss in body function efficiency. If dehydration ig
is allowed to
an individual can quickly become incapacitated and then must be treated for
heat stroke. Without prompt treatment, a severe case
caBe of heat stroke could
result in death.
The normal thirst sensation is not a reliable indicator of the water
required.
It will be necessary,
necessary, therefore,
therefore, for
for individuals
individuals to
to drink
drink water
water
frequently during the hot and most active part of the day.
5.4.3.1
Water Requirements:
Quality: Water for drinking should only be obtained from authorized potable sources. Although water from other sources may appear clear and drinkable, it will probably contain chemical and/or pathogenic contaminants
contaminanta that
Bources used
can cause a variety of intestinal disorders. Drinking water from sources
Under emergency condiby local desert tribesmen should generally be avoided.
tions, this water
water may
may be
be used,
used, but
but only
only after
after being
being disinfected
disinfected with
with iodine
iodine
tablets
tablets or
or brought
brought to
to aa rolling
rolling boil
boil for
for 15
15 seconds.
seconds.
Approximately 4 gal (15 L) of cooled potable drinking water
Quantity:
will
will be
be provided
provided for
for each
each soldier
soldier per
per day.
day. Those engaged in strenuous physical activities will normally require this amount of water to maintain their
strength during the hottest period of the day. Those who are less active will
need to drink less. Under all circumstances, every soldier needs to develop a
vhether he feels thirsty or not.
habit of drinking frequently during the day, whether
To encourage the individual soldier to drink increased quantities
quantitiea of water,
the U.S. Army has adopted "water chiller concept. This has resulted in the
development of a small
small mobile
mobile chiller.vbichisexpectedto.be
chiller.wbichisexpectedtobe a.part.of
a.part.of the
the
organic equipment for forces operating in arid regions (Figure 5.3).
organic
approved by
by Task
Task Force
Force Surgeon
Surgeon and
and provided
provided
Water Sources: Only water approved
through the establi8hed supply system should be used for drinking. Units will
either obtain
obtain their
their water
water from
from designated
designated distribution
distribution points
points or
or will
will have
have it
it
either
Individuals should
delivered if they do not have the transport capability.
rely on unit Lyster
Lyater bags, 5—gal (19—L) cans, or 400—gal (1510—L) water trailers
(Water Buffalo).
5.4.3.2
5.4.3.2
Water Conservation Measures:
1.
Extra care must be exercised when filling canteens or 5—gal (l9—L)
(19—L)
water ens
cns to avoid any spillage. Unnecessary waste deprives others of water
when they come for a fill—up.
5—9
0
AUXIUARY
FACKN3E
AUXIUARY FACKN3E
Figure 5.3.
EVAPORATK)N ALL WATER CONTAINERS
AND CHILLERS SHOULD BE SHADED
RADIATION.
FROM
FROM DIRECT SOLAR RADIATION.
10 MINIMIZE WATER lOSS THROUGH
NOTE
NOTE:
MODE
TRANSPORTATION
COOliNG
COOUNG CKAG€
CKAG(
PACKAGE STORE
PACKAGE
STORE
OPTIONAL
OPTIONALAUXUARY
AUXUARY
Water chiller concept..
COMBUSTION
AND COOliNG
COMBUSTION AND
AIR
AIR FILTRATION
TINT
FILTRATION TENT
TANK
OPERATIONAL
MODE
WATER BUFFALO OR ALTERNATE
2.
After filling a canteen or 5—gal (19—L) can1
can, the cap or lid should be
This will prevent
prevent spillage
spillage or
or contaminants
contaminants from
from getting
getting
into the water.
In addition, water containers should be shaded to prevent
loss of chlorine and to keep them reasonably
reaBonably cool.
securely fe.. ..ened.
3.
Water that has become warm can be made more drinkable by blending it
with cool water from the water chiller.
warni
Water in canteens or 5—gal (19—L) cans which may have become too warm
to
to drink,
drink, or
or otherwise
otherwise degraded
degraded from
from potable
potable quality,
quality, should
should not
not be
be discarded.
discarded.
It should
should be
be made
made available
available for
for other
other purposes,
purposes) specifically:
specifically:
It
4.
—
For washing and shaving.
—
For vehicle radiator make—up.
make—up.
—
For some activity requiring water (hand washing, maintenance shop,
latrine facility, cleaning equipment, helicopters, vehicle
windshields, and photo laboratory film processing).
Water supplies should
should be
be shaded
shaded for
for protection
protection against
against solar
solar radiation
radiation
even though
though containers
containers themselves
themselves may
may be
be insulated.
insulated. Survivor blankets or wet
even
tarpaulins can provide effective shielding.
5.4.4
5.4.4
Activity:
!4ess Operations
Mess operations include food and beverage preparation and the cleaning of
eating and cooking utensils.
In hot and arid climates these activities will
be simplified by relying primarily on processed foods rather than fresh meat,
fruit, and raw vegetables, at least through the first 6 months of a military
operation.
In the Corps area and Communications Zone, except for hospital
hoBpital
patients,
patients, two
two hot
hot meals
meals daily
daily will
will usually
usually be
be provided,
provided, and
and the
the remaining
remaining meal
meal
will be an operational ration. The hot meals will be the same rations as used
in the combat zone, but may be augmented with limited perishab1es (e.g.,
salads, milk), when the situation permits. The food will be prepared at unit
level in a field—type kitchen (soft frame—type shelter) and served on permanent
manent plastic,
plastic, compartmented
compartmented trays
trays or
or in
in individual
individual mess
mess kits.
kits. As soon as
the situation in rear area pe.rmits, unit kitchens will be integrated into area
daily on
on aa conconkitchens, with a capacity to serve up to 800 to 1000 troops
troops daily
tinuous
tinuous basis.
basis.
In
In general, hospital patients will receive only the Standard B Ration,
except
except those
those requiring
requiring modified
modified dietary
dietary rations.
rations. The modified rations
rations will
will
Ration or the B Hospital Liquid Ration. Patients
consist of the B Hospital Ratios
would be routinely fed individual combat rations only under exceptional circumstances.
Following
Following active combat operations, food service will offer three high—
quality, hot meals each day. These meals may be a combination of T and A
Ration
Ration items,
items, with
with the
the latter
latter consisting
consisting of
of fresh
fresh and
and frozen
frozen meat,
meat, fresh
fresh fruit
fruit
and vegetables, and milk ——
of which require conventional cooking and
refrigeration facilities.
all
5—11
The current
current BB Ration
Ration is
is aa nonperishable1,
nonperishable, bulk operational ration
ration planned
planned
for a 10—day menu cycle. It consists
conBists largely of dehyrated, dehydrated
compresBed1 or thermally processed items which allow for reasonably long
compressed1
storage periods
for refrigeration
refrigeration equipment.
equipment.
period8 and
and eliminate
eliminate the
the need
need for
Messing operations
operations will
will require
require facilities
facilities to
to wash
wash individual
individual mese
mess gear
gear
and cooking equipment and utensils. The use of I Rations (tray meals and
disposable mess kit liners)
liner8) will keep washing to a minimum.
minimwn.
On the other
of AA Rations
Rations will
will greatly increase need
hand, the
the intr.oduction
introduction of
need for
for washing
washing
facilities and the effort involved in washing.
5.4.4.1
Water Requirements:
Quality:
Water for all aspects of mess operation must be potable. Thug,
the initial supply
supply must
must be
be potable
potable and
and re8erve
reserve supplies
supplies must
must be
be protected
protected
againat contamination from dust, insects, etc.
against
Quantity:
The amount
aaount of water for mess operations varies depending on
the types of rations used —— C or
or MRE
MRE (Meal
(Meal Ready
Ready to
to Eat)
Eat) Rations
Rations require
require no
no
water; B Rations require 0.5 gal (1.9 L)/ration/day, while A Rations could
require 1.0 gal (3.8 L)/ration/day for cooking.
The mess kit washline assembled
asBembled for sanitation purposes has four 32—gal
(121—L) CI cans with
with iminerBion
immersion heaters
heaters attached
attached for
for heating
heating water.
water. These
facilities are also used by food preparers to clean cooking utensils, pots,
and pans.
kit washline
washline requires
requires 80
80 gal
gal (303
(303 L)/ineal.
L)/ineal of
The normal mess kit
of potpotable water.
Sources; Potable
Water Sources:
Potable water for me8s
mess operations
obtained
operations is
is normally obtained
from the 400—gal (1510—L)
(1510—L) water
water trailer
trailer organic
organic to
to each
each conipany—aize
company—size unit.
unit.
5.4.4.2
Water Conservation Measures:
1.
Me8s personnel
Mess
personnel need
need to
to minimize
minimize a,illage
aillage in
in filling
filling cooking
cookig concontainers and mess
mesa kit washline CI
GI cans.
2.
Open
Open water
water containers
containers should
Bhould be
be covered
covered to
to minimize
minimize evaporation
evaporation and
and
contamination from airborne dust. WashiineG1
WaghlineGI cals
cats could be fitted with ply—.
wood
wood covers or tops
tops cut
cut frocn
from 55—gal
55—gal (209—L)
(209—L) drums.
drums.
3.
Mess kits or feeding trays and cooking utensils should be scraped
clean with napkins or Banitary wipes provided to each diner to minimize the
amount of food entering the washwater.
Inserts
for IneB8
mess kits
waBhwater.
InBertg for
kits under development by the U.S. Army Natick Laboratories
Laboratorie8 would achieve this objective even
more
more effectively.
effectively.
4.
Predip, rinse,
rin8e, and final rinsewater from the mess kit washline can be
saved and reused for making the soapy washwater
wa8hwater at the head of the washline
waBhline
needed for the next meal.
5.
Rot predip and rinse waters remaining after a meal are a source of
vehicle radiator
radiator makeup
makeup water.
water.
hot water for shaving
shaving or
orvehicle
5—12
6.
Su4sy washwater should not automatically be discarded.
It can be
filtered th-ough cloth to remove food particles, soap
8oap and grease
greaBe and used for
hand washing at latrines and vehicle maintenance facilitie8,
facilities, general purpose
cleaning (e.g.,
vehicles,
(e.g., vehicles, stoves, duckboarda)
duckboards) or vetting
wetting the earth around any
electrical equipment
equipment that
that needs
needs to
to be
be grounded
grounded (see
(see Chapter
Chapter 4).
4).
Activity:
5.4.5
PersanaZ12'ygiene
PersanaZ
Bygiene
Personal
PerBonal hygiene involves those sanitary measures required for an individual to keep the body clean and prevent disease.
Thi8 is essential
This
ea9ential in maintaining
taining combat effectiveness
effectiveness and
and high
high atorale
morale within
within a unit.
Constant attention will have to be given to proper field sanitation because of the difficulties in maintaining
maintaining body
body cleanliness
cleanliness in
in aa hot
hot and
and dusty
dusty environment.
environment.
5.4.5.1
Water Requirement:
Quality:
To maintain proper standards of personal hygiene1 the soldier
aoldier
is to be provided potable water each day for a helmet bath,
bath) shaving,
Bhaving, brushing
teeth? comfort cooling, and handwashing before eating and after.
after• using the
teeth1
latrine.
Quantity:
Approximately 2.7 gal (10.2 L) of potable water is to be provided for personal hygiene each day.
It is allocated for the following purposes:
daily shaving (1—1/2 qt [1.4 U, or helmet capacity); helmet baths on
alternate days (four helmets each); comfort cooling (1/2 qt [0.5 U over the
soldier's
goldier's head, eight times a day); brushing teeth and handwashing (2—1/4 qt
[2.1
[2.1
U).
U).
Water
Water Sources:
Sources: The principal sources of water for the8e
these purposes are the
unit water storage containers —— 400—gal (1510—L) water trailer, 5—gal (19—L)
cans or Lyster Bag. Water of unknown quality from other sources should not be
used; however, troops near the seacoast could use 8eawater for comfort cooling, bathing, and shaving.
5.4.5.2
5.4.5.2
Water Conservation Measures:
1.
Individuals should avoid spillage when filling their helmets or other
to obtain
obtain water
water for
for -Bhaving
shaving or
containers used to
or bathing.
bathing. When helmets are
used, some
See FM 21—10, Field
Bome means of support
Bupport is needed to prevent tipping.
Field
Hygiene and Sanitation, for expedient procedures that can be used under field
conditions.
During cool weather, hot rinse water from the mess kit cleaning line
can be used for shaving.
2.
3.
Seawater should be used by those on the seacoast for comfort cooling,
bathing, and handwashing.
No attempt should be made to recover or reuse water used for personal
When convenient, wastewater should be disposed
dispo8ed of in .soakage
.aoakage pits
constrted to provide grounding for electrical equipment.
4.
hygiene.
5—13
5-13
The use of
of waterborne
vaterborne sewage
sewage Byateins
systems should
should be avoided. An exception
to thie
this policy could
could be
be made
made for
for aa cantoitment
cantonment or
or major
major facility
facility located
located near
near
the coast where seawater could be readily used as the transport medium.
5.
5.4.6
Activitj:
Shower Operati.on8
Shower
Operation8
Showers are necessary
necessary in
in any
any contbat
combat theater,
theater, and
and especially
especially in
in hot
hot arid
arid
regions,
regions, to
to help
help maintain
maintain an
an acceptable
acceptable level
level of
of personal
personal hygiene
hygiene and
and sanitasanitation among the fighting forces. This
This results
results in
in a decreaeed
decreased incidence of
diseaoe which
disease,
which translates
translates to
to increased
increased combat
combat effectiveness.
effectiveness. For those
engaged in strenuous
atrenuous activities, the availability of shower facilities can
also contribute to their general morale. The printary
primary means
means of
of providing
providing
showers
ehowers in the field is the eight—showerhead Portable Bath Unit 141958, or the
more recently type
type classified
classified nine—showerhead
nine—showerhead Bath
Bath Unit
Unit (AM!!).
(AM!!). Expedient
Bhowers consisting of an elevated water storage tank (55—gal [209—LI drum)and
showers
dispensing piping
dispensing
piping and
and valve
valve have
havebeen
beenconlinonly
commonly fabricated
fabricated in
in the past by
by mdimdi—
vidual units when regular bath units have not been readily available.
5.4.6.1
Water Requirements:
Quality:
In hot and
and arid
arid climates,
climates, it
it ie
is prescribed
prescribed that.
that potable water
water
be used
be
used in the Portable Bath Unit. However,
However, there
there may
may be
be occasiorzo
occasiono when bacbacterially safe nonpotable water (e.g., river and stream water) can be used by
military units.
In these instances,
approval to
to use water from
instances, however',
however, approval
rivers and similar sources
sourcea without treatment
treatient should be obtained from the Unit
Surgeons. As an additional precaution, soldiers should be warned against
drinking nonpotable water while showering.
Quantity: Water is to be provided on the basis of a 3—minute shower,
showers
requiring 4.5 gal (17 L) of potable water per shower. For a nine—showerhead
dày, the maximum daily water requirement is
bath unit operating 20 hours per day,
about 16 200 gal (61 300L) per day. However, if individual
individual shower
shower time
time is
is
not controlled, the 45 gal (17.0 L)/person viii
will probably be exceeded.
Water Sources:
1.
Potable water:
Primary source is the nearest base water storage terminal or water
with delivery
tank
farm, with
delivery provided
provided by
by tanker
tanker trucks
trucks of
of Water
Water Transportation
Transportation
tank fariu,
a.
Teams (G.J).
(G.J).
Teams
b.
An alternate Bource,
source, when available, i8 a municipal water system
approved for use by Corps or Task Force Surgeon.
2.
Nonpotable water:
a.
Surface water sources (e.g., river) that has been approved by Corps
Corpa
or Task
Taek Force Surgeon.
b.
Pretreated wastevater
wastewater from
shower
iteelf.
8hower unit itself.
5—14
5—14
3.
Brac-ish water
Brac-ish
water and
and seawater:
seawater an expedient for short periods.
period8. Long—
term use Is
is uut
uot recommended due to residual salts left on the skin; these may
irritate the
the 8km
skin and might not provide the degree of cleanliness desired.
5.4.6.2
1.
Water Conservation Measures:
Mea8ures:
Limiting water consumption:
a.
Prohibit the fabrication of expedient showers when regular
controlled—time—of—use bath unit facilities are available.
Replace current showerhead
8howerhead valves on the M1958 and A1H Bath Units
UnitB
with spring—loaded
spring—loaded valve8
valves to
to prevent
prevent continuou8
continuous flow.
flow. An alternative means Is
is
to require an operator of the bath unit to manually control the flow of water
to the shower
8hower with the shower
8hower stand control valve on top of the water heater.
b.
2.
Using nonpotable surface water: bath and laundry units serving a
specified area should be near each other —— particularly when
8pecified
when it
it is
i neceesary
necessary
to pretreat nonpotable surface water for •a shower and laundry. TB MED 229
provides the guidelines to be used when employing nonpotable surface waters.
water8.
The Unit Surgeon should also be consulted.
conaulted.
wa8tewater may be reused after
shower wastewater
Using recycled shower
Bhower water:
To do this, It
it will
proper treatment and then recycled through the bath unit.
This involves the
the conconbe necessary to collect the wastewater
wa8tewater for treatment.
struction of a shallow basin (4— to 6—in. [100— to 150—mm] deep and large
enough to accommodate the duckboards on which the bather stands
etands to shower),
8hOwer),
and the installation of a system to transfer the wastewater to collapsible
collap8ible
Suggested
equipment and
Suggested equipaient
and prowater storage tanks
tank8 for treatment (Figure 5—4).
cedures for pretreating shower
Bhower wastewater are shown In
in Figure 5.5.
3.
The quality of the
wastewater treatment
treatment
the treated water produced by the wastewater
Howeyer, its
process essentially
eseentially meets potable water quality standards.
However,
acceptability for
Maintenance
for showering
showering should
should be
be tested
tested using
using the
the Preventi.ve
Preventive Maintenance
and/or Engineer Water Quality Analysis Kits for compliance with Corps or Task
In the absence
absence of
of aa 420
420 gph
gph (0.442
(0.442 L/s)
L/s) diatornlte
diatomite
Force Surgeon procedures.
filter, or in case of a filter malfunction, It
it is possible to use chlorinated
RówRow—
water that has undergone clarification by coagulation and sedimentation.
The
ever, bathers should be warned not to drink the water during showering.
observed under
under these
these circumstances
circumstances are
are as
as follows:
follows:
minimum standards to be
be observed
pH
Turbidity
Chlorination
6.5 to 7.5 (after chlorination to point of user)
1 to 5 units
30—minute free available chlorine residual of
5 mg/L at 20°C and above.
Using brackish and seawater shower water: brackish water and seawater which are clean In
in appearance and free of obnoxious odors are suitable for
Continued use Is
is not desirable because a bather will not feel as
showers.
For best results
resulte it will be necessary to provide
clean as with fresh water.
Brackish water and seawater are generally classified as "hard
saltwater soap.
waters" and, therefore,
therefore, require
require additional
additional soap
soap when
when used
used for
for showering
showering or
or
However, It
it is better for troops to use hard brackish water or
laundering.
4.
5—15
TO COLLECTING TANK
CONCRETE BASIN
COLLECTING TANK
MEMBRANE LINER
HOSE
xx
11/2"
I I/2' BOLTS
BOLTS
2-WOOD BLOCKS
—I.
D
6" xx 6'x
6" x 1/2"
1/2"
MEMBRANE LJNE.D
MEMBRANE
LINE.D BASIN
MEMBRANE LINER
TO
To
COLLECTiNG
TANK
Figure 5.4.
Shower water collection basin.
5—16
SHOWER
BASIN
FIELD BATH
'I
GENERATOR
DIATOMITE
FILTER
7-
F ILTER
DIATOMITE
UNIT
TREATED
TREATEO
WATER TANK
PROPOSED SYSTEM HARDWARE FOR
SHOWER WASTEWATER REUSE UNIT
TREATMENT TANK B
TREATMENT TANK A
FIgure 5.5. Shower wastewater reuse unit..
PILLOW TANK
(1500 GALLON)
TREATMENT
TANK
V
-
seawater to conserve potable water and not feel clean, than to waste potable
water for showers.
5.4.6.3 Shover Wastewater Reuse Unit (SWRU): A typical arrangement of the
SW'RU
installed with
with the
the standard
standard Portable
Portable Bath
Bath Unit
Unit (NSN
(NSN 4510—00—168—1963)
4510—00—168—1963) is
SWRU installed
in Figure
shown
Figure 5.5. A field bath unit consists of a raw water pump, water
shown in
generator, and
and two
two shower
shower stands
stands with
with four
four shower
shower noznozheater, 3—kW electrical
electrical generator,
zles per
per stand.
stand. Since shower nozzles do not have control valves, the
zles
An improved bath unit
discharge rate is
is aa 16
16 gpm
gpm (1.0
(1.0 LIs)
L/s) continuous
continuous flow.
flow.
scheduled for type classification in FY81 has the number of shower nozzles
Under
increased to nine and an individual control valve added to each nozzle.
optimum conditions, the maximum rate of discharge of a shower unit is the
capacity of the pumping unit, or 20 gpm (1.3 LIe).
L/s). Norrcally,
Normally, aa field
field bath
bath
unit
unit is
is near
near aa water
water source
source such
such as
as aa lake
lake or
or river,
river, and
and the
the raw
raw water
water is
is
Every
pumped from the source through the water heater to the shower nozzles.
effort is made to locate clean water sources. Each bath unit is provided an
electrically driven raw water pump that delivers 18 to 20 gpm at 65 to 70 ft
total dynamic head
head (1.1
at 19.8
19.8 to
to 21.3
21.3 ox
ox TDR).
(1.1 to
to 1.3
1.3 L/s
LIs at
In semi—arid regions or areas where natural water sources are scarce, the
SWRU system is designed to conserve fresh water.
The basic procedure. is as
follows:
150—gal (5680—L) of potable water would be trucked or pipd into the
1500—gal (5680—L) fresh water storage tank. The raw water pump with the bath
unit is used to transfer the water from the storage tank through the heater to
the showerheads. The
The shower
shower stands
stands are
are installed
installed on
on aa shallow
shallow rectangular
rectangular
wastewater. From there it flows by gravity or
coated fabric tank to collect uastewater.
is pumped to a 1500—gal (5680—L) pillow—type
pillov—type storage tank.
When the pillow
tank is filled, the
the wastewater
wastewater is
is pumped
pumped to
to one
one or
or two
two open,
open, cylindrical,
cylindrical,
1500—gal (5680—L) treatment tanks. Before wastewater is pumped into the tank,
24 lb (10.9 kg) of powdered activated carbon (1920 ppm) is manually added to
the empty tank.
Approximately 15 minutes is required to fill the tank and mix
the activated carbon with the wastewater. When the tank is filled, 40 ppm of
plug
the cationic polyelectrolyte
polyelectrolyte (Type
(Type II Polymer)
Polymer) is
is added
added and
and the
the three—way
thre—way plug
valve on the pump suction is positioned to permit recirculation of the waste—
water in the tank for about 30 minutes. After mixing is completed, 0.5 ppm of
thenon1onic polyelectrolyte (Type II Polymer) is added and recirculation is
thenonionic
stopped and the coagulated wastevater
wastewater iè allowed to settle for about 30
minutes.
After the 30—minute settling
Bettling period, the water has been clarified and is
ready to be filtered.
Suction hoses attached to the filter are suspended by
floats to permit withdrawal from the upper water level in the treatment tank.
Two diatomite filters
filters operating
operating in
in paralle.l
parallel are
are used
used to
to maintain
maintain continuous
continuous
delivery of 16 gpm (1.0 L/B)
L/s) to the fresh water tank. The diatoruite
diatomite filter
filter
from the 420 gph (0.442
(0.442 L/s)
LIe) Water
Water Purification
Purification Unit
Unit (NSN 4610—00—937—0222)
was selected because it can operate as a separate component. The filter is
lightweight and can
can be
be manually
manually hatd1ed.
hatdled. Further,
Further, it
it is
is self—contained,
self—contained, with
with
an electrically driven filter pump and has all necessary accessories for pre—
coating and filter backwash.
Body feed is not used because the precoat will
provide enough cake thickness for one filter cycle, or time to filter the contents of
of one
one treatment
treatment tank.
tank. A Dole flow control valve is added to control
tents
filter operation at the constant rate of 8 gpm
gpm (0.5
(0.5 LIs)
L/s) over
over aa variable pressure range.
5—18
A 3—kW engine—driven generator with circuit breakers
breaker8 and switch box would
normally be
be required
required to
to operate
operate the
the diatoinite
diatomite filter pump8.
pumps.
However, in hot,
arid regions where ambient water temperatures are relatively high, the
requirement to operate the heater is reduced.
Consequently1 the filter pumps
Consequently,
could
could be operated from the 3—kW generator provided with the bath unit.
The fi]jered
filJered water is collected in the 1500—gal (5680 L) open—top tank.
Periodically, on aa predeterroined
predetermined schedule,
schedule, aa measure
meaaurec'.f
c.f calcium
calciun hypochlorite
hypochlorite
must be added to chlorinate the stored water.
is
The treated wastewater ía
chlorinated because of the presence of bacteria or microorganisms which can
can
increa8e in number,
increase
numb2r1 especially in hot,
hot1 sunny locations.
Further, calcium
hypochlorination is
hypochiorination
iB effective in destroying a difficult—to—remove contaminant,
urea.
Some make—up water Is
is required periodically to compensate for losses.
losse8.
The principal losses are from evaporation and retention on the body as
as indiviindividuals leave the shower. However, about 98 percent of shower wastevater
wastewater in
each cycle should be collected for treatment, where the water losses are
minimal.
minimal. Other losses, estimated at less than 1 percent, include those
tho8e asso8ludge from the coagulation tanks and the
ciated with the periodic removal of sludge
backwashing of the filter.
backwashlng
In aa 20—hour
Iii
20—hour operating
operating day,
day, the total water
water loss
loss
would be about 3 percent,
percent, or
or 575
575 gal
gal (2180
(2180 L).
L).
in Figure
The SWRU1
SWRU, as
as described above and shown in
is a simple and
Figure5.5,
•1 is
effective field treatment system. Many component items,
items, such
such as chemicals,
hose8, and the gas—engine—powered (CED)
hoses,
(CED) pump
the same
same as
as in
in the
the Shower
pump are
are the
Wastewater Treatment Kit,
Kic, NS
N5 4610—01—023—4537 (Pollution Abatement Kit).
Additional items
item8 required include diatomite filters and a 1500—gal (5680—L)
pillow—type water storage tank.
The filters are available in existing 420 gph
(0.442 L/s) ERDLator water purification units. Upon type classification
clas8ification of
the 600 gph (0.631 L/s) ROWP1J,
ROWPU1, the 420 gph (0.442 L/s) ERDlator filter could
be made available for this set. The 1500—gal (5680—L) pillow—type tank is not
supply system,
currently in the Army
Army supply
been te8ted
te8ted and
and military
military
system, although
although it
it has
ha been
specifications have been prepared. The diatomite filters are available in
existing 420 gph (0.442 L/s) ERDLator Water Purification Units.
With the type
classification of the 600 gph (0.631 L/s) ROWPU,
the 420 gph (0.442 L/s)
ROWPU, the
ERDLator filter
filter could
could be
be made
made available
available for
for this
thispurpose..
purpose.
5.4.7
Activity:
Activity:
Laundry Operat1.onB
Operationa
Clean field clothing, socks, and underwear are needed to help maintain
proper standards
standards of
of hygiene
hygiene and
and niorale
morale among
among soldiers in the
the field.
field. In hot,
arid climates where individuals are expected to perspire freely and become
covered with dust, clean clothing will be needed each time an individual
showers.
Clothes are laundered in the field by Laundry and Renovation Company,
Company,
General Support1
General
Support, u8irl.g
using the
thetrailer—mounted
trailer—mounted laundry
laundry unit,
unit, M—532.
M—532.
or
Mounted on
the
the trailer is a water heater, washer—extractor
washer—extractor, air compressor,
compressor1 dryer—
tumbler,
tumbler1 engine—generator, and water pump. Each unit has a washer capacity of
60 lb (27 kg) of clothes
clothes and
and use8
uses about
about 140
140 gal
gal (530
(530 14
L) of
of water per
per load,
load, or
or
280 gal (1060 L) per hour.
Normal operations are 20 hours per day, 7 days per
week. A new and slightly larger model of the portable laundry is under
5—19
Thie equipment is
development; the washer and extractor are separate units.
unitB. This
not expected to be available to troop units for 2 to 3 years.
eBpecially for impleimple
An approach to laundering which was considered here especially
mentation in the temporary phase of troop deployment in an arid region is
iB the
use of
of "dry
dry cleaning,"
cleanthg," rather than water wash, using the troop—issued,
trailer—mounted laundry unit. Dry cleaning is a closed loop process using a
solvent other than water, which is
i9 recovered and reused through many cycles
before it must be replaced. In 1976, the U.S. Army Natick Laboratory constudieB which tested, with "encouraging" results, a commercially availducted studies
able dry cleaning unit for use
uee on individual military garments and gear. This
potential for application in an arid region cannot be ignored. However, it
must be weighed and compared with the water wash
wa8h alternative in each specific
case before the Army decides to use it.
5.4.7.1
Water Requirements:
Potable water is not required for laundry operations; however,
there are certain constraints on what can be used. Hard water not only
reduces the cleaning
cleanthg power of soaps, but can deposit insoluble residue
re8idue on
clothing. Brackish and saltwater can corrode metal parts of laundry equipment.
However, both these
theae problems can be overcome in an austere óesèrt
óesert
environment. Saltwater
Saltwater detergents
detergents in
in the
the DOD
DOD inventory and developed primarily for the Department of the Navy by the U.S. Army Natick Laboratory can
be used. Although brackish water and seawater
Beawater are more corrosive, the tradeincrea8ed equipment wear and tear for a
off between immediate requirements vs. increased
short time probably warrant the use of these waters.
Quality:
Quantity: About 280 to 300 gal (1060 to 1140 L) of water per hour are
quantity:
required for each washer. When water conservation is not a concern, water is
obtained from a lake or stream and the waste washwater and rinsevater
diecharged in a convenient area off—site.
discharged
5.4.7.2
1.
Water Sources:
Source8:
Nonpotable water:
a.
Brackish water and seawaterB, especially if seawater
seawacer detergents are
available.
b.
Municipal water system.
c.
Potable water which may have become contaminated with dust could
prove to be usable.
can be
2.
Potable water:
be
water; Potable water from the nearest water tank farm can
used if no other acceptable nonpotable source is available.
3.
Recycled water:
a.
Laundry rinsewater may be used without pretreatment for washwater
wa8hwater or
used in eubsequent
subsequent rinse cycles.
cyclee.
5—20
b
b.
Law ry wastewater —— hot wash
wash and
and rinsewater
rinsewater ——
—— may be reused in a
laundry unit, but some pretreatment is required.
5.4.7.3
Water Conservation Measures:
1.
Control spillage:
Control
spillage Exercise care in making hose connections and opening valves to prevent loss of water from leaks and accidental spills.
2.
Water Reuse:
a.
Reuse Laundry Rinsewater. Collect the rinsewater from the washer
in either a bladder tank or a collapsible fabric tank and use for subsequent
wash cycles. Wash—cycle water is not to be reused for subsequent washes, but
should be collected and used for other purposes, e.g., dust control, vehicle
washing, etc. Modification of the wastewater discharge line on the washer is
required in order to direct washwater (70 gal (265 U) to one storage tank and
rinsewater
(70 gal
gal [265
[265 U])
U]) to
to another
another (aee
(see Figure
Figure5.6).
rinsewater (70
5.6).
b
Wastewater.
Reuse Laundry Wastevater.
All vastewater
wastewater from
from aa field
field laundry
laundrymay
ay be
be
reused, but pretreatment is necessary to remove oils, dirt, and other contaminants from washwater (not rinsewater). Additional equipment is required for
this purpose —— three 1500—gal (5680—U) collapsible fabric tanks
tankB three 420—gph
The process involves flocculation
(0.442—L/s) diatomite filters, and hoses.
(O.442—L/s)
of contaminants using powdered carbon and polyelectrolytes.
3.
Dry Cleaning:
in the latter stages
stage8 of deployment
deploynent and if the tactical situation is relatively stabilized, this measure should be considered ——
especially for implementation in base camp development.
Laundry Wastewater Reuse Unit (LWRU):
(UWRU): A typical layout of the Laundry Wastewater Reuse Unit (LWRIJ)
(UWRIJ) to treat wastewater from the standard 60—lb
(27—kg) capacity, Trailer Mounted Laundry Unit, NSN 3510—00—782—5294, is shown
in
ii Figure 5.7.
In many instances, field laundries operate as a.team, with two
laundry unite
unitB per team. Wastewater generated by a laundry unit is about 250 gph
(.26
(.26 L/s);
L/s); two
two units
units at
at one
one location
location would
would generate
generate about
about 500
500 gph
gph (.53
(.53 L/s)
of
L/s) of
wastewater. Wastewater is discharged from the drain in the bottom of the
trailer—mounted unit
uiüt which can be connected by hose to a 500—gal (1890—L)
pillow collection
collection tank.
tank.
If two laundry units are near one another, the drains
would be manifolded before connection to the pillow tank.
5.4.7.4
The procedure for treating laundry wastewater is like that described for
treatment tanks
tanks
1500—gal (5680—U)
(5680—L) treatment
shover
shower wastewater
wastewater with
with two
two exceptions.
exceptions. The 1500—gal
in the proposed Shower Wastewater Reuse
Reuse Unit
Unit are
are replaced
replaced with
with 500—gal
500—gal
(1890—U) capacity tanks. This reduction in size is possible because the quanIn
tity of wastewater from two laundry units is less than from one bath unit.
The
addition, only one diatomite filter is required for the laundry units.
chemicals and dosages (ppm) are the same, as is the method of operation.
The set of equipment for the LWRU basically consists of the Pollution
Abateicnt Kit (Laundry Wastewater Treatment Kit, NSN 4610—01—023—4536), and
diatomite filter,
filter, portable
portable
additional components,
components, such
such as
as aa 420—gph
420—gph (.44
(.44 Lfs)
Lfs) diatonilte
generator, hose,
ho8e, tanks, and a variety of connectors.
5—21.
5—21
WATER PUMP
WATER
PUMP
DRAIN LINE
V
VALVE
'' VALVE
VALVE
TER SOURCE
$500 GAL TANK
1500 GAL
GAL TANK
TANK
RINSEWATER
WASTE WASHWASTE
WATER
Figure 5.6. Rinsewater reuse system.
5—22
Figure 5.7.
TREATMENT
PILLOW TANK
FIELD LAUNDRY UNIT
UNIT
Laundry wastewater reuse unit.
PROPOSED SYSTEM HARDWARE
FOR
FOR LAUNDRY
LAUNDRY REUSE
REUSE UNIT
UNIT
DIATOMITE
DIATOMTE
FILTER
TREATED
WATER TANK
GENERATOR
It is estimated that two men
5.4.7.5 Personnel and Training Requirements:
The LWRU would require
can assemble the SWRU for operation in about 2 hours. The
The
LWRU
requires less time
two men and approximately 1 hour for assembly.
because the 500 gal (1890—L) tanks are easier to field—erect than the 1500 gal
(5680—L) tanks. One man would be required per shift to operate either the
of training
training would
would be
be equivalent
equivalent to
to what
what the
the
SWRU or
or the LWRU. Operator level of
SWRU
MOS 52N receives today for the operation of ERDLator water purification units.
The consumable supplies
Supplies used in operation of
5.4.7.6 Logistic
Logistic Support:
vastewater reuse units
wastewater
units are
are prinarily
primarily chemicals
chemicals and
and fuels.
fuels. It is noted that
the chemical requirements for activated carbon are high because the dosage8
In batch coagulation, the activated carbon
are based on the initial charge.
settleB to the bottom
settles
bottom of
of the
the tank
tank and
and is
is resuspended
resuspended along
along with
with the
the new
new charge
charge
The carbon
carbon particles
particles not
not effectively
effectively
of carbon when the tank is refilled. The
in the first treatment are returned to contribute to further treatment.
used In
If beneficial, the subsequent charges of activated carbon could theoretically
It is known that in the present batch coagulation system, the
be
be reduced.
reduced.
In field tests using continuous flow
dosage of activated carbon is 1920 ppm.
clarifier
clarifier equipment
equipment for
for treating
treating laundry
laundry and
and shower
shower wastewater,
wastewater, effective
effective
results were obtained using 425 ppm activated carbon dosages.
5.4.8
Activ.Lty:
Activity:
HospitaZ Operations
The hospital
hospital consumption
consumption planning
planning factor
factor of
of 11 gal/man/day
gal/man/day(3.8
(3.8L/ni/d)
L/m/d) is
is
based on a projection of 65 gal/day (246 L/day) for each patient bed and 10
gal/day (38 L/day) per hospital staff member. These rather significant quantities of water are based on daily baths
bathB for the medical staff and the majority of patients; changes of uniforms and bedding each day; and the various
general sanitation, food preparation and housekeeping operations done each day
in support of patients and hospital staff. Although TRADOC PAMPHLET 525—11
indicates that only potable water is to be produced for hospital use, a number
of medical support actuivities do not actually require water of this quality.
The primary factors Influencing
influencing water consumption in a theater of operaIn regard to
tions are the casualty rate and the patient evacuation policy.
the latter, the sooner in—patients are evacuated from the theater for continued
ued treatment,
treatment, the
the lower
lower the
the amount
amount of
of water
water will
will be.
be.
5.4.8.1
Water Requirements:
TRADOC PAMPHLET 525—11, "Near—Term Water Resources Management"
Quality:
mandates that all waters intended for hospital use (65 gal/man/day
However, since
since host,ital
hosital operations
However,
operations comprise
comprise several
several
[246 L/rn/di) be potable.
subactivities, some of which offer an outstanding opportunity for water conservation, a hard consideration of their respective demands for potable qualqual—
ity water is indeed warranted. Existing U.S. Army Medical Department documents explore
explore these
these possibilities,
possibilities, indicating
indicating the
thepotential
potentialfor
forusing
usingnortpot—
nonpot—
able waters to achieve selected functions within the scope of field hospital
operations."
The 1 gal/man/day (3.8 L/m/d) value translates to 65
Quantity;
Quantity:
gal/bed/day (246 L) potable quality.
Of these,
(38 L/m/d)
L/mjd) are
are
these, 10
10 gal/man/day
al/man/dav (38
estimated
the remaining
remaining 55
55 gal/bed/day
gal/bed/day (208
(208 L)
L) are
are
estimated for human consumption; the
intended for non—consumptive purposes (e.g. laundry, showers, cleansing of
5—24
equipment and areas, operation of equipment such as pumps and distillers)1 and
could
could be
be sat.sfied
satisfied using
using nonpotable
nonpotable quality
quality water.
water.
(These waters may in fact
have been treated and highly di8infected
disinfected with chlorine or other suitable comcorn—
pounds, 9uch
suLch ag
asWescodyne,
Wescodyne, so
so that
that they
they are
are nonpotable,
nonpotable, but
but free of any
any pathopathogenic organisms.)
In proportion, then, under austere water conditions,
conditione, about
88 percent (62/72) of the water demand for hospital operations could come from
Sources.
other than the "potable" quality sources.
Water Sources:
Potable: From the field water distribution system.
Bystem.
other than potable water must be obtained from the Surgeon.
1.
2.
Nonpotable:
a.
Fresh water from a municipal water system
8ystem or from producing wells.
b.
Brackish water and seawater lowin suspended solids.
c.
ROWPU brine.
5.4.8.2
5.4.9
Authority to use
Water Conservation Measures:
1.
Use ROWPU brine water
water e8pecially
especially for
for cleansing
cleansing operations.
operations.
2.
See paragraph 5.4.3.
3.
See paragraph 5.4.4.
4.
4.
See paragraph 5.4.5.
5.
5.
See paragraph 5.4.9.
6.
See paragraph 5.4.20.
7.
See paragraph 5.4.21.
8.
See paragraph 5.4.23.
9.
See paragraph 5.4.21.
10.
See paragraph 5.4.23.
Activity:
Rat Casualty
Beat
Casualty Treatment
Treatment
This 8ection
Th18
section is not intended to be a guide to the identification and
treatment of heat casualties,
casualtiea, but rather presents field expedients suitable
for conserving and/or maintaining the quantities of water required in their
treatment. However, one must note that anticipated heat casualties will cover
a broad spectrum of severity, from mild (heat exhaustion) to severe (heat
stroke), with water being a prime factor in the degree of treatment applied.
The victim must be re—hydrated and also cooled. Water for re—hydration must
be potable and cool, but that required for cooling may be of a lesser quality.
5—25
5.4.9.1
Water Requirements:
Water used for re—hydration must be potable. For body cooling
quality:
large
purposes, consideration
consideration can
can be
be given
given to
to aa lesser
lesser quality1,
quality, especially
especially if
if large
.arge influx of heat casualcasual
quantities are
are needed
needed in
in aa short
short time
time ——
—— e.g., large
quantities
Ingestion of such waters must be avoided.
ties.
The amount of water needed to treat each casualty could range
Quantity:
from 5 to 10 gal (19 to 38 L), depending on the level of treatment. Present
planning factors require 1.0 gal/man/day (3.8 L/m/d) for heat treatment ——
this is in addition to the quantity allocated for drinking purposes (4.0
The concept
concept is
is for
for water
water intended
intended for
for heat
heat treatment
treatment
gal/man/day [15 L/m/d)).
L/m/d]). The
to be moved only as far forward as the combat battalion level, and that it
will be distributed to the unit level in 5—gal (l9—L)
(19—L) cans by an ambulance.
Water Sources: Potable water for heat treatment through re—hydration
will usually be obtained
obtathed from the storage capacity allocated each hospital
(i.e., 20,000 gal [76 000 L] storage) or from the 400 gal (1510,
(1510. L) water
Nonpotable
water
may
may come
come from
from aa
trailer
trailer organic
organic to
to each
each company—size
company—9lze unit.
unit.
variety of sources.
5.4.9.2
5.4.9.2
Water Conservation Measures:
The following steps apply only to the use of nonpotable waters for, body
"cooling," thereby reducing the demand on potable sources.
Use ROWPU brine if the water temperature gradient is suitable and
1.
near a water production facility.
Install a casualty treatment reservoir which permits water to be
2.
The suggested field expedients illustrated in
reused for successive patients.
Figure 5.8 use the Small Mobile Chiller (SMC) and a 500 gal (1890 L) reBervoir
reservoir
to treat successive heat casualty patients (if only about four—fifth. full
this will be within the capacity of the Small Mobile Chiller.
Rely on the high rate of evaporation in desert areas to cool heat
3.
Mobile.Chiller. c.an be sprayed on a
Cooled water from a Small Mobile.Chlller.
stroke patients.
patient's body by fitting a spray device to the nozzle on the hose of the
Additional cooling
cooling will
will result
result as
a the
the water
water evaporates naturally
naturally or
or
Chiller. Additional
can be enhanced if a fan is available.
5.4.10
5.4.10
Activit,y:
Graves Registration
Craves registration is carried out at several levels or echelons within a
Graves
It involves
involves the
the handling
handling of
of remains1,
remains, which
which demands the applicaapplicacombat zone.
tion of good sanitation practices, especially among the Craves Registration
washing remains1,
remains, but
but most
most is
is used
used for
for
i8 needed for washing
Per8onnel.
Personnel. Some water 18
hygiene. Handler8
Handlers are required to wash and disinfect themselves frequently.
5.4.10.1
Water Requirements:
Quality: Water used for washing and preparation of remains
nonpotable quality. Handlers could disinfect themselves using a
prepared chemical solution. Nonpotable water could be used when
5—26
may be of
previously
potable vatet
ANY LA8LE OR
FAeRICATED CONTMNER
WH APPR
DIkNSCNS OF
78x 3€z 30
COOLED WATER
—
cHIlL FR
T1ENT SUPPORT
NOTE
SHADE FROM DIRECT
SUN LIGHT
FiELD MEDICAL FACILITY
400 GAL WATER
TRA&ER
cHILLER
I
——
HOSES
COOLED
WATER
— .-
'.f
——
—j,--
MEMBRANE UNE
NOTE
SHADE FROM DIRECT SUN UGHT
AID STATION FACILITY
Figure 5.8.
MultIple casualty treatment.
5-27
is not available or in short Bupply, but authority to use it should be
Corpe or Task
Taek Force Surgeon.
obtained from the Corps
gntity: Approximately 50 gal (190 L) of water are required for each
casualty for both the processing of remains and handler hygiene.
Water Sources:
1.
Potable water
Potable
water from
from the
system. Authority tc
the field water distribution system.
use
use other
other than
than potable
potable water
water should
should be
be obtained
obtained from
from the
the Task
Task Force
Force Surgeon.
Surgeon.
2.
Fresh water
water from
from aa municipal
municipal water
water sy8tern
system or from producing
producing wells.
wells.
3.
solids, or ROWPU brine.
Brackish water, seawater low in suspended solids1
.5.4.10.2
Water Conservation Keasures:
No attempt should be made to reuse
reu8e wastewater
wastewàter from graves registration activities.
Whenever convenient, disposal should be in a soakage pit
next to a facility requiring electrical grounding.
groundiig.
1.
1.
2.
Nonpotable water or brine from the water treatment process ould
ou1d be
used wherever possible
possible and
and when
when authorized
authorized by:he
hy:he Thsk
Task Force
Surgeon.
Force Surgeon. Saline
Salire
water will require the use of saltwater soaps.
5.4.11
4.11
5 •
.ctivity:
ty: Cons
Construction-('onerete
truction-Conere te Mis&q
Misinq and
and Curing
Curing
.lctivi
The
stages of a military operaThe requirement
requirenientfor
forconcrete
concreteduring
duringthe
theearly
eriy stases
operation is projected
projected to
to be
be minimal
minimal since
since units
units and
and acttvities
cttvities will
will rely
rely primarily
primarily
on Table of Organization and Equipment (TOE) structures rather than on base
development—type facilities. However, as the buildup matures, more engineer
effort
be available
effort may
my be
available for
for constructing
constructing temporary
temporary facilities
facilities that
that require
require
concrete footings and floors.
tn addition, concrete may be required for
f'r road
culverts, bridge abutments, headwalls, and footings for generators. Some of
the concrete rilL
will require
require reinforcing
reinforcing steel.
steel. En
In addition,
insuring
addition, procedures insuring
wilL be needed.
that the concrete cures properly will
Water for concrete mixtures is normally transported to the work site in
water
water distributors
distributors issued
issued to
to construction
construction engineer
engineer units,
units, which
which also
also have
have
pumps to obtain water from available surface sources.
The
The requireaents
requirements for
for concrete
concrete aggregate
aggregate rashing
washing are
are discussed
discussed In
in paraparagraph 5.4.13.
5.4.11.1
5.4.11.1.
Water Requirements:
Water
Quality:
Concrete mixes
mixes for
for clost
most military
not
military field
field applications
applications do not
require better than
than nonpotable
nonpotable quality
quality water.
water. In general, satisfactory concrete can be
he mixed using natural surface water, brackish water and seawater,
or any ;ater that is free of oil, and suspended organic
matter,
especially
orani matter,
especi.
ally
sugar.
Also, sewage effluent that has undergone the equivalent of secondary
treatment is suitable for concrete.
5—28
Quantiv The water—to—cement ratio varie8 depending on the
Quantit
concrete desired, quality and gradation of aggregrates available)
available,
of structure being built.
However, for general—purpose
general—purpose concrete,
concrete,
thumb
thumb for
for an average mix is 6 gal/sack (23 L) of regular Portland
for underwater concretes
5 gal/sack
gal/sack (19
(19 L)
L) for
concrete, watertight structures,
structures,
seawater.
using air—entrained cements, brackish water, or 8eawater.
strength of
and the type
aa rule
rule of
of
cement and
and
and mixtures
mixtures
Water will also be required for cleaning mixing equipment and curing concrete if curing compounds are not available. Allowing 2 gal/sack (8 L) for
approxinately 40 gal
these purposes, approximately
gal (151
(151 L)
L) of
of water would be required per
cubic
cubic yard
yard of
of concrete.
concrete.
Water Sources:
Nonpotable: Wastewater from field
field showers
showers and
and laundries
laundries is a good
good
source of mix water, but it must first be treated to remove organics, oils,
and soap. The treatment processes involve all or a combination of the following:
ing:
skimming to remove oils and soap, flocculation, filtration, and chemical
additives if available.
1.
2.
Surface:
Water from riverB,
rivers, streams, and canals will probably be high in
organics, including fecal material from both humans and animals.
Consequently, the requirement to treat such water before use should be anticipated.
Surface water sources in the Middle East may
contain the
the parasite
parasite which
which can
can
may contain
cause schistosomiasis.
Care should be taken not to touch surface water.
a.
a.
b.
b.
Brackish well water or surface water with a high mineral content
(sulfate, calcium, sodium, magnesium, and some potassium) or salinity should
ahould
also
also be
be filtered
filtered if
if it
it contains
contains oils
oils and
and other
other organics.
organics.
c.
The salt
is
is greater
greater than
than 22
effects, however,
Suspended organic
content of seawater from the Mediterranean and Arabian Gulf
percent
percent and
and will
will reduce
reduce the
the strength
strength of
of concrete.
concrete. These
can be compensated for by decreasing the water/cement ratio.
material should be filtered out before use.
d.
usèdfor concrete
Where the ROWPU is used, the brine resulting can be u8èdfor
part6 of fresh water to reduce the
mixes, but only after dilution with equal parts
salt concentration.
5.4.11.2
Water Conservation
Conservation Measures:
Measures
Alternate Water Sources:
1.
Avoid using potable water for mixing concrete.
Instead, rely on
available seawater or brackish water that is relatively free of organic
matter.
2.
2.
Reduce water/cement
water/cement ratio
ratio for
for minimum
minimum use
use of
of water
water where
where practical.
practical.
Wastewater from showers
shower8 and laundries may be used for concrete mixIn producing small quantities of concrete (5 cu yd [3.8 m3] or less),
a convenient method of pretreating such wastewater is the use of a simple
3.
tures.
tures.
5—29
expedient sand filter (Figure 5.9).
(Paragraph 5.4.11.3 explains the operalarger quantities,
quantities the
the ERDLator
ERDLator would
would be
be a more
tion of this filter.) For larger
efficient means of producing larger volumes of acceptable water.
4.
Avoid using water for curing concrete by employing
enploying commercial curing
compounds. However, if none are available, wastewater—soaked burlap or sandbags
bags could
could be
be an
an acceptable
acceptable alternative.
alternative.
5.4.11.3
Operating Procedure for Sand Filter:
Produces small quantities of subpotable water for concrete
mixes, general—purpose cleaning, radiator makeup
nakeup water, etc.
1.
Use:
2.
Capability:
Filters up to 1000 gal (3790 L) of wastewater per day.
3.
Procedure: Wastewater (messkit
(nesskit washline, field laundry, and shower)
is poured by hand through the burlap filter until drum is full. Maintain
water level at top by periodically refilling drum.
Adjust valve to control
quality
quality of
of water
water desired;
desired; the
the smaller
smaller the
the discharge,
discharge, the
the higher
higher the
the quality
quality of..
of..
water produced.
Filtered water can be collected ina1500—gal (5680—L) pillow
tank or other available container.
If the sand filter is used continuously at one location, the tp 2 or 3
of sand
sand should
should be
be removed
removed and replaced with
in. (50 to
to 80
80 n2m)
mm) of
with clean
clean sand
sand after
after
each 1000
1000 gal
gal (3790
(3790 L)
L) filtered.
filtered. A long—handled
each
long—handled scoop
scoop will
will have
have to
to beinade
bemade
for this purpose. For small projects, dispose of the filter material upon
completion of
of the
the job
job and
and reconstitute
reconstitute the
the filter
filter at
at the
the next
next project
project site.
site.
completion
5.4.12
Activity:
Construction -
Soil
Conrpaction/Soil Cement
Road
Road networks
networks and
and roadbeds
roadbeds themselves
themselves throughout
throughout SWA
SWA have
have capacities
capacities that
thst
will be inadequate for a military force that relies heavily on vehicle movement of
of supplies
supplies and
and equipment.
equipnent. Consequently, a significant amount of
ment
engineer effort is expected to be devoted to establishing and maintaining an
adequate line of communications.
Tasks involved will be largely earthwork and roadbed construction, but
can include culvert and bridge construction.
In mountain and plateau deserts,
the soil is generally hard and rocky, making road construction in flat areas
simply a matter of rock removal and grading.
In sand or dune deserts, the
problem
problem is
is much
much greater
greater unless
unless the
the dunes
dunes themselves
themselves are
are avoided.
avoided.
Fill areas in roadbeds and backfill for culverts and bridge abutments
will need to be compacted. Where there are loose granular soils, dry compaction
tion using
using vibratory
vibratory rollers
rollers or'
or' tracked
tracked vehicles
vehicles can
can be
be effective.
effective. Clay and
silty soils will require water to compact to optimum density.
In desert areas, opportunities to use soil cement surfaces appear to be
numerous —— stabilization of storage yards and
and depots,
depots, expedient
expedient floors
floors for
for
maintenance tents
buildings.
maintenance
tents and
ad buildings.
This
This construction
construction technique
technique not
not only
only proprovides a durable surface, but helps to minimize dust.
5—30
BURLAP (SAND BAG)
55 GAL DRUM WITH TOP
AND BOTTOM REMOVED
WATER TIGHT
WELD
ALL AROUND
55 GAL DRUM WITh
TOP REMOVED
16" OF SAND
4" OF GRAVEL
3/4" +
P1
WELDED
TO
PILLOW TANK WITH
FILL HOSE
1'
-
.4,
4
.4,
4,
'p
"I
Figure 5.9.
5—31
5—31
4
Sand filter.
5.4.12.1
Water Requirements:
Nonpotable fresh, Bait, or brackish water is suitable for both
Quality:
Boil compaction and soil cement.
soil
Quantity: Water quantities will vary widely, depending on the types of
soil encountered. because of the general absence of soil moisture, that
needed for compaction will have to be added. This would amount to 30 gal/cu yd
On the other hand,
hand,
(150 L/tn3) to reach a moisture content of 10 percent.
soil cement requires 40 to 60 gal/cu yd (200 to 300 L/m3).
5.4.12.2
Water Sources:
1.
Nonpotable fresh water. Wastewater from showers, laundries, and
ROWPUs are suitable for relatively small soil compaction and soil cement pro-
jects.
Rivers and
and canals
canals provide
providesuitable
suitable water
water for
for soil
2.
Surface.
Al8o catchnients
compaction/cement. Also,
catchments could-be constructed to collect rainfall.
despite its
its high
high mineral contert,
3.
Brackish. Water
Water from
from veils,
wells despite
contert, is
is
acceptable for these
these applications.
applications.
Satisfactory soil
Satisfactory
soil compaction/cement
compaction/cement tasks
tasks can
can beaccotn—
beaccom—
Seawater.
plished
with seawater.
seawater.
pushed with
4.
5.4.12.3
Water Coitservation
Conservation Measures:
Measures:
and uiois—
1.
Standard soil
soil compaction
compaction tests
tests to
to determine
determine opti-irnim
opti1rnim density and
Standard
Equipment
8hould
be
conducted
before
compaction
operations
are
started.
ture
8hOuld
ture
for this purpose is contained in the unit equipment issued to Construction
Engineer Battalions.
-
Wastewater of any type should be used for small compaction tasks.
2.
2.
Larger projects, demanding
demanding larger
larger amounts
amounts of
of water,
water, 8hou].d
should rely
rely on
on saltwater
saltwater
9eparate pipeline for this purpose could prove
or brackish water supplies.
supplie9. A separate
feasible.
not available,
available, or
or loose
loose granular
granular soils
soils are
are encountered,
encountered
When water is not
3.
vibratory compaction
vibratory
compaction techniques,
techniques which require
require no
no water,
water could
could prove satisfacsatisfacIf
an
issued
vibratory
compactor
is
not
available,
passes
with
tory.
bulldozers, tanks, and large wheeled trucks can effectively compact most
soils.
Application of water to raise soil moisture to optimum levels for
4.
compaction should be carefully regulated and closely monitored at the work—
8ite.
When a water distributor is used, control can be readily effected; for
site.
di8tributors it is more difficult. Suggested designs
field expedient water distributors
for achieving a more uniform distribution of water are shown in Figure 5.10.
5—32
FIELD EXPEDIENT VATER DISTRIBUTOR
SUITA8L.E
SUITABLE WATER TANK
QPTION I
WELD Pt.ATE
WELD
O PIPE
Pt.ATEOPPf
VI6"* II STEEL
V16"*
STEEL
NOTES:
NOTES:
STRAPS
MOt.*(T SPLASH
SPLASH PLATE
PLATESUCH
SUCHTHAT
. MOt.*rT
THATITS
ITSBACK
BACX EDGE
EDGE
OVERLAPS THE BACK EDGE OF THE DOWNSPOUT
—I OVERLAP
BY APPRlMArELY
APPRIMArELYI IINCH
INCH(SEE
(SEEDETAIL).
DETAIL).
2. ATTACH SPLASH PLATE WITH WV'GNUT TO ALLOW FOR
FOR
FiELD
ADJUSTMENT OF
OF ANGLE.
ANGLE.
AELD ADJUSTMENT
N
1/4 xl
N
STEEL
I#4ii
12Ø
V4x120
ADJUSTABLE STEEL
SPLASH PLATE
SUITABLE WATER TANK
I/4x 1 BRACES
TACK WELDED
NOTES I. ANGLE PLATE SLIGHTLY DOWNWARD TO ENABLE
WATER TO CASCADE FROM TRAILING EDGE.
2. INSTALL REMOVABLE
REMOVABLE CAP
CAP OR
OR PLUG
PLUG ON
ONBOTH
BOTHEM)S
£M)S
OF SPRAYBAR TO PERMIT CLEANING.
STL.
RATE
STL. PLATE
4"O
4"OPIPE
PIPEW/I/S"Ø
'IfB"ø
HOLES 40.C.
Figure 5.10.
Field expedient water distribution.
5—33
5.4.13
Activity:
Construction - Aggregate Cleaning
Large sources of clean angular sand are frequently found in dune desert
areas but are not common to other types of deserts.
areae
deserts. Further,
Furthers natural sources
good sand
of
sand may not be close
cloBe to the intended
intended construction
construction site.
site. Likewise,
of good
well—graded gravel may not be readily available and must
muet be produced from rock
fragmenta and boulder by crushing.
fragments
cruBhing.
These ingredients
and
ingredients of
of concrete
concrete should
should be
be relatively
relatively free
free of
of fines,
fines and
than 200
200 mesh,
mesh to
cement.
less than
to insure
insure good
good bonding
bonding with the cement.
Clay and other
fines can often be removed from gravel during crushing and screening.
If
difficult to
to remove
remove when
when dry,
dry it
fines are difficult
it may
may be
be neceasary
necèasary to
to apply
apply aa water
water
Similarly,
spray or pressure air during the crushing and screening operation.
excessive fines can be washed from sand.
In most instances, this can be done
by constructing a
a simple
simple sluice,
sluice, putting
putting sand
sand in
in it,
it and
and filling
filling it
it with
with
water. Most of the fines can be washed away if water continuously flows into
the sluice and the sand is simultaneously agitated in the water.
Such an
arrangement should be a closed system to permit the wash water to be reused
once the fines have settled out.
Out.
5.4.13.1
Water Requirements:
Quality:
Quality:
Any clean water can be used for washing concrete aggregate.
Salt and brackish
brackish water
water are
are suitable
suitable despite
despite the
the salt
salt residual
residual that
that w.l1
wUl
remain once the material has been allowed to drain.
Salt will decrease
decrease the
the
strength of
of concrete,
and
in
time
the
concrete
will
deteriorate.
deteriorate. However,
concrete, and
this is
is not
not expected
expected to
to occur
occur during
during the
the short
short period
period of
of time
this
the structure
structure is
time the
to be used by a military force.
Quantity:
The amount of water required for cleaning aggregate depends on
the condition of the sand
eand and gravel and the amount of those materials
required.
Therefore, the quantity of water cannot be readily quantified.
conditions about
Under average conditions,
about 500
500 gal
gal per
per cu
cu yd
yd (2500
(2500 L/m3)
L/m3) can
can be
be used
used for
for
estimating purposes. Another useful estimate can be made according to the
capacity of the rock crusher used.
A 75 ton/hr (19 Kg/s) crusher requires
25,000 to 50,000 gal/hr (26 to 53 L/s) and a 225 ton/hr (57 kg/s) crusher
requires. 100,000 to 200,000 gal/hr (105 to2lQL/s).
Water Sources:
1.
Relatively clean water from a surface resource is preferred.
2.
Salt and brackish water is acceptable and would probably be the primary Bource
source where large quantities of aggregate and sand require cleaning.
3.
Clean nonpotable water from treating shower or laundry water could be
used if the amount of material to be cleaned is relatively small.
5.4.13.2
Water Conservation Measures:
1.
Pressure air (air compressor) should be employed where the fines
fine8 are
firmly adhered to the sand and gravel.
not
not firmly
5—34
Any washing facility established to continuously process large
amounts of sand should include a closed—loop water system.
Bystem.
Integral
Integral to
to the
the
ponda with enough capacity to permit fines to settle
system should be settling ponds
out of the
the wastewater
wastewater while
while previously
previously clarified
clarifiedwater
wateris
i being
being reused.
reused. This
procedure would not be necessary if seawater
8eawater could be obtained in generally
unrestricted amounts.
2.
dust and
Clean sand relatively free of dust
and fines
finea can
can be
be obtained
obtained in
in areas
areas
where loose sand lB
iB found on the ground surface by erecting a fence (equivalent
alent of
of aa snow fence) perpendicular to the prevailing wind. When the wind
blows,
blows, the
the fine
fine particles
particles will
will pass
pass through
through the
the openings
openings in
in the
the fence
fence and
and the
the
coarser
coarser particlea
particles will
will collect
collect along
along the
the fence
fence line.
line. Strips of camouflage
netting about 4 ft (1.2 m) wide placed
placed end
end to
to end
end and
and supported
supported by
by long
long barbed
barbed
wire pickets could be used as a field expedient.
3.
5.4.14
Activity:
Contration ——
-- Dust Control/Soil Stabilization
The dry surface conditions
conditions and
and nearly
nearly constant
constant wind
wind throughout
throughout SWA
SWA keep
keep
the
the air full of dust during most of
of the
the year.
year. Military operations ——with the
continuous movement of vehicles, and landing and takeoff of helicopters —
only compound thiB
this problem. Ground visibility will be restricted, and men and
equipment will become
become covered
covered with
with dust.
dust.
Total control of dust Is
is not possible,
possible) but measures can be taken to
minimize its generation —— especially at airfields,
airfieldB, heliports, and active
storage areas and depots. Several materials, including water, can be used.
However, water Is
is probably the poorest choice for desert areas because its
effect is only short—term due to the high evaporative rate In
in arid climates.
Furthermore, water must be continually applied to be effective. Another coin—
mon expedient dust suppressant material is
ie waste engine oil from vehicles.
vehiclea.
This should be used; but because of the rather limited quantities produced at
any
any one
one location,
location, only
only localized
localized use
use in
in unit
unit motor
motor parks
parks Is
is considered
coneidered practipractical.
Diesel fuel and other
other oil
oil products
products have
have been
been employed
employed by
by construction
construction
However, in
in the
the quarLtities
quantities
contractors
contractors in
in the
the Middle
Middle East
East for
for this
this purpose.
purpoae. However,
required by a military force, this technique would be a great logistics burden
and
and too
too expensive,
expensive, unless
unless supplies
supplies could
could be
be obtained
obtained or
or captured
captured in
in the
the
region.
suppressanta have recently become
The following types of commercial suppressants
available.
available.
Magnesium Chloride
Chloride Bitterna
Bitterns (NgCI2)
(MgC12) concentrate
concentrate (a liquid)
liquid) is
is uaed
used in
in
It is
large quantity applications and doeB
does not require dilution with water.
applied like water,
water, in
in initial
initial quantities
quantities of
of about
about 0.5
0.5 gal/sq
gal/sq yd
yd (2.3
(2.3 L/tn2)
L/m2)
MgCI2 is somesome—
for roads.
roads. Therefore, a water distributor could be used. The MgC12
for
The iniwhat
vhat corrosive; hence, equipment compatibility should be determined.
tial application usually causes the road surface to become very hard, and In
in
Obvioualy,
many cases only one or two applications a year are required. Obviously,
weather, traffic levels, and soil conditions will affect the durability of the
product.
1.
2.
Resin emulsions can suppress dust and stabilize soil.
Some are
petroleum—ba6ed
petroleum—based products;
products; others
others are
are acrylic.
acrylic. Both are diluted with water and
Dilution ratios (agent to water) vary
are applied like water to the surface.
5—35
from
from 1:4
1:4 to
to 1:15
1:15 or
or more.
more. The degree of stabilization is determined by the
amount of water used. Thick dust layers can be controlled by using a more
penetration) but the surface must be
solution. This provides greater penetration,
dilute solution.
dilute
Heavily trafcompacted for the adhesive characteristics to be effective.
ficked surfaces tend to become more hardened with use, and lighter or no
no—
traffic
traffic areas
areas become
become more
more resistant
resistant to
to wind
wind and
and water
water erosion.
erosion.
Oil—based commercial
commercial dust
dust palliatives
palliatives are
are available,
available and
and some
some experiexperi3.
PENEPRIME was most genence has been obtained from their use in Viet Ham.
It is applied undiluted using
erally used for road and off—road dust control.
disadvantage of this product is the dark
It military
asphalt distriblitor.
distributor.
an asphalt
residual on treated areas.
5.4.14.1
Water Requirements:
du8t
Quality: Water of any quality is suitable by itself for controlling dust
and stabilizing soil. Freshwater, brackish water, or seawater can be mixed
In general,
general, any
any water
water clean
clean enough
enough not
not to
to clog
clog
with commercial
with
commercialpalliatives,.
palliativa. In
spray nozzles is acceptable.
Quantity: The amount of water required for mixing with commercial dust
palliatives varies
varies with
with the
the product
product and
and the
the nature
natureof
ofthe
theapplicati'n.
applicstin.
palliatives
Water Sources: The nature of the dust problem in an arid region essentially dictates that only major sources be used, i.e., large producing veils
wells
or seawater.
5.4.14.2
1.
Water Conservation Measures:
Because of the need to control dust, the use of water can hardly be
It can be minimized,
minimized, however,
however, if
if some
some of
of the
the commercial
commercial dust
dust pallia—
pailia—
avoided.
teBting was comtives on the market
market are
are used.
used. Limited product evaluation and testing
pleted in 1981 by the U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory
for Region
Region VIII,
VIII, U.S.
U.S. Environmental Protection
Protection Agency.
Agency. However, Interferences
interferences
from these tests on the use of these pailiatives
palliatives in arid tactical areas with
salt water or brackish water as dilutents would be riéky
rièky since this is a
Further research on palliative selection to match
unique application.
races is
specific soil types, dilutents, trafficability, and application rates
If this becomes a validated, high—priority research need, the U.S.
needed.
the
undertake the
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station will be requested to undertake
Army
reBearch effort.
research
Saltwater or brackish water should be the only typeB
types used for major
2.
dust control programs. Brackish water, if available, may be the better choice
since the magnesium salts
saltB in brackish water may form a longer—lasting crust
than the eodium
sodium and calcium salts. Magnesium chloride is the active
ingredient of one of the commercial palliatives tested for the U.S. Environmental Protection
Protection Pgency.
Agency.
3.
Waste
Wasce engine oil should be used instead of water for localized dust
control.
4.
Facilities that can be adversely affected by sand (e.g., hospitals,
communications
by
conununicac
ionscenters)
centers)can
canbe
begiven
given some
some protection
protection from
from blowing
blowing sand by
5—36
erecting sw—type fencing around the perimeter. Open netting, such as
camouflage netting, supported by long barbed wire pickets could serve
Berve as a
field expedient fence.
5.4.15
Actiuitj:
PotabZ-e Water Production
Since municipal or fresh surface water resources are not expected to be
will be necessary to produce potable
available to a military force in SWA, it viii
water
water from
from any
any available
available source.
source. The primary military equipment used for this
will be the ROWPU because it is mobile and can produce potable water from seawater, and brackish ground water and surface water sources.
Environmental conditions characteristic of desert areas also suggest that
potable water supplies can easily become contaminated with dust and sand from
Btorms. It therefore appears
frequent dust storms.
appears prudent
prudent to
to have
have available
available the
the
now—standard ERDLator equipment to treat water contaminated with dust and
other solids
aolids so that it does not have to be disposed of or used for other,
less critical, purposes. The advantage of the ERDLator treatment is that.
almost 100 percent
percent of
of the
the water
water can
can be
be recovered
recovered for
for use.
use.
Desert 8ufl
8un and.
and heat can cause a variety of problems for those engaged in
producing water.
Equipment can become so
90 hot as to make the handling of
valves
valves and
and other
other components
components difficult.
difficult. Membrane elements, calcium
caleiwn hypochlor—
ite, and water quality
adequality test
test reagents
reagents can
can deteriorate
deteriorate rapidly
rapidly when•not
whennot adequately
quately protected.
protected.
5.4.15.1
Water Requirements:
Requirements:
osmosi8 to produce
guality: Despite the great versatility of reverse osmosis
potable water from almost
almo8t any source, some
Bome limitations
litnitation may be encountered in
purifying water in desert areas.
area8. The efficiency of the membrane in removing
dissolved minerals increases as the temperature of the water rises above 25°C
(77°F).
(77°F). However, should the temperature exceed 45°C (113°F), membrane compaction occurs
occurS more rapidly, membrane adhesives weaken, and a structural failure
may develop that causes the element to become inoperative. Membrane life can
Fouling of
be shortened when the pH of the water is below 4.0 and above 9.0.
membrane surfaces,
surfaces, reducing
reducing water
water production
production capability.,
capability, occurs.
occurs. when
when iron,
iron,
Iron and manganese can be
manganese, and silica are present in the raw water.
reduced by aeration (cooling concept) and filtration, but since such pretreatment may not always be practical in the field, frequent replacement of elements will have to be anticipated or allowance made for less water production.
When a military ROWPU is operating normally, only 1 gal (3.8 L) of potable water is produced
produced from
from e.wery
ewery 33 gal
gal (11.4
(11.4 L)
L) of
of feed
feed water,
water, regardless
regardless of
of
its quality. However, the brtre from the treatment of brackish and nonpotable
fresh water can and should be recycled to produce additional potable water.
The limit on recycling these waters is reached when the dissolved mineral content of
of the
the brine
brine reaches
reache8 that
that of
of seawater.
Beawater.
tent
Water Quality Analysis Sets and the skilled personnel to use them are
For the most part, present
essential in the production of potable water.
equipment provides
e.g., chlorine
chlorine residual,
residual, pH,
pH, turbiturbiprovides for
for making
making basic
basic tests,
tests e.g.,
Certain test reagents normally have a 8hort
short life, and when
dity, hardness.
exposed to desert sun and heat can quickly become useless.
u8eless. Consequently,
5—37
operating personnel should be alert to the expiration date of reagents and
protect test equipment by keeping it shaded and as cool as possible.
While any available water source
gource may be used to produce potquantity:
Quantity:
highe9t quality,
able water, every effort should be made to use the largest, highest
and most reliable source available.
ig expected that the sea and wells are the most
moat proIt is
Water Sources:
ductive sources for producing potable water. Surface water resources are generally preferable since less effort and cost is required to treat such water,
waters
given the equipment and manpower resources of a field fighting
fighttng force.
5.4.15.2
Water Conservation Measures:
Control waste. Operators of water supply
eupply points should keep spillage
of potable water produced to a minimum.
1.
2.
Make maximum use of all water. Brine produced in the operation of
the ROWPU should not
not be
be discharged
discharged as
as waste,
wa8te but
but collected
collected and
and stored
stored for
for
other uses.
water, which
which is
is normally
normally wasted,
vaated has
two
This water,
has been
been Bubjected
subjected to two
stages of filtration
filtration before
before being
being processed
proceaed through
through the
the membrane
membrane elements;
elements;
brine is
is practically
practically free
free of
of all
all suspended
suspended mattet,
mattet
therefore, the brine
This water
is
adequate
iii
supply
and
quality
is adequate iii supply and quality for
for purposes
purposessuch
suchas
a graves registration
registratLon
activities, soil compaction, soil cem.nt, and dust control. When there is a
general shortage of potable water, it can also be used for showers and laun-
dries.
dries
-
3. Renovation of contaminated water. Water that may
may have
have been
been contamcontam3.
inated with dust or other removable suspended substances should be retreated
rather than wasted. ERDLator equipment is most suitable for this purpose
since most troublesome dissolved salts and minerals are removed by the reverse
Osmosis process.
osmosis
4.
Water quality testing. Water quality tests should be done as accurately
rately as
as possible
possible to
to preclude
preclude unsatisfactory
unsatisfactory water
water being
being distributed
distributed and
and
later having to be declared unsuitable for human consumption.
Equipment protection. ROWPU equipment, spare membrane elements, cal5.
cium hypochiorite,
hypochlorite, and Water Quality Analysis Sets should be protected from
cium
sun and heat to prevent deterioration and insure proper functioning.
5.4.16
.4ctiz.iity:
Actiity:
WellS Drilling
Drilling
Well
The
The general absence of surface water in desert areas and the prospect
In—country municipal water supplies may not be accessible require the
that in—country
deploynent of
of fully
fully trained
trained and
and well—equipped
well—equipped drilling
drilling units
units to
to develop
develop needed,
needed,
deployment
water supplies.
Equipment now being
bethg procured by the Army to provide this
capability includes
includes modern
modern 6—in.
6—in. (150—mm)
(150—mm) diameter
diameter high
high speed
speed rotary
rotary drills.
drills.
capability
Highly sophisticated geophysical and seismic systems and techniques are
often used by professional well drillers to locate groundwater.
In the
absence of these techniques,
Army drillers
drillers should,
should, if
if possible,
possible, consult
consult local
local
téchniques Army
inhabitants for assistance in identifying prospective drilling sites.
5—38
The depth co groundwater can vary from about 50 ft (15 in) in coastal
regions to
regions
to 500
500 ft
ft (150
(150in)
m) or
or more further inland.
Also, the quality of
groundwater can vary from one location to another.
Often it will be brackish
brackish
or high in mineral content (sulfur, calcium, magnesium, arid iron) and, therefore, require treatment to make it potable.
A supply of water
water is
is essential
essential to
to produce
produce the
the drilling
drilling fluid
fluid —— mud.
This is is
This
a mixture
a mixture
of native
ofclay
native
and/or commercial
clay and/or
clay commercial
(bentonite) andclay
water.(bentonite) and water.
The mud
mudcleans
cleans
the the
drill bit,
drill
removes
bit,
cuttings
removes
from the
cuttings
hole, cools
from
the bit,
the hole, cools the bit,
and reduces
and
reduces
friction
friction
betweenbetween
the drill rod
the
anddrill
the sides
rod
of the
andhole,
theand
sides of the hole, and
plasters the sides of the hole to prevent loss of drilling fluid.
5.4.16.1
Water Requirements:
_uality: Water sources locally available usually dictate the type of
a1lty:
water used in drilling fluid, but generally the water should be reasonably
free of dissolved salts.
Some salts soluble in water tend to alter the clay
suspensions properties of the mud.
Saltwater or water with a high chloride
content tends to flocculate
flocculaLe (curdle) the clay particles and destroythe col—
colloidal properties of the mud, which are essential in wall building and in the
sealing
sealing off
off of
of permeable
permeable formations.
formations.
In an emergency, either brackish water
or seawater could be used; but as soon as possible after drilling has been
completed, pumps and equipment exposed to salt should be thoroughly flushed to
prevent corrosion.
Quantity:
The amount of water required for drilling varies with the
porosity of the fortuation
formation penetrated
penetr.ted and
and the
the depth
depth of
of the
the hole.
hole. A 6—in.
(152—mm) diameter hole will require about 20 gal of water per foot (250 L/m)
of depth.
Water Sources: Water may be available in the general area of the dril—
drilling site or from municipal resources in the region.
If not, It
it will have to
be transported to
to the
the site.
site. Personnel
supplies that
that may
may have
have
Personnel should use supplieb
become contaminated with sand and dust, or untreated water collected in catch—
merits, hefort
before turtiing
turning to
to potable
potable resources.
resources.
ments,
Key Indicators
areas are the presence
indicators of
of groundwater
groundwater in
in dese'rt
desert areag
presence of
of habitahabitation, 1ocall.zcd
localized green
also be
be
green vegetation,
vegetation, and
and existing
existing wells. Groundwater can also
found to
at the
the baae
base of
of any
any significant
significant inoun—
mounto shallow
shallow depths
depths in alluvial fans at
tain range
tam
or in
In dry stream beds or wadis.
ranIge or
5.4.16.2
Water Conservation
Conservation Measures:
Measures:
1.
If
Nonpotable water should be used for drilling whenever possible.
bacteria are suspected, the water should be disinfected by the addition of
approximately 1 teaspoon of calcium hypochiorite
hypochlorite per 50 gal (approximately
12 g/200 L)
2.
Sheets of membrane liner or scrap tarpaulin may be used as an
expedient
to line
line a slush pit (container for drilling
drilling mud)
mud) to
to minimize
minimize the
the
expedieit to
loss of water.
5—39
During the development of a well, pumped water should not be wasted
3.
but
but collected
collected for
for treatment
treatment to
to produce
produce potable
potable water
water or
or used
used directly
directly for
for
concrete,
9oil
soil
compaction,
fire
fighting.
other
other purposes
purposes ——
—— e.g.,
Fresh water is often found in relatively thin lenses overlying salty
Balty
4.
Out at very low rates to
In such cases, water should be pumped out
groundwater.
This procedure is only applicable to shallow
8hallow
prevent saltwater contamination.
the overburden
overburden is
is relatively
relatively
coastal wells
well9 (less
(less than
than 40
40 ft
ft [12
[12in]),
m]), where
where the
coastal
unconsolidated.
thereby
Commercial drilling fluids, such as foam, can be used and thereby
substantially reduce the amount of water needed. An example of a brandname
drilling fluid is "Quick Foam" manufactured by Baroid of Houston,
HouBton, Texas.
5.
5.4.17
Activity:
Water Distribution
The distribution of large quantities of water under tactical conditions
will be by pipeline, trucks carrying bladders, and 5000—gal (18 900—L) tanker
trucks. Smaller quantities will •be pickedup from tank farms or storage and
distribution points in 400—gal (1510—L) water trailers or in refillable fabric
drums and 5—gal (19—L) cans.
Each action involving the transfer of weter
water from
fron storage to transporter
and distribution to unit water
Water containers can result in spillage. Despite all
reasonable precautions, spills will occur. A means for collecting and storing
spilled water for other uses is prudent.
joints1 and
and
Leakage can occur
occur at
at joints,
Pipelines can also cause water losses.
breaks can occur as a result of sabotage or vehicles crossing the line and
Major breaks could result in the loss of water In
in a 2—mi (3.2—
crushing it.
kin)
segment, or
or about
about 15,500
15,500 gal
gal (58
(58 700
700 L)
L) (normal
(normal interval
interval between
between pumping
pumping
km) segment,
The
loss
of
water
from
the
entire
pipeline
is
prevented
by
presstations).
sure sensors which shut pumps off when there is a drop below normal operating
pressure.
A newly inst1led potable water pipeline must be flushed and disinfected.
cl'eanbecauSe
becauseIt
itwill
willbe
bedosed
dosedto
.ater used for this need only be relatively èlean
to
100 ppm
pp free
freeavailable
avai1ble chlorine
chiorthe which effectively kills any pathogenic bacdisinfection can
can be
be
usthg a contact time of 30 minutes. Flushing and disinfection
teria using
done in 2—mi (3.2—kin) segments to minimize water required; however, temporary
storage facilities (tanks or storage basin) would be required at each 2—mi
2-mi
At the end of eachplpeline,
eachpipeline, this water can be collected
(3.2—kin) interval.
washing) dust conto be used for other purposes —— e.g., concrete, aircraft washing,
trol, disinfection of open storage tanks.
may have
have to
In a theater of operations there is always a chance the Army may
take over the repair and operation of a municipal water system. Although most
systems will be similar to those employed in the United States, problems can
Sites and
Sizes
be expected
expected in
in obtaining
obtaining replacement
replacement parts
parts arid
and operating supplies.
supplies.
dimenslo.is
basiccoipotents
componentscan
canbe
be expected
expected to
to differ
differ from
from those used in
dimensios ofofbasic
in
the United States and even require the use of metric tools. Also, certain
water
disinfectionrather
rather than
than chlorine.
chlorine. Under
nations may
disinfection
nations
mayucu one
ioneforforwater
these circunstaiLces
circumstalLces the Army should consider the hire of former local employees
ees who
whoare
arefaiziliar
faiUar wIth the equipment to operate and maintain the system.
wIth th
5—40
5.4.17.1
Water Requirements:
Quality:
quality:
The only water
water needed
needed for
for installing
inBtalling aa water
water distribution
distributionsysys—
tem is
tern
is for
for flushing
flushing and
and disinfecting
disinfecting the
the pipeline
pipeline or
or an
an open
open tank
tank that
that will
will be
be
used to store potable water. Fresh water relatively free of suspended solids
can be used.
Quantity: Approximately
Approximately 17,000
17,000 gal
gal (64
(64 000
000 L)
L) of
of water
water are
are required
required for
for
flushing and disinfection.
Water Sources:
Water from
Water
from aa tanker
tanker ship
ahip could
could be
be used,
used, if
if available.
available.
1.
2.
Fresh water wells may have to be drilled, or potable water can be
produced
produced by
by ROWPU
ROWPU equipment.
equipment.
5.4.17.2
Water
Water Conservation Measures:
Measures;
1.
Water—dispensing equipment should be equipped with automatic shutoff
Bhutoff
to prevent
prevent spillage.
spillage.
valves or
or nozzles
noz1es to
2.
Spillage at a major dispensing point should be anticipated and a container built to collect and store this water for other purposes. A membrane—
lined basin could be used.
3.
When the tactical situation permits and engineer effort is available,
pipelines should be
deep to
to prevent
prevent damage
damage from
from croes—
crossbe buried
buried 2—1/2
2—1/2 ft
ft (0.8
(0.8 in)
m) deep
ing vehicles and minimize
minimise heat absorption.
As an alternative, hoseline and
pipeline suspension kits and road crossing guards should
Bhould be installed
in8talled for damage prevention.
Expedient crossings
crossingB similar
Bimilar to those shown in Figure
Pigure 5.11 can
be fabricated in the field at appropriate intervals.
Pipelines should be patrolled frequently and inspected for leaks and
illegal taps.
4.
5.
5
Pipelines used to distribute potable water are vulnerable to sabotage
and illegal tapping. Also, the
the large
large quantity
quantity ofwat-er
ofwater required
required to fill thea
is susceptible to loss when the line is broken.
A nonpotable pipeline does
not present quite the same risks, and loss of nonpotable water would not be as
critical. This suggests that
that the
the current
current short—term
short—term water
water resource
resource tnanagemeat
management
concept be revised.
6.
Water used
uBed to flush and disinfect pipelines should be collected and
used for other purposes.
5.4.18
Activity:
Water Storage
Military tactical
tactical and
and supporting
supporting units
units are
are equipped
equipped with
with aa variety
variety of
of
water storage equipment. The sniallest
smallest is
is the
the individual
individual canteen;
canteen; for
for a
company-aize
company-.3ize unit,
unit, the
the largest
largest is
is the
the 400
400 gal
gal (1510
(1510 L)
L) water
water trailer.
trailer. To
enable these containers
contaiaers to be refilled) larger amounts of water are positioned
poBitioned
throughout a theater of operations to be readily accessible
acceBsible for pickup by
units or to be delivered
delivered by
by large
large tanker
tanker trucks
trucks to
to the
the larger
larger water
water consurmerB.
consumers.
5—41
3OEARTH COVER
2"x 12H SHEETING
OPE
8*8*4! TIMBERS
30N o.c.
8*8" TIMBERS
6" WATER LINE
NOTE ROADWAYS AS REQUIRED
ONE LANE = 12'-O"
TWO LANES: 24'-O"
MIN. 30" EARTH COVER
6" WATER LINE
IZOPE
1/2 OF 24 DIA. CORRUGATED
PIPE
Figure 5.11.
E:pedient
5— 42
road crossing guard.
To insure an tiinterrupted supply of water for all, a 4—day supply is normally
maintained within a theater of operations.
In the Army's near—term water resources management concept, water is to
be stored using a combination of flexible bladders ranging in size up to
50,000 gal
gal (189
(189 000
000 L)
L) capacity,
capacity, aa faintly
family of smaller—capacity
smaller—capacity pillow
pillow tanks,
tanks,
various sizes of fabric drums, and expendable 6—gal (23—L) bags/boxes.
To implement a conservation program in which wastewater is collected and
reused, additional storage capacity would be required.
For the8e purposes,
the collapsible fabric stave tanks now in the military supply
aupply system would be
moet suitable.
most
In addition, expedient storage containers can be field fabricated using lumber and membrane sheeting (Figure 5.12) or storage basins can
be excavated and lined with membrane sheeting (Figure 5.13).
The latter can
also be installed to provide a reservoir to collect rainfall and supplement
available water resources.
5.4.18.1
Water Requirements:
Quality:
Water is not required in the installation of water-storage
Qualitl:
facilities.
The water
water stored
stored must
must be
be protected
protected from
from lose,
lose, contaniination,
contamination, and
and
In
In hot desert areas, storage tanks should be shaded,
sun.
ahaded, since burying
bladders and pillow tanks are not practical. A more practical technique
technique would
would
be to erect standard camouflage nets over tank farms and set
Set up tarpaulins to
protect suiall
Sulall water storage facilities.
In
En each
each instance,
instance, enough
enough airspace
airspace
should be provided between the container and sun shade to permit air circulation.
Quantity:
The amount
amount of
of basic
basic Water
water storage
storage capacity
capacity would
wouldbe
be30
30inillior
million
gal (112
gal.
(112 000
000 Tn3)
Tn3) for
for aa force
force of about 375,000.
col—
Supplementary storage for collection of wastewater and for nonpotable water needed for construction could
increase the storage requirement up to 25 percent.
Water Sources: Water to be stored is produced from a variety of water
Likewise, wastewater that can be
sources, as discussed in paragraph 5.4.15.
collected and stored
stored temporarily
temporarily before
before use
use is
is produced
produced by
by aa variety
variety of
of
activities, as discussed in paragraph 5.5.
5.4.18.2
1.
Water Conservation Measures:
Water storage containers should be inspected frequently for leaks and
repaired.
2.
Stored water should be protected from solar radiation by some form of
shading. Containers should be covered to prevent contamination from dust and
8hading.
losB from evaporation. Water that is too hot to touch may be spilled by those
who distribute and handle it. Any shade is beneficial:
a varietyof field
expedients can be used for this purpose —— camouflage nets1,
nets, suspended
suspended tarpau—
tarpau—
lins, survivor blankets, and painting tanks a light color.
Double covers,
where a second layer is suspended over the primary shield, are ever more
effective. This technique creates a live air space between the two covers to
allow air to circulate and produce a cooling effect.
5—43
Lfl
MEMBRANE LINER
Figure 5.12.
Storage container.
3500 GAL CAPACITY
NOTE: COVER WATER STORAGE AREA WITH
MEMBRANE TO PREVENT CONTAMINATION.
4'x 6"x2"118"O.C.
cORNER BRACE
FLEXIBLE CONNECTOR
(CHAIN. CABLE, OR ROPE)
FLOATING MEMBRANE COVER
PUMP PLATFORM
6'- 0"
OVERFLOW
ANGLE OF RESPONSE
MEMBRANE/TARPAULIN
SECTION A-A
I4'x 4"x4" FLOATING
COVER SUPPORTS
PUMP
PLATFORM
I
I
L
PLAN
Figure 5.13.
Storage basin.
5—45
3.
Tank farm bladders should
8hould be placed in shallow excavations or in a
bermed area to protect them against enemy fire and reflected 8olar
solar radiation.
4.
Supplementary water storage capability should be available to enable
vastewater to be collected, treated, and reused
wastewater
reu8ed wherever possible. Collapsible fabric stave tanks or field—fabricated tanks using membrane sheets can be
used.
Such containers
containers should
should be
be clearly
clearly and
and distinctively
distinctively marked
marked to
to indicate
indicate
Such
they contain
contain nonpotable
nonpotable water.
water.
they
Simple storage
storage basins
basins or
or large
large catchnients
catchments for collecting rainfall
rainfall
runoff can be constructed by excavation and installation
inBtallation of membrane sheeting
to provide leakproof storage. Floating covers of lightweight and light—
colored membrane sheeting supported by timbers would be needed to. protect
water from dust contamination and to limit water loss from evaporation.
5.
5.4.19
Activity:
Augmiztation (Water Injection)
Aircraft Thrust Augmentation
Certain
Certain U.S.
U.S. Air
Air Force
Air Command
Command (SAC)
(SAC) aircraft
aircraft use
use.a
Force Strategic Air
.a water
injection thrust augmentation system. When water is injected into the air
becones more dense.
intake of a jet engine, it cools the intake air, which becomes
When
When the
the air
air is
is mixed
mixed with
with the
the hotter
hotter fuel,
fuel, the
the result
result is
is aa beneficial
beneficial combuscombus—
tion
tion mixture
mixture producing
producing added
added thrust..
thrust.. Water injection is generally used under
heavy aircraft loads
loads and
and in
in hot
hot dry
dry weather.
weather. Water injection is
is noi.
fbi. used
used in
in
Army aircraft.
Currently, the following
following SAC
employ water
water injection:
injection; B—52D,
SAC aircraft employ
B—52G, and KC—135. About half of the KC—135s have been
fan—jet
been equipped
equipped with fan—jet
engines, which do not use water injection.
Water used in thrust augmentation must meet certain standards of purity
over and above usual potable water standards; therefore, SAC T0&E
TO&E includes
portable
portable ion
ion exchange
exchange deinineralizing
deinineralizing equipment.
equipment.
Such units are deployed with
aircraft and maintenance personnel.
Additionally, SAC FB—l1l
FB—lll aircraft contain an internal environmental control (cooling) system which uses water as the coolant.
5.4.19.1
Water Requirements:
Quality:
Potable water should be provided for the detnineralization profor thru8t
thrust augmentation.
augmentation. Specifications call for water that
cessing required for
contains no more than 10 ppm total solids and a pH of 6.0 to 9.5. In tactical
situations, water up to 50 ppm is acceptable.
Quantity:
Water consumption, by aircraft, is as follows:
B—52D — 300 gal/sortie (1100 L)
B—52G
B—SW — 1200 gal/sortie
(45 000
000 L)
L)
ai/sortie (45
KC—135 — 670
670 gal/sortie (2500 L)
FB—111
FB—ll1 —
27 gal/sortie
gal/Bortie (100 L).
5—46
To obtair'
To
obtain II gal
gal (3.8
(3.8 L)
L) of
of demineralized
demineralized water,
water, it
it will
will be
be necessary
necessary to
to
(5.7—L) of potable water.
process 1—1/2 al (5.7—b)
Water Sources: Water normally vould be supplied for thrust
thruBt augmentation
Howfrom the U.S. Air Force organic self—sustaining potable water supply.
ever, the Army—operated Base Terminal would supplement any U.S. Air Force
shortfall through the Tactical Water Distribution Set (TWDS) and Storage!
Storage/
Distribution network.
5.4.19.2
5.4.19.2
Water Conservation Methods:
The waste concentrate from the demineralizatioa
demineralization process
process could
could be
be reproreprocessed to produce potable and/or nonpotable quality, or used without treatment
demand
for other purposes —— e.g., aircraft washing —— thereby reducing the demand
upon
upoa potable
potable water
water supplies.
Bupplie8.
5.4.20
Activfty:
Activity:
Aircraft CZeaning
to aircraft
The dusty
dusty environment
environment common
common to
to desert
desert areas
areas is'
is harmful to
aircraft
Consequently, care
Consequently,
care must
must be
be taken
takento
o avoid
avoid
engines
engines and
and operating
operating mechanisms.
mechanisms.
hovering
hovering helicopters
helicopters close
close to
to the
the ground
ground and
and moving
moving craft
craft on
on the
the ground
ground under
under
their own
own power,
power, and
and to
in use.
to cover all apertures when the aircraft is not In
their
Regardlesi of all the care taken, dirt and dust does accumulate and can only
Regardless
aircraft
be
be removed
removed by
by washing.
washing. Normally, helicopters —— the predominant Army aircraft
engine,
scheduled maintenance
maintenance every
every 25
25 flying
flying hours.
hours. The turbine engine,
undergo scheduled
i-Dtor
ntor
blades,
blades,and
andfuselage
fuselageare
arethoroughly
thoroughly washed
washed with
with water
water soluble
soluble cleaner
cleaner
aad
aad aa soft
soft brush,
brush, then
then rinsed
rinsed with
with clean
clean water
water In
in aa pressurized
pressurized spray.
spray. Equip—
Inent needed
needed to
to spray—clean
spray—clean water
water under
under field
field conditions
conditions Is
is not
not available
available now,
meat
Current
practices
discard
but a cleaning and de—icing unit is being tested.
alil wastewaters to the surrounding environment.
—
5.4.20.1
Water Requirements:
Water for aircraft
aircraft washing
washing does
does not
not have
have to
to be
be potable,
potable, but
but
Qua.ity:
should be low in salt and mineral content (soft water) and suspended solids.
con—
Bacteria levels are not considered critical since they can be easily con
As a rule, brackish water
rolled through
trailed
through field
field disinfection
disinfection using
using chlorine.
chlorine.
should be
be avoided
avoided due
due to
to their
theircortosive
corrosive'actionon
actionon metals.
metals.
saltwater should
d
About 25
25 gal
gal (95
(95 L)
L) of
of water
water are
are needed
needed to
to clean
clean the
the air
air inlet
inlet
About
Quantttl.
area,
area, inlet
inlet guide
guide vanes,
vanes, and
and compressor
compressor rotor
rotor blades of a turbine engine. An
additional 100 gal (380 L) are required for the remainder of an aircraft.
If at all possible, the source of water should be other
Water Sources:
Alternatives could include surthan the potable water distribution
distributioa system.
which
face
face water,
water, If
if It
it is
is of
of suitable
suitable quality;
quality; municipal
municipal water;
water; potable
potable water
water which
preparatioa —
may have become too contaminated to use for drinking or food preparation
e.g., dust—contaminated water; and rainwater colected in an expedient catch—
nent
cent basin.
Wastewater from activities such as a central shower or laundry would also
be suitable for aircraft washing if it is treated to remove grit, oils, and
soap,
soap, and chlorinated. See paragraphs 5.4.6 and 5.4.7 for shower and laundry
field
field treatment procedures.
5—47
Water collected from aircraft washing operations can also be treated and
reused.
5.4.20.2
Water Conservation Measures:
1.
8tanding operating procedure for aircraft washEmploy and enforce a standing
ing to insure that a minimum of water is used for cleaning.
2.
Consolidate aircraft
Consolidate
aircraft washing
washing operations,
operations where
where practicable, by
by
installing
inBtalling an
an area—wide
area—wide wa8hing
wa8hing facility
facility serving
serving multiple
multiple aviation
aviation unite.
unitB.
Such a facility could be colocated with General Support Aircraft Maintenance
units.
units.
3.
Reuse aircraft wash water. Wastewater from aircraft cleaning should
be collected wherever, in the judgment of the aviation unit commander, reuse
offers an advantage over obtaining fresh water.
A suggested layout for a
washing facility is shown in Figure 5.14.
4.
Collect and use wastewatèr under any circumstances for other purposes,
e.g.,
general—purpose cleaning,
cleaning, moistening
moistening soil
soil for
for electrical
electrical ground,
ground,
poses, e.g., general—purpose
dust control.
5.4.20.3
1.
Helicopter Washing Facility
Washing six or more aircraft using recycled washuater.
washwater.
Use:
Materials:
Membrane Surfacing Outfit, Airfield Roads, SC 5680—97—
1
(66
ft
x 100 ft [20 m x 30 inj),
or 40—mu
40—mil nylon
nylon reinforced
reinforced memmJ), or
CL—EOl, Part
CL—EO1,
brane
brane sheeting.
sheeting.
2.
1.
Procedure:
A suitable area is graded for a parking apron and covered
with T—l7
T—17 membrane surfacing.
Integral with the apron is a lined collection
ditch with sump to permit the recovery of washwater.
3.
Wastewater is transferred from the sump to one of two 1500—gal (5680—L)
collapsible collecting tanks where grit and other heavy particles are allowed
to settle
settle out,
out, and
and oil
oil and
and scum
scum to
to rise
rise to
o the surface. Once the tank has
been filled, the contents should be allowed to itand
stand Lor
Eor 24 hours.
At the end
of this
of
this period, floating materials
materials need
need to
to be
be skimmed
skimmed from
from the
the surface
surface before
before
the
the water
water can
can be
be reused.
reused. This can be done by skimming with a field—expedient
scoop or by installing a flexible hose to the tank drain and attaching a funnel to the other end. By slightly submerging the funnel, floating materials
can be quickly withdrawn by opening the drain at the bottom of the tank.
Some chemical cleaning solution will be retained in the treated water,
but not enough to preclude its use as rinsewater.
When withdrawing water from
the tank, care oust
must be
be taken
taken not
not to
to disturb
disturb sediment
sediment collected
collected in
in the
the bottotn.
bottom.
When the tank is empty, the valve at the base should be opened to drain it
before refilling.
This wastewater could be used for dust control near the
washing facility rather than discharging it
ft to waste.
Some fresh water will be required periodically to make up for water lost
by evaporation
evaporation and
and retained
retained on
on the
he aircraft.
aircraft. The number
number of
of titnes
times wastewater
wastewater
5—48
'.0
COVER
1500 GAL
TANK
Figure
5.14.
Helicopter washing facility.
1500 GAL
TANK
WASTE WATER
VALVE (DISCHARGE TO SUMP)
FLEXIBLE HOSE WITH FUNNEL ATTACHED
FOR REMOVAL OF SCUM 6 OIL
2 FREEBOARD
1-15 OR T-17 MEMBRANE
SLOPE TO DRAIN
-a
wastewater may
wastewater
ay be
be reused
reused before
before it
it becomes
becomes too dirty must be
be determined
determined by
by
operating personnel.
operating
pe8onnel.
to clean
clean many
many helhelIf a central aircraft washing facility is
eBtablished to
iB established
icopters
icopters in
in aa day,
days aa 420—gph
420—gph (0.442
(0.442 L/s)
L/s) Water
Water Purification
Purification Equipment
Equipment Set
Set
be much
much more
more efficient
efficient and
and effective
effective in
in treating
treating the
the wastewa—
wasewa—
(ERDLator could be
ter than the settling
Bettling tank.
5.4.21
Activity:
Vehicl.e and
Equipment Cleaning
Equipment
CZ.eaning
desert areas make vehicles and
in desert
frequent dust
dust storms
storms in
Dusty roads and frequent
equipment dirty, abrade
and contribute
contribute to
to malfuncmalfuncabrade unprotected
unprotected moving
moving parts,
parts and
Consequently equipment
Consequently,
equipment operaorB
operatorsmust
must diligently
diligently perform
perform prescribed
prescribed
tions.
tions.
BecauBe water
water supplies
supplies are
are limited,
limited the
the conconmaintenances including
maintenance,
Including cleaning. Because
struction of vaahracks
washracks or equipment washing facilities should be prohibited.
Therefore, cleaning would be performed primarily by such mechanical methods as
certain inStances,
instañces however,
however it
tn certain
it
brooms high—pressure
brooms,
high—pressure air,
air, and
and dry
dry wiping.
wiping. In
will be necessary to use water to clean critical surfaces and parts: e.g.,
windshields, head
windshields
head and
and taillights,
taillights mirrors
mirrors, and
and gauges.
gauges.
Every effort èhould
should be made to protect equipment and thereby minimize
uinimize the
equipment items,
items in
Small equipment
in particulars
particular, should
should be covered
need for cleaning.
with tarpaulin
tarpaulin or
or membrane
membrane sheeting
sheeting to
to protect
protect them
them from
from dust
dust when
when not
not in
in use.
use.
with
5.4.21.1
Water Requirements:
Water of any
any type
type or
or quality
quality can
can be
be used
used for
for cleaning,
cleaning provided
provided
quality:
Quality:
additions water with high
it
it is
is generally
generally free
freeofofoil,
oil grease,
grease and soap.
soap. In addition,
salt content (seawater and brackish water) should not be used on unpainted
surfaces, or where corrosion could develop and interfere with the operation of
the equipment.
The amount of water needed for cleaning is not readily quantiQuantity:
It could become excessive if strict restrictions are not imposed by
commanders.
fied.
fied.
Water Sources:
1.
The use of potable water for cleaning equipment should be prohibited.
dirts and
Potable water that has been contaminated with dust and dirt,
where a means of restoring it to potable quality is not readily available,
could be used for cleaning.
2.
The
The primary
primary sources
sources of
of wastewater
wastewater that
that can
can be
be used
used for
for cleaning
cleaning are
are
3.
showers, laundries,
and messkit
messkit washlines.
washlinea. Some type of fabric should be used
laundries and
to filter oil,
grease, and
and putrescible
putrescible material
material before
before using
using the
the water.
water.
oil grease,
5.4.21.2
Water Conservation Measures ——
Operational
Operaiional
Procedures
Commanders should issue specific instructions regarding the equipment and
vehicles to
give guidance on
vehicles
to be
be cleaned,
cleaned give
on how
how cleaning
cleaning will
will be
be performed,
performed and
and
restrict the use of water to what is absolutely essential to insure safety and
operational effectiveness.
5—50
5.4.22
Vhicl Radiator
Vehicle
RadiatorMakeup
Makeup Water
Water
Activity:
High daytime temperatures in hot, arid climates cause water in vehicle
radiators to boil; with continued use, engine coolant can become dangerously
low.
To prevent engine damage, the operator must check the radiator often
(perhaps even several times each day) and add water when needed.
5.4.22.1
Iater Requirements:
Water
Quality: Water for vehicle radiators does not have to be of potable
dis—
quality, but should be relatively clean and contain only small amounts of dissolved minerals.
Certain surface and well waters are normally high in dissolved salts and minerals and will eventually leave deposits that will clog
radiator cores. Consequently, seawater and brackish water should not be used
as
as engine coolants.
Quantity:
Quantity:
Based on estimated
estimated loss
loss of
of 25
25 percent
percent of
of the
the engine
engine coolant
coolant
capacity per day, the average amount àf
of makeup water required is about
7 gal/truck (27 L)
For trucks transporting water and other supplies from rear
areas to forward units, the loss by evaporation could be much larger.
Any
water added should be adjusted by the amount of additives (e.g., rust, inhibitor, glycol coolant, etc.) that may be prescribed for the area of operations.
.
Water Sources: Makeup water will normally be obtained
obtained from
from aa potable
potable
source such as a municipal water system unit water supply.
However, contaminated potable water should be used whenever possible.
5.4.22.2
Iater Conservation
Water
Conservation Measures:
Measures:
Water Reuse: Water from canteens or 5—gal (19—L) cans which has become
too hot to drink should be put into radiators. Also, any potable
potable water
water which
which
may have become contaminated with sand and dust can be filtered through cloth
or sandbags and used as coolant.
Coolant Recovery System:
Installing coolant recovery equipment on radiators of tactical vehicles could essentially eliminate water loss.
5.4.23
Activity:
Electrical Grounding
Electrical generators and critical electronic equipment —— such as radio
transmitters, radars, and computers —— must be grounded to protect operating
personnel and the equipment itself.
In the inland areas of SWA, the lack of
soil moisture makes special measures to establish an effective ground.
An effective expedient technique for fabricating a grounding system is to
add
add moisture
moisture to
to the
the subsoil
subsoil to
to improve
improve its
its conductivity.
conductivity.
However, for the
electrical ground to remain effective, it willbe necessary to keep the subsoil wet because of the high rate of evaporation common to arid regions.
Water ubed for this purpose should be relatively free of putrescible matter to
avoid creating a source of odors and an attraction for flies and other insects
(see Chapter 4).
5—51
5.4.23.1
Water Requirements:
all
Bource8 and
any quality1
quality, wastewater
wastewater from
from all sources,
and even
even
Quality:
Qualitl: Water of any
urine can be used to add moisture to soil.
8oil.
The amount of water needed to establish and maintain an effecQuantity:
tive grounding system depends on the capacity of the electrical equipment and
cannotbe quantified here.
Water Sources:
Saltwater is ideal for establishing a grounding system.
1.
Therefore
Therefore,
seawater, brackish
seawater1
brackish water,
water, and
and brine
brine from
from water
water treatment
treatment(ROW'PU)
(ROWPU) can
can be
be used
used
when available. Urine is a suitable alternative to these waters.
as mess operations,
Any wastewater from other activities
activitie8 —— such as
laundry, showers,
showers1 aircraft washing —— can effectively be used.
2.
3.
Potable water should not be used 8ince lesser—quality
lesser-quality water ought to
be available.
5.4.23.2
Water Conservation Measures:
wastewaters1 seawater,
seawater1 or brackish water for constructing an
Use only wastewaters,
electrical ground.
1.
2.
2.
Locate field urinals where an electrical ground is to be constructed.
When larger grounds are required, a leaching field using perforated or
in)below
below the
the surface
surface may be
unjoined pipe and installed at least 3 ft (1 m)
be
appropriate.
5.4.24
Activity:
Photo Processing
Photographic activities in a theater of operations involve taking both
ground
tid aerial
photographs and
and developing
developing and
and printing
printing black
black and
and white
white and
and
aerial photographs
ground tid
color film. Film processing is done largely at the Division and Corps levels
where units performing this function employ specially equipped shelters
Shelters
fewunits1
units,such
suchas
as•engineer
engineer
designed for this purpose. There are,
are1 however,
however aafew
construction battalions, which are issued cameras and photoprocessing
photoproceasing kits for
Only the
the latter
latter requires
requires water
water to
to produce
produce prints.
prints.
just their limited needs. Only
All other
other systems use a dry
dry printing
printing process.
process. New processes that would
All
entirely eliminate the need for water are under investigation.
X—ray equipment is available at each field hospital facility. That at
the Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals uses a dry process to produce the films.
The equipment used by the Combat Support and Evacuation Hospitals, which usuuSuemploy a vet
wet proally operate in the Corps Rear Area or Communication Zone,
Zone employ
cess.
cess.
5.4.24.1
Water Requirements:
Requirements:
Quality: Water for both photo and X—ray film processing has to be of
potable quality and contain relatively small amounts of dissolved minerals.
5—52
The
The water
water te
te .erature
.erature should
should not
not exceed
exceed 110°F (43°C) for black and white
white film
film
amd
amd 98°F
98°F (37°C)
(37°C) for
for color
color film.
film.
Quantity: Approximately 3 gal (11 L) of water are needed to develop 20
Aerial and
and
rolls
rolls of
of black
black and
and white
white or
or color
color film
film used
used for
for still
still photographs.
photographs. Aerial
movie film are processed using automated equipment which requires about 10 gal
per hr (38 L/hr). Hospital X—ray film processors require about 40 gal per hr
(150 L/hr).
Water Sources ——
Potable:
The primary source
Source of potable water is the 400—gal (1500—L) water
trailer. Aerial photoprocessing units and hospitals
ho8pitals are issued water trailers
for film processing.
5.4.24.2
Water Conservation
Conservation Measures:
Measures:
Wastewater from
from film
film processing
processing should
should not
not be
be reused
reused for.
for.
Water Reuse: Wastevater
any purpose other than creating an electrical ground for equipment.
The need for water could be eliminated if new film
New Processes:
film—
developing processes under investigation prove satisfactory and could be
adopted for field use.
5.4.25
Activity:
Fire Fighting
Fire
Fighting
to fight
fight fire
fire in
in base
base development
development cantoninents
cantonments is
The capability to
is essential
essential
The
to 1ninimize
minimize loss
loss of
of life
life and
and equipment.
equipment. Because water will be in short supply
and fire trucks may not be available, reliance will be on the use of portable
chemical extinguishers, sand buckets, and shovels, and water dispensed by the
austere living stanbucketful by those nearest the fire. Even under the most au8tere
dards, planning for a fire emergency must begin early.
In the absence of mechanized fire equipment with integral chemical extinguishers or on—board water, fire fighting will be primarily a manual opera55—gal (208—L)
tion, relying
relying on
on aa nuniber
number of
of strategically
strategically located water—filled
water—filled 55—gal
near structures,
structures, equip
equipbeplaced near
drums with
drums
with dispensing buckets. Drums should bepla'ced
Additionally, manual chemical
ment, and materials that require protection.
extinguishers and buckets of sand should
Bhould be located conveniently near areas
where fires could originate in materials not extinguishable with water.
5.4.25.1
Requirements:
Water Requirements:
The lowest—quality water available should be used. Potable
Quality:
water
water should
should be
be used
used only
only when
when no
no other
other is
is conveniently
conveniently available.
available.
Quantity: Water quantities cannot be determined; however, about 50 gal
(190 L) should be available per general purpose (GP) tent and up to 100 gal
(380 L) per facility where the potential for fire is great —— e.g., aircraft
and veh.cle maintenance.
Any source
source of
of nonpotable
nonpotable water
water is
is acceptable.
acceptable. The
Water
Water Sources:
Sources: Any
sources could be streams, seawater, brackish well water, and ROWPU brine
sourceB
5—53
Even wastewaters from mes8
mess operations, showers, and laundries can be
water.
used if nececessary.
5.4.25.3
1.
Measure8:
Water Conservation Measures:
Keep 55—gal (210—L)
(2l0—L) water storage drums covered to minimize evapora-
tion.
Fill drums with water of such quality that others will not be tempted
other purposes.
purposes. Salt and brackish waters are excellent candito take it for other
2.
dates.
3.
5.4.26
water wherever possible.
Use sand buckets and shovels
shovel8 instead of water
possible.
Activity:
Pest Control
the
A variety of insects and rodents live in arid environments. Among the
more common pests that carry disease and damage military supplies are lice,
fleas, flies, ants, scorpions, locusts, and a variety of rats.
Insecticides and rodenticides adopted by the Army can be effectively
effectively
The common
common formulations
formulations of
ofinsecticides
insecticidescome
oe in
in
employed in arid areas.
powder form, premixed in oil, and emulsions that are mixed with water before
use.
5.4.26.1
Water Requirements:
Potable or fresh water is required for mixing emulsified insecQuality:
pesticides
Saltwater and brackish water degrade the effectiveness of peaticides
ticides.
and should not be used.
The amount of water required cannot be readily quantified.
Quantity:
Quantçy:
Overall, it is relatively
relatively small
small and
and should
should place
place an
an insignificant
insignificantdemand
demand on
on
• the water supply system.
Water Sources:
1.
1f
Use water from a municipal water system or surface fresh water, If
available.
Potable—quality water contaminated with sand •or dust is suitable
2.
2.
after filtering through cloth to remove particulates that could clog spraying
equipment.
equipment.
Relatively few benefits are to be
5.4.26.2 Water Conservation Measures:
derived from limiting the amount of water used to prepare insecticide solupesticideB
Army entomologists should examine types and formulations of pesticides
tions.
to be used in hot, arid climates. Perhaps those that have to be mixed with
water should not be used.
5—54
5.4.27
5.4.27
Actty:
Actty:
Decontaninatirig
Personnel
and Equipment
Enemy troops might
might use
use NBC
NBC warfare.
warfare.
Under these circumstances, it will
be necessary to have the capability to decontaminate personnel and equipment
that have been exposed to chemical and biological agents and radioactive falland the major problem.
out.
In doing this, water is the most critical item and
problem.
Units, decontamination
decontanination equipment, and operating procedures employed in
In genTMs. In
decontamination procedures are discussed in the 3 series FMs and The.
eral, equipment is decontaminated by washing the items thoroughly with water.
is applied
applied after the initial
When chemical
chemical agents
agents are
are present,
present, STh
Sm or
or DS—2
DS—2 is
initial
wash and
wash
and then
then rinsed
rinsed of
off.
f.
Personnel are decontaminated by taking showers.
However, investigations
at the U.S. Army Chemical Systems Laboratory indicate that showers may not be
an absolute necessity for decontamination, but suggest the 'inorale' factor
needs careful consideration
conBideration if showers
Bhowerg are excluded.
5.4.27.1
Water Requirements:
Requirements;
Any available
available water
water source
source is
is suitable
suitable for
for decontaniination
decontamination
operation (i.e., seawater, brackish water, surface water, treated wa8te—
waters).
waters).
Quality:
total amount of water required depends on the type and
The
Quantity:
concentration of the agent involved, and the number of personnel and equipment
equipoent
An
average
quantity
for
a
medium—size
truck
is
about
200
gal
affected.
(760 L); for
shower,
fora a
shower,the
theamount
amount could
could be as much as 13 gal
gal (49
(49 L)
L) per
per bather
bather
or more.
Water Sources: Because large quantities of water would be required,
major sources such as rivers, lakes, high production wells, and seawater
If at all possible,
possible, uncontaminated
uncontaminated potable
potable water
water should
should
should be relied on.
not be used in order to conserve It
it for drinking and food preparation.
The demand to start decontamination
5.4.27.2 Water Conservation Measures:
operations quickly will probably override any thoughts of conserving,
conerving. water...
water.,
Soldiers involved at the time of a chemical or biological attack will use
freely water
water frocn
from any
any convenient
convenient source;
source; usage
usage probably will
will exceed
exceed the
the quanquanIt would therefore be prudent to plan for large quantitities stated above.
ties of nonpotable
nonpotable water
water (seawater
(seawater or
or brackish
brackish water
water from
from surface
surface water
water
sources or veils)
wells) to be available for immediate use. One method of doing this
would be to install pipelines from the most accessible sources to areas
areaa of
water—dispensing
points water—dispensing
major troop/equipment concentrations. At selected points,
Such a nonpotable water
facilities would be provided for use when needed.
distribution system
system could
could also
also serve
serve as
a aa convenient
convenient source
source of
of water
water for
for fire—
fire—
fighting, construction,
con8truction, and dust control.
Recovery and treatment of wastewater from decontamination operations to
produce
produce potable
potable water
water are
are not
not considered
considered practical.
practical. Radiological contaminants
can accumulate during
duriig treatment in the purification equipment and the chlorine
from Super Tropical Bleach (STB) used in decontamination of chemical and biological
logical elements
elements is
is extremely
extremely harmful
harmful to
to ROWP1J
ROWP1J membrane
membrane elements.
elements.
5-. 55
5—55
Activity:
Activity:
5.4.28
5.4.28
POW/Refugee Camp Operation
Operation
Combat operations often result in taking prisoners of war (POW) and displacement of civilians
placement
civilians from
from their
their homes.
homes. Prisoners
Prisonera are normally detained in
prisoner—of—war camps
canps established within the theater of operations and provided certain facilities and accommodations. Refugees are generally collected
in rear
and put into temporary camps in
rear areas
areas to
to provide
provide them
them some
some measure
ieasure of
of
8afety
safety and
and to
to prevent
prevent interference
interference with
with military
military operationB.
operations. Among the amenities to be provided these individuals under the Geneva Convention is water for
con8wnption, food preparation, and personal hygiene.
consumption,
5.4.28.1
Water Requirements:
Quality: Water provided POWs and
and refugees
refugees should
should be
be of equivalent quality
ity to
to what
what they
they are
are accustomed
accustomed to
to using.
using. That used by U.S. forces will have
undergQne extensive treatment and chlorination, and can cause digestive tract
problems for ?eople
people not accustomed to drinking this type of water. The need
to cool their drinking
drinking .water
water is
is probably
probably nt
nt essential,
essential, but
but aa means
means of
of shading
shading
water
water storage
storage should
should be
be provided.
provided.
Quantity: The amount of water to be furnished each person per day will
be less than for a soldier. The following estimates are ba8ed
based on limited
activity by camp inhabitants:
Amount
(gal[LJ/man/day)
(gal[L]
/man/ day)
Drinking
Food Preparation
Personel Hygiene
Medical Treatment
TOTAL
2.0
[7.6]
(7.6]
1.0
[3.8]
[3.8)
2.0
[7.6]
1.0
[3.8]
(3.8]
6.0 [22.7]
Water Sources: The optimum sources would be a municipal water supply
system o freshwater wells. If they are not available, potable water would
have to be proviaed from Army resources.
have
resources.
5.4.28.2
Water Conservation Measures:
1.
Adjust quantities of water supplied to be consistent with ethnic and
religious customs on eating and personal hygiene.
2.
Establish a regime for the distribution and use of water in camps to
inaure water is not wasted.
insure
Blend potable and moderately saline veil
well water to produce water of
acceptable palatability for inhabitants of the region.
3.
5.4.29
Activity:
Locomotive Enginer Water Makeup
Under certain circunstances,
circumstances, the
the Araiy
Army could
could take
take over
over the
the operation
operation of
of
railroad system
aystem in SWA or operate trains over existing trackage. Currently
5—56
both narrow— d standard—gauge trackage are used by the nations in the area,
but all are gradually converting to standard gauge.
Also, diesel—electric
locomotives are replacing
replacing steam
steam engines.
engines.
Although the diesel—electric locomotive would be more desirable, the Army
might be required to rely on steam locomotives. Under these circumstances, it
would be necessary to provide water for the engines.
5.4.29.1
5.4.29.1
Water Requirements:
Requirements:
Water
Quality: Freshwater relatively low in mineral content would be required
to
to prevent
prevent buildup
buildup of
of scale
scale in
in boiler
boiler tubes.
tubes.
Quantity: Between 18,000 and 25,000 gal (68 000 and 95 000 L) of water
are carried by tenders on reciprocating steam locomotives and steam turbine—
electric locomotives.
locomotives. In desert areas, water consumption is about 50 gal
(190 L) per nd.* Diesel—electric locomotives require up to 800 gal (3000 L) of
water, but
but because
because the
the cooling
cooling systems
systems are
are closed,
closed,little
littlemakeup
makeupwater
water1,s
I,s
needed.
Water Sources: Municipal water supplies would be suitable for steam
If separate water
engines and should be available in most railroad yards.
service is
is required,
required, the
the Aroiy
Army could
could supply
supply iater
dater from potable
potable supplies
supplies or
or from
from
wells producing water of acceptable quality.
5.4.29.2
1.
Water Conservation Measures:
Service engines in operating railroad yards with established water
service.
Employ diesel—electric locomotives which require a small amount of
2.
water
water for
for engine
engine cooling.
cooling.
5.5
Water and Wastewater
Wastewater Use
Use Opportunities
Opportunities and
and Priorities
Priorities
This section,
section, In
in part,
part, contains
contains aatabular
tabularsuiwnary
sunary of
of selected
selected findings
It is essentially a guide to sources of water and
developed in this report.
The numbers
wastewater that can be used for the various activities listed.
shown under
under each activity (Figure 5.15) indicate the water sources in an order
shown
of preference (1, 2, etc.) that minimizes
miniiizes the burden on the overall water proIn. addition, the lower portion of the figure
duction and distribution system.
indicates those activities, again in order of preference, that can use waste—
water from selected major sources.
sourceB.
The types and locations of water sources as well as the distribution of
military activities
activities within
within an
an area
area of
of operation
operation will
will be
be different
different for
for
units or military
Consequently,
the
optimum
source
of
water
and
the
each military operation.
use to be made of
of wastewater
wastewater will
will ultimately
ultimately be
be selected
selected based
based on
on local
local and
and
site—spcific conditions.
*
"The
The Military Water Problems in the Western Egyptian Desert, 1940—1943," COL
in War, Vol 3, 1948; The Institute
Fryer, 0.B.E.
O.B.E. The Civil Engineer In
W. G.
of Civil Engineers, London.
5—57
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Iau.dr
Pho,.
1u
it *pIic.bls
*pII.bLs
S.. w.t..
Sri.. 1AU)
In..
1AU)
will'.
v.111
S.lr.ce
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t.r
te,
Insects
s,.ts.
Dj.ttbotIo.
Dj.trtbotlo.
T.tISI
Zer
tLr
,.,pI,
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Figure
3—
5.15.
—
— —
3 3 3
Pill
LDI ttS—•• PSI?
L51515D1
I
2 2
2 2
—==
/I
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2
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2 2
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3 £
3
3 3 3
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IF I 2 2
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r
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5.6
Membrane. Sheeting (Liners)
Description:
Membrane sheeting materials are commonly used today as
etorage basins for various liquids, including
watertight liners in excavated storage
potable water. The expedient method is to form an earthen basin with conventional earthmoving equipment, compact the einbankmerits
einbankrnents and berms, and then
smooth the earth by removing exposed rocks and other sharp objects. With the
basin thus prepared1 the liner panels are placed in the basin and manually
positioned
positioned with
with seam
Beam overlap
overlap for
for subsequent
subsequent sealing.
Bealing. The panels are long
long
The
enough to extend over the embankment top and into a prepared ditch.
The seams
seams
are then sealed,
sealed1 the embankment ditch is backfilled to secure the liner in
place, and then, depending upon liner or seam cure time, the basin is ready
for use.
Certain membranes
membranes lend
lend themselves
themselves to
to use
use as
as water
waterstorage
storage covers,
covers sealing
sealing
out dust and other contaminants, reducing evaporation, and preventing algae
growth.
liner material
material can
can be
be sprayed,
sprayed, troweled,
troweled, or
or applied'by
applied'by
One type of liner
squeegee.
Theory:
The construction of effective water storage facilities can be a
lengthy,
lengthy, costly
costly process,
process, particularly
particularly if
if steel
steel tanks
tanks or
or concrete
concrete are
are used.
used.
Equivalent and expedient water storage facilities can
ean be built in a fraction
of the time at a fraction of the cost with membrane linings.
Case History: Membrane liner supplier/installer firms have many docudocu—
nented histories of unique and difficult water storage applications of their
mented
products.
Cost:
)lembrane liner
liner material
material is
is currently
currently not
not in
in the Federal Supply
Membrane
Supply
System. Procurement
Procurement from
from the
the manufacturer
manufacturer is
is for
for aa specific
specific project.
project. An
average cost for 30
30 mil
mu (0.76
reinforced Hypalon
Hypalon is $0.55 to 0.65 per
(0.76 mni)
mm) reinforced
7.00 per
per in2)
in2).
sq ft ($5.92 to 7.00
Reliability: The membrane materials have been developed with such physical properties as tensile strength, tear rèsistañcè,
résistance, temperature
témperatüre (hot/cold)
resistance, and resistance to degradation from exposure to sunlight, submerin soil.
sion in water, and burial In
Records of use
u8e to indicate durability
under such conditions are claimed by the manufacturers.
In addition, ASTM
test standards are imposed on producers to insure the sheeting provides adequate service.
Applications:
Applications: Membrane liners have
have been
been used
used effectively
effectively in
in many
many areas
areas
of the world for water containment and for water/sewage treatment applications. Reports from certain liner manufacturers and installers indicate that
some satisfied customers are located in Middle East countries.
It is suggested that the time/cost factors are most attractive for using membrane
sheeting in water containment basins for RDF deployment
deployment applications
applications which
which
involve potable water storage, water harvesting, and treatment.
In addition,
the membranes could be used In
in covering vehicles and equipment as protection
against dust, thereby reducing water usage in cleaning such items.
5—59
Safety Factors: Membrane materials for water containment should not
present significant safety problems except when used for a potable water
storage basin. Certain types of liner materials contain chemical components
that can leach into the water and prove harmful if not removed.
O&M Needed:
A torn liner would have to be repaired. Also,
Also, after long—
longterm
term use,
use, it
it would
would be
be necessary
necessary to
to drain
drain storage
storage facilities
facilities to
to remove
remove colcol—
lected sediment.
Instrumentation and
Instrumentation
and Other
Other Ancillary
Ancillay Considerations:
Considerations:
Not applicable.
Ease of Implementation: The
The size
size of
of the
the intended
intended water
water containment
containment
basin,
basin, thickness
thickness (weight),
(weight), and
and size
size of
of the
the membrane
membrane panels
panels will
will determine
determine ease
ease
of installation. Membrane panels could weight up to 5000 lb 2.3 MT) and
specific gravity ranges
ranges from
from 1.
1. 24
24 to
to 1.50
1.50 for
for the
the various
various membranes.
membranes. Thickness may be selected between 10 mils (0.25 = to 1.52 mm), to 60 mils and
panel widths up to 150 ft
Et (48 m)áre available.
Cranes, forklifts, flat bed trucks, and front—end loaders can be used to
place panel rolls upon the basin embankment from which the accc"rdian folds are
unrolled
unrolled manually
manually and
and accurately
accurately positioned
positioned by
by the
the installation
installation crew.
crew. Panel
sections overlap
overlap one
one another
another by
by 22 to
to 44 in.
in. (51
(51 to
to102
102unn)
mm) to
to permit a sealable
sealable
seam.
The solvent or adhesive can be manually applied or a seam welding dev—
ice is used.
A crew of four can install a 20,000 sq ft (1860 m2) liner in less than a
day, and
and aa crew
crew of
of eight
eight to
to ten
ten can
can install
install 11 hectare
hectare (2.5
(2.5 acres)
acres) of
of liner
liner in
in
day,
one
one day.
All types of membrane sheeting of simlar size and weight have similar ease of installation.
installation.
5.7
5,7
Water Consumption Planning Factors for Construction
Water Consumption Planning Factors
5.7.1
5.7.1
Table 5.1 summarizes water consumption for various activites in a
arid climate.
hot,
Assumptions
5.7.2
The following assumptions were used in deriving the water consumption
planning factors in Table 5.1.
1.
1.
Road Construction:
Construction:
a.
Compaction
(1)
Consumption on a 1—mi (1.6—kin) section of Class A road.
(2)
Subbase will
will be
be compacted
compacted to
to 66 in.
in. (152
(152 nun).
mm).
Best moisture variance between desired and actual moisture content
(3)
is 2 percent; worst case is 10 percent.
MaxImum
Maximum dry density is the desired dry density which is 120 lb/cu ft
(1920 kg/m3).
(4)
5—60
(5)
Construction is to be conducted over level terrain.
(6)
(6)
Amount listed is for one 6—in. (153—mm) compaction effort on a 1—mi
(1.6—1cm) road.
5—61
Table 5.1
Water ConBumption Activities for
Desert/Arid
Desert/Arid Cliiuate
Climate
£CTIVIT!
ACtIVITY
1.
1.
REMARKS
QUANTITY
Road Construction
Construction
a. Compaction
b.
b.
Soil Stabilization
Soil
Sabiliz.aUon
c.
c.
Bttinous
BitinousTreatment
Treatsnt
d.
Dust Control
Duit
Control
122—245 kkga.J./aile
122—245
gal/mile
ClassAA Road
of Class
Road
Nonpotable acceptable
ga.J./ail.
100—850
gal/ails
100—850
k k
Clase
Class A
A Road
Salie ae
Same
as
of
of
la.
Ia.
on aephalt
plant
Based on
asphalt plant
Baaed
requirementa.
requirements.
845O00 gal/hr/
845,000
gal/hr/
.4.1.
.4.1. of
of Class
Class
Sane as
Same
as la.
la.
A
Road
2.
2.
Airfield Construction
.
a.
Compaction
151—300kkgal/
151—300
gall
M.di
Support
Uttt Support
Medium Ut
Saae as
Same
as la.
Ia.
Area Airfield (MLSA)
(MLSA)
3.
b.
b.
Soil Stabilization
Stabilization
c.
c.
Trsaaent
Bituminous
Bitu.inoue Treatment
d.
d.
Dust Control
Dust
Control
gal/lfLSA
140—700
140—700 k gaII14LSA
Same as
ae
la.
Ia.
Sage as
Same
as
-Ic.
-lc.
as la
1,050,000 gal/hr
gal/hr
l050000
MLSA A/F
MLSA
Saie as Ia.
Same
0p.rstion
Quarry Operations
Washing/Screening
a. Washing/Screen.iztg
a.
Requirements
Rquireients
(1)
75 TPH Crusher
Cru8her
23,000—47,000 gal/hr
gal/hr
(reusable)
Same
as is;
Same as
la; subject to
design specifications
specificationa
for clean aggregate.
(2)
225
TPR Criaeher
Crusher
225 TPR
105—210 k gal/hr
(reusable)
Sate as 3a.
Same
(3)
Dust
Control
Dust Control
60 gal/hr
Sane as 3a.
Same
5—62
Table 5.]. (Cont'd)
ACTIVITY
4.
5•
5 •
Asphalt
REMAUS
QUANTITY
Plant Operations
Plant
Oprationa
a. Plant
Plant
1000
b.
b.
gal/hr
200 gal/hr
3—Car asat.r
Rsat.r
gal/hr
Potable
Potable
Nonpotabls
Nonpotabla
Wail Drilling
DrillingR.quirsnts
R.quirsnts
a. Rotary Drilling
(hydranlic)
3 ti... the vole
3 ti... the
b.ing
of the
th. bol.
bole being
drU.lad.
b.
6.
Cable—Tool Drilling
Concrete Construction
Concrete
Construction
4 gal/ft
gal/ft
55 gal/ft
of 6 in. hole
of
Noapotable
Noapo
table
Saltwater
may be
aay
be used.
used.
8 in. hole
yard
60
gal/cubic yard
60 gal/cubic
Potable water preferred.
Nonpotable water
Nonpotable
water may
uy be
be
used that
used
that i acid/
i. acid,
and has
has aa
alkali free and
of organic
organic
a.in.tau of
ainia
materials
.at.rLals •• Seawater
uy
may
be used, but
strength ii decreased
by
by 20Z.
20Z.
7.
7.
Pipeline
Testing
a. 6—in.
6—tn. Pip.
b.
B-in.
Pip.
B-in. Pipe
16,000 gal/ails
28,000
28,000
gal/ails
gal/mile
Nonpotable acceptable.
Basedononin.itial
initial
Based
line
test and
and one
one complete
coaplete
flushingof
flushing
of line..
line..
Figure may
Figure
be reduced
e.ay be
reduced
by
by half
half
no flushing
flushing
if no
required after testing.
is required
is
aay be
used,
Saltwater may
be used,
but must
aust be followed
by a fresh water flushflushing befor, the syst..
can be operational.
•yst
5—63
(7)
Dry compaction will not be performed.
(8)
(8)
Soil is moisture—free or near moisture—free content.
(9)
(9)
Range
Range of
of required
required moisture
moiBture content
content is
is 10
10 to
to 20
20 percent.
percent.
b.
Soil Stabilization
uBed as a stabilizing agent apply factors outout—
only water is used
When only
(1)
above.
It, above.
lined in II,
(2)
Bituminous stabilization
stabilization is
is treated
treated Beparately
separately (see
(Bee lc
ic below).
below).
Bituminous
Amount of water required equals 1/2 percent for each 1 percent of
etabilizing agent by weight.
stabilizing
(3)
(4)
Consumption
Consumption based on a 1-mi (1.6—km)
(l.6—km) section
section of
of Class A road.
Amount of
cement) ranges from 2 percent
of stabilizing
stabilizing agent
agent (lime,
(lie, cement)
percent
(best case) to 16 percent (worst
(worøt case).
(5)
(6)
Den8ity
Density of
of soil
soil equals
equals 10
10 lb/cu
lb/cu ft
ft (160
(160 kg/rn3).
kg/rn3).
(7)
Does not Include
include factors
factorB for compacting process.
(8)
Amount listed is for one 6—in. (152—mm) stabilization effort on a
1—mi (1.6—kin)
(1.6—kin) road.
road.
c.
Bituminous Treatment
Treatment Requirements
Requirements
(1)
No water required at placement site.
(2)
Treated
Treated as
as part
part of
of the
the asphalt
asphalt plant
plant figure.
figure.
d.
Dust
Duet Control
Control
(1)
Water will
will provide
provide control
control for
for 11 hour.
hour.
Water
(2)
Requires 11 gal/sq
gal/sqydyd(4.5
(4.51./rn2)
L/m2) (worst
cage).
Requires
(worst cage).
(3)
Consumption based
Consumption
based on
on 1—mi.
1—mi (l.6—kiu)
Claes A road.
(1.6—kiu) section of Clags
Requires 33 to
to 55 gal/sq
gal/sq yd
yd (14
(14 to
to 23
23 L/m2)
L/m2) due
due to
to heat
heat and
and zero
zero moismois(4) Requires
ture content.
If coherex is used in lieu of water, application rate is approxiapproxi—
(5)
mately
.33 to
to .67
.67 gal/sq
gal/sq yd
yd (1.5
(1.5 to
to 3.0
3.0 L/m2).
L/m2). Mix
Mix one
one part
part coherex
coherex to
to one
one to
to
ately .33
Beven parts water.
seven
Other dust control agents can be used which decrease the amount of
(6)
water required (penoprime, DCA 1295, etc.).
5—64
2.
Cons'-.ruction
Airfields:
Conruction ofofAirfielda:
a.
Compaction: Assumptions
A8auinption8 are
are the
the same
aame as
as Road
Road Construction
Con8truction (LA)
(LA) with
the exception of width and length, which are based on the criteria for a
Medium Lift Support Area Airfield. Width — 60
3500 ft
60 ft (18.3 m); length
(1070 in).
En).
b.
Soil Stabilization:
A88uption8 are
A8sumptiona
are the
the same as
a lb
lb above,
above, with
with the
the
width and length changes
change8 noted In
in 2a, above.
c.
Bituminous treatment requirements:
d.
Dust
Dust Control:
Control:
lined
lined in 2a above.
Same as Ic,
ic, above.
SaDieas
Same
a id,
ld, above, with width and length changes outOut-
3.
Quarry Operations:
a.
Based on data in FM 101—10—1 and TM 5—331C.
b.
gal/mm
For dust
dust control,
control, assume
assume1.
1 gal/mm
4.
Asphalt Plant Operations:
S.
Well Drilling Requirements:
Requirement8:
(0.06 L/s).
None.
a.
Rotary drilling (hydraulic) data obtained from Well Drilling Manual,
National Water Well Association; Water Well Technology, McGraw—Hill; and Water
tanual, Premier Pre8s.
Well Manual,
Press.
Planning figure listed as three times the volume
of the hole being drilled.
b.
factora in Well Drilling Manual,
Cable tool drilling data based on factors
National
National Water
Water Well
Well Association.
Association.
c.
Figure8 do not include
Figures
include loss
loss of
of water
water due
due to
to seepage
seepage froth
from the
the settling
settling
8oil.
(Settling pits are considered
con8idered to be lined with a membrane
pit into the soil.
or impervious
imperviou8 clay.)
6.
Concrete Construction:
The amount of water required per cubic yard of concrete is dependent
a.
on the size
8ize of aggregates used, the water cement ratio, type of cement, concrete
crete slump,
slump, weather
weather conditions,
coadition8, and
and curing
curing requirements.
requirements.
include8 only requirements to mix and finish concrete.
Water figure includes
b.
Figures do not include cleanup of concrete mixing equipment.
tncrea8e is due to higher requirements for curing and absorption by
Increase
c.
aggregates.
5—65
7.
Pipeline Testing:
Water testing
a.
teBting is required.
fuel may be used to test
teat the system.
Bystem.
effectB.)
many adverse effects.)
(It should be noted that in emergencies
emergenciea
Bowever, this
thiB is very dangerous and has
filling of
of the
the pipeline
pipeline with
Planning figures
figureB are
are based
baaed on.
on complete
complete filling
b.
Planning
water for the test and one complete flushing.
If fresh water is used to check pressure, flushing can be eliminated
if necessary.
c.
d.
If saltwater is u8ed
used to check pressure,
pressures one complete flushing of
freBh water must follow testing in order to purge saltwater from the line.
fresh
5—66
CHAPTER
CHAPTER66 —
— VEPJICAL CONSTRUCTION
CONSTRUCTION
6.1
6.1
Introduction
The use of
of improper
improper building materials, building systems, construction
details, or construction techniques in SWA would not only create unnecessary
problems for construction
con8truction workers, but would also adversely
adverBely affect the working
effectiveness or living comfort of the occupants
occupant8 because
becauBe of inferior or unsaunsa—
tisfactory
ti8faCtory environments. This chapter considers climate, efficient use of
indigenous
indigenous materials
materials for
for building,
building, and
and appropriate
appropriate methods
methods of
of construction.
con8truction.
The Middle East covers a wide variety of geographic, climatic, and cultural regions.
It is important to point out that within this region there are
temperate and cool to cold areas, although the major emphasis of this report
is on building in the hot climates of the Middle East.
Eaat.
The scenario to which this chapter tesponds covers an operational time
period
period of
of from
from 00 to
to 12
12 months.
months. This overlaps two military standards of construction: JCS Publication 3 initial construction (0 to 6 months) and JCS
Publication 3 temporary construction (6 to 24 months).
Current planning doctrine specifies that during the initial 6 months of an operation, troops and
equipment will be housed primarily in TOE tents (may be some wood frames).
However, doctrine also states that the period exceeding the initial 6 months
should provide more permanent structures which exploit the indigenous methods
and materials wherever and whenever possible.
Therefore, this chapter will
cover a period from 6 to 12 months, and will identify indigenous materials,
materials growing or produced in a region or country, and the corresponding
methods of construction in order to provide less expensive, habitable, and
feasible building in an otherwise austere building environment.
6.2
6.2
6.2.1
Improving Habitability
General
Because
Because of the
the austere
austere conditions.
conditions. for
for constiucting
constructing and
and operating
operating a building in the desert, standard and exotic methods of heating and cooling are not
possible. Th18
This means that any method requiring electricity viii
will not be seriEvaporative cooling, which will be discussed, should
shou1d only
ously considered.
be used when there is a plentiful water supply that is easily transportable
Electricity or
or water
water should
should only
only be
be
and does not present a health hazard. Electricity
used when the buildings
buildings are
are normally
normally unbearable
unbearable to
to live
live in
in because
because of
of the
the
The
Many steps can be taken to moderate the effects of the desert.
heat.
discuceed below should be expanded upon in the field by taking
guidelines discussed
advantage of soldiers' own imaginative solutions to problems and by copying
successful practices of the natives.
-
In the desert, a building
building mu8t
must provide
provide protection
protection from
from the
the sun
sun for
for the
the
people and equipment, shield them from blowing sand, and hopefully provide
Because the climate is so important,
some rr.lief from the high temperatures.
com—
it will be discussed first. The factors affecting whether a person is comfortabJe will be examined next to see how to take advantage of the desert's
fortable
desert'8
extreme conditions.
conditions. Techniques for passively cooling buildings will then be
6—1
discussed. A brief description of non—austere mechanical systems will be
di8cussed.
given next. Finally, the main points will be summarized.
6.2.2
Effect of Climate
climate can
Although the
the Middle
Middle East
East climate
can range
range from
from cold,
cold, to
to very
very hot,
hot, only
Although
Temperatures can rise
rise above
above 109°F
109°F (43°C).
(43°C).
the hot regions will be considered.
coastal regions
regions
While the region is
is arid
arid and
and generally
generally hag
has low
low humidity,
humidity, Borne
some coastal
have high
high humidity levels. A map of world climate zones, shown in Chapter 1,
gives three climate categories covering the Middle East: hot, dry desert;
intermediate
intermediate hot dry desert; and humid,
humid, hot
hot coastal
coastal desert.
desert.
The amount of humidity has a large effect on night temperatures.* In low
humidity areas, the night temperatures can fall to 59°F (15°C). This
This wide
day—to--night temperature
day—to—night
temperature swing
swing helps
helps offset
offget the
the high
high temperatures
temperatures during
during the
the
day.
Areas with high humidity have much lower day—to—night temperature
swings. Unfortunately, this limits the number of ways to moderate the day
day
temperature.
The sun is at a very high angle because of the low latitudes. Consequently, the roof of a structure will receive most of the solar radiation.
Also, a north—south building axis receives more solar gaiQ
gain than a ist—west
building axis (Figure 6.1).
6.2.3
Thermal. Comfort
Thermal.
Comfort
Many factors
tempera—
Many
factors affect whether a person feels
feels thermal
thermal comfort.
comfort. Air temperaair velocity,
ture is the most familiar; however, there are other factors:
relative
relative humidity,
humidity, interaction
interaction by
by radiation
radiation heat
heat transfer
transfer with
with the
the surround—
surroundlags
ings (from
(from the
the sun,
sun, outdoors,
outdoors, or
or building
building walls),
walls), and
and the
the conditions
conditions one
one is
is
To understand the goals of some of the passive building designs, it
used to.
is necessary to know how
hoi each of these factors influences comfort.
Each factor's effect will be covered only briefly here since the subject
is so complex. The air temperature indicates how much heat will be transferred
body to
to the
the air
air surrounding
surrounding it.
it. The relaferred by convection from a human body
tive humidity is a measure of how much water.
water, vapor the air holds tQ. how much
it
it could
could possibly
possibly hold
hold at
at the
the same
same temperature
temperature and
and pressure.
pressure. The lower the
humidity, the easier it is for the body to cool itself by sweating. Higher
air velocities around the body Increase
increase the heat transfer by convection
between the air and body, and thus the cooling which occurs with sweating. An
often overlooked
overlooked factor
factor affecting
affecting comfort
comfort indoors
indoors is
is the
the wall
wall temperature.
temperature.
often
Our bodies
bodies exchange
exchange heat
heat by
by radiation
radiation with
with the
the walls,
walls, floor,
floor, and
and ceiling.
ceiling. If
Our
the walls are cool, a person may be significantly cooler in hot air than if
the ial1
wall and air are
are hot.
hot. Obviously, being in direct sunlight can greatly
influence how hot one feels. Conversely, a person who is outdoots on a hot
clear
clear night
night can
can feel
feel the
the cooling
cooling effect
effect of
of the
the cold
cold night
night sky.
sky. Finally, people can adjust to hot climates that they at first think almost unbearable.
The body can quickly (In
(in a matter of days) acclimate itself to a hot environenviron—
ment.
tnent.
(See Chapt.r 9.)
*
B. Givoni, Desert Housing and Energy Conservation (Ben Gurion, University of
the Negev).
6—2
w
E
N
—— ———
Figure
6.1.
0'
S
—
——
An east—west building—oriented axis.
Ordinarily, a major goal of building design is to provide a comfortable
environment for the inhabitants. Under austere desert conditions, this may
not be a realistic goal; instead, austere buildings must be designed to be at
least livable. Nevertheless) the more comfortable people are, the more efficIently they will wárk and the less they will need to drink water because they
are not sweating as much. Each of the factors affecting comfort can be
adjusted to provide a livable, if not comfortable, building.
Desert winds and dust storms create an unbearable living environment for
occupants and also may cause problems for some structural components
unless precautionary steps are taken during construction.
building
In windy areas, the foundations must be built deep enough to prevent erosion around the corners of the foundation system. Exterior doors and windows
should be sealed as much a possible, although no attempt should be made under
Several methods for
normal service conditions to erect a sand—tight building.
reducing dust infiltration are as follows:
6—3
1.
Use nonoperable window.
2.
Use inertial dust separator.
3.
Use air filters.
4.
4.
Use positive building interior pressure.
5.
Use high air intake louvers.
Also, roofing material must be doubly fastened
faBtened and cooling systems
attached securely to the supporting structure with additional fasteners.
Electrical equipment's performance can be drastically reduced by exces—
excessively high temperature.
If the temperature is high enough, the machine may
In
in general, the cooling principles
principles that
that apply
apply to
to humans
humans can
can be
be
not work.
applied to machines.
6.2.4
Coo'ing &ildings
The purpose of any cooling system is to moderate the extreme desert heat
Conventional cooling sysLe:.s are not
so the inhabitants can be comfortable.
practical in austere desert conditions; however, other steps can be taken, as
discussed below.
A person's primary shelter against the environment is his clothing. For
the desert., clothing should reflect the sunlight as much as possible and allow
the body to cool by evaporating sweat.
The heat sinks of electric equipment should be shielded from the sun,
have a high emissivity to radiate heat,
heat1 and have an air flow over them to convect
vect the
the heat
heat away.
away.
The following passive cooling techniques
technique9 take advantage of or neutralize
the desert conditions:
.1.
tive ——
Reduce
that..are
Reduce solar
solar gain
gain by
byusing
usingexterior
exteriorpaints
paints
that.arevery.re.fle.c—
very reflecfor the roof.
especially
it
2.
Orient the building 80 it has
has an east—west axis (Figure 6.1)
6.1) to
to
general1 only design windows when they are necesminimize the
the solar
solar gain. In general,
sary for adequate ventilation or daylighting.
3.
Use overhangs or shutters to block sunlight from falling directly
on the windows or the walls. Shading separate from the building can be used
for the same effect, but it should not hinder ventilation.
Movable shades and
shutters may be used to maximize ventilation and minimize solar gain.
4.
In order to reduce convective heating, minimize the exterior
surface area by having as square a building as possible.
Use thick, dense walls and roof to insulate against the hot exte5.
rior air and so that the interior surface temperature will be slow to rise
6—4
during
during the
the h-. of
of the
the day.
ThIS
ThiB will
will be
be aa cooling
cooling effect
effect since
Bince comfort
comfort 18
i8
affected by idiant interchange with the surroundings.
6.
Place additional lightweight insulation on the exterior of the
thick, dense walls so they will be even slower to heat up.
7.
Bury the building partially or completely underground since the
8un is
ground does not get as hot as the air and all that is exposed to the sun
the roof.
8.
Ventilate the building.
In a low—humidity
low—hwnidity region with large
swings between day and night air temperature, the ventilation should be as
high as possible at night so the interior walls can be cooled down to keep
everyone comfortable the next day.
During the day, the ventilation should be
as low as possible (doors and windows closed and any air leaks blocked) so
that the hot air will not get in and raise the temperature of the interior
surfaces.
In high—humidity regions with little change between day and night
air temperatures,
temperatures, the
the interior
interior surface
surface temperatures
temperatures will
will not
not drop
drop very
very azuch
much
during the night, so there will be little relief from the
the heat
heat during
during the
the day.
day.
Consequently, there should always be ventilation so that the effects of sweating can be enhanced by increased air speed around the body. There is an
at
optimum air speed for cooling by sweating; a higher speed will increase the
8weating
convective heating, and a lower speed will reduce the effect of the sweating
compared to the convective heating.
Orient openings to take advantage of the
usual direction of the wind.
(Normally the wind is from the northwest or
southeast.)
9.
The most effective height of windows to ventilate for human comfort ranges from 18 to 60 in. (0.46 to 1.52 tn) above the floor.
In barracks,
It is advisable to keep the sill at the height of the beds to insure an adequate airflow around this area.
When higher windows are required, they should
be horizontally pivoted so that the window panel deflects the airflow down
into
into the space.
10.
Minimize use of interior walls because they limit the air flow
MInimize
when windows are opened. Where needed, Interior
interior walls should be lightweight
and light
nd
light In color.
11.
Whenever possible, use on—grade concrete slabs for a foundation
to take advantage of the earth's insulating qualities.
Avoid raised foundations, whether of the point or perimeter type.
Unless the floors are properly insulated, they will be exposed to the high
diurnal temperature variations.
12.
13.
13.
Use properly insulated lightweight wall and roof systems to
prevent
prevent intolerable
intolerable amounts
amounts of
of heat
heat from
from being
being transmitted
transmitted into
into the
the building.
building.
14.
External wall surfaces should be a light, nonglaring reflective
color or should be painted in light, nonglaring colors to reflect.solar
reflect solar radia-
tion.
Sone cooling techniques require manual labor.
Some
ally be done before sunup and after sundown.
6—5
These activities can usu-
Brush clean the exterior
exterior surface
surface of
of the
the walls
walls and
and roof
roof so
so that
that
the sand film
the
film that
that may
may form
form on them does not change
change their
their solar
solar reflective
reflective
properties.
1.
2.
Add extra insulation to the building exterior during the day and
remove it during the night.
3.
windowB when the outVentilate the building by opening doors and windows
side air temperature is lover
lower than the temperature inside the building.
Sleep outside
outside if
if the
the building
building is
ia too
too hot
hot (probably
(probably in
in humid
humid
Sleep
regions), preferably under mosquito
moaquito netting.
4.
5.
Observe the techniques natives use to stay cool.
Habitability
6.2.5
Habitabi Ut ofof
Buildings
Prefabricated
TenrporaryBw,
Prefabricated
Tenrporary
ldingBWithout
WithoutMechanical
Meanica?
Cooling
Cooling
A study
trailer—like, lightlightstudy was
was made
made to
to determine
deternine whether
whether temporary,
temporary trailer—like,
or could
could be
be made
made
weight buildings without
without air
air conditioning
conditioning would
would be
be habitable,
habitbie, or
habitable, during emergencies in hot desert environments. The study was made
made
using
using the
the Buildings
Buildings Loads
Loads Analysis
Analysis and
and System
System Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics (BLAST).
(BLAST). prograin.*
program.*
The BLAST computer program is a detailed simulation procedure which calculates
hourly heating or cooling loads, or hourly room temperatures in the absence of
heating or cooling equipment,
equipments based on a detailed description of the building
and on actual climate data. The climates simulated were a hot—wet climate and
a hot—dry climate typical of the Middle East climate extremes. An office and
two different dormitory configurations
cotfigurations were simulated.
The baseline buildings as well as retrofit options were simulated to
determine if improvements in habitability and comfort could be achieved by
such techniques as
as adding
adding mass
mass to
to roof
roof and
and walls,
walls controlling
controlling ventilations
ventilation,
adding shading, reducing window area,
areas etc. The results are summarized in
Table 6.1. The
The results
results indicated
indicated that
that with
with temperatures
temperatures ranging
ranging from
from 111°F
111°F
the day
day to
to 87°F
87°F (31°C)
(31°C) at
at night
night for
for 11 percent
percent design
design day
day (e.g.,
(e.g.
(44°C) during the
in Dhahran),
Dhahran) it
it proved
proved impossible
impossible to
to maintain
maintain the mean air temperature
temperature in
in the
the
buildings to within the limits of human physiological comfort as defined by
he ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (Figure 6.2).**
Even the fully retrofitted office (option from Table 6.1) modeled still
reached 93°F (34°C) during the 5 percent design day in the hot—dry desert
regions.
This showed that the prefabricated buildings studied can be
extremely uninhabitable if mechanical cooling cannot be provided.
*
0. C. Hittle,
Hittle The
The Building
Building Loads
Loads Analysis
Analysis System
System Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics (BLAST)
(BLAST)
gram, Version 2.0: Users Manual, Volume I, Technical Report E—153/ADA072272
(U.S.
(U.S. Army
Army Construction
Construction Engineering
Engineering Laboratory
Laboratory[CERL),
[CERLJ 1979).
1979).
**A5Hp.E Handbook
1977
Heating, Ref
Refrigera**AS}4pJ..E
Handbook
1977Fundamentals
Fundamentals(Mnerican
(American Society
Society of Heating,
rigera—
tion, and
and Air
Air Conditioning
Conditioning Engineers
Engineers[ASHRAE),
ASHRAE) 1977),
1977), pp
pp 8.1—9.18.
8.1—9.18.
6—6
Table 6.1
Results of BLAST Analysis
Hot—Dry Region (Riyadh)
Hot—Wet Rseii (Dhahr.n)
Relative
!!1 Hidity*s
Te.p
Option
High
Low
High
Time
Temp
Time
(Hrs)
Temp
!1
Relative
Time
HumidityC*
Low
Temp
lime
(OF)
(Hra)
1 percent design diy*
Outdoor
bulb temp
03
110.0
108.6
100.0
05
05
99.0
96.8
33
76.0
80.7
05
106.0
07
104.6
77.1
77.h
77.8
05
05
05
96.5
26
27
34
35
36
111.0
37
15
t09 .6
38
16
49
17
52
17
4
100.9
99.4
97.9
79.0
83.7
80.7
80.4
55
17
80.8
5 percent design dayS
Outdoor dry bulb temp
108.0
P
15
106.6
38
16
98.1
50
17
96.6
95.5
53
55
17
dry
3
•
16
Os
01
95.3
94.3
15
78.0
16
82.7
07
32
17
79.7
05
17
17
79.5
79.7
05
05
36
15
74.0
05
16
78.8
07
11
16
15.4
75.9
05
05
I percent and 5 percent design day:
The high teIaperaLre of the design deyia only eaceeded! percent end
5 percent of the year.
The relative humidity La determined using a Peyhro.retric chart and issuming that the epeclflc humidity is the
same indoors and outside. The actual relt1ve humidity would probably be considerably higher due to the moleture
added to the building from human perSpiration.
-
**
05
24
23
OPTION I
OPTION 2
OPTION 3
ALL SURFACES HAVE A REFLECTIVE ATING
6—7
OPTION 4
0SC13
0S
C0
ide nq
.â ,dAT
X*ntssz•44)
t4*44)
—
— ILT
PeST
wca ist
!T St
D&W
LM(r—.r,&iI
(.—..,
I
j
;•cm.ia
SILL trri
CIFl
Figure
6.2.
Comfort and discomfort lines, lines of equal wetted area
Lines for ET* at Comfort, 25 percent,
(physiological strain).
50 percent, and 100 percent wettedness also indicated.
(Reprinted by permission from ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals,
1981.
Cooling Systems
6.2.6
If
If base camps are built up enough that austere requirements can
ãan be
relaxed,
relaxed, several
several methods
methods can
can cool
cool effectively.
effectively.
Evaporative
Evaporative cooling
cooling requires
requires aa plentiful
plentifpl supply
supply of
of water
water and
and works
works well
wellS
in low—humidity regions. The hot, dry aIr
air is
is cooled
cooled by
by vaporizing
vaporizing water.
watEr. To
provide
provide cooling,
cooling, air
air must
must be
be moved
moved through
through the
the building
building either
either by
by fans
fans
(requires electricity) or naturally.
Since the water normally found in desert regions has high alkali content,
the water that will be used for evaporative cooling should be treated if
required. An evaporative cooler must not be used where water is at a premium.
However, since evaporative cooling units are economical, they should be used
as
much as
as possible
possible in
in hot,
hot, dry
dry regions
regions if
if water is available.
s much
available.
A traditional method of evaporative cooling can be used, as shown in
Figure 6.3.
This is a chimney—type structure with an opening designed to
catch the prevailing dry winds, which are funnelled down a shaft in which a
large porous pot full of water is suspended. The water in the porous
porous pot
pot
slowly drips to a grid on which charcoal has been spread. The air passing
over the porous pot and the charcoal absorbs the water vapor, and cooling
takes place by evaporation. Both the air introduced into the interior spaces
of the building and the water in the pot are cooled.
6—8
POROUS JAR
CHARCOAL
SECTION
Figure 6.3
Traditional method of evaporative cooling.
Roof water ponds require a plentiful supply of water and a very strong
A pond of water on the roof is covered during the day to minimize heat
gain and then uncovered at night to maximize cooling by the cold air, night
sky, and vaporization of the water.
roof.
Conventional window air conditioners require electricity but are easily
installed.
.2.7
h'eting
When the desert gets cold, personnel can wear warmer clothing.
The passive cooling techniques can be reversed to have passive heating (e.g., ventilate during the day and not at night to keep the interior surface temperatures at a comfortable level).
If fuel is not in short supply, fuel—burning
heaters can be used.
6.3
6.3.1
Indigenous Building Methods and Materials
General
The limited range of materials for building in the Middle East is conmion
knowledge; the area is primarily desert and inaccessible mountain ranges;
vegetation is sparse, and mineral resources are difficult and expensive to
exploit.
Indigenous building technology is based largely on stone, clay
soils, and a limited supply of wood.
National development, financed by oil
6—9
and gas revenues, is forcing the growth of local building materials industries, but it will
will be
be years
years before
before steel,
steel, cement1,
cement, and
and other
other primary
primary structural
structural
materials will meet regional building needs.
needa. Primary and secondary materials
will need to be brought in for the foreseeable future, and thus will remain
available mainly
mainly on
on aa warehouse
warehouse basis
basis ——
—— in the ports and centers of trade,
available
and at the sites
Bites of development.
Designers of buildings which utilize materials and methods indigenous to
the region will be faced not only with a limited choice of materials, but also
In such
such
by the problem of limited lengths and sizes
øizes in specific categories. In
cases, it
it may
may be
be necessary
necessary to
to overdesign
overdesign in
in order
order to
to utilize
utilize available
available inateri—
inateri—
cases,
ale, or
or otherwise
otherwise adapt
adapt to
to the
the local
local Bupply
aupply situation.
situation.
als,
and environmental considerations will also affect design
Climatic end
developnent.
development.
Options for
for building
building design,
design, for
for example1,
example, include the possibilpossibility of burying below the ground surface —— a traditional desert technique that
has been used for centuries to combat heat gain through walls.
It can be
demonstrated that burying a building will influence design of the superstruccan be
be reduced
reduced in
in height,
height or
or eliminated;
eliminated; traditure in various ways: walls can
tional heavy mud roofs
roofs can
can be
be constructed
constructed more
more easily
easily when
when the
the superstructure
superstructure
is lowered (thus increasing
increasing local
local material
material options);
options); roof
roof sizes
sizes can
can be
be reduced
reduced
since wall shading requirements are reduced or eliminated, and opportunities
for
for using
using short
short pieces
pieces of
of material
material are
are increased.
increased.
Corrosive soils containing sulfate and chloride are abundant in the
region.
Do not use galvanized steel in contact with ground in a corrosive
Only
zinc—coated, vinyl—covered steel should be used in such areas.
area.
Also do not use uncoated galvanized steel or aluminum in exterior applications
within 5 miles of seawater or it will quickly corrode.
methods of
of using material8
materials such
sich as
as wood
wood and
and steel,
steel, which
which are
are
Conventional methods
common knowledge among Western designers and builders, have not been conRather, this
this study
study has
has attempted
attempted to
to look,
look for ways in
sidered in this chapter.
which traditional
traditional local
local materials
materials can
can be
be retained
retained for
for their
their proveti
proven merits,
merits, and
and
for
for opportunities
opportunities to
to improve
improve methods
methods and
and make
make them
them easier
easier to
to use
use by
by applying
applying
principles of materials science and technology.
6.3.2
6.3.2.1
Concrete Systems
General:
Concrete production in the Middle East has been difficult)
difficult, at best, for
many decades. The four major problem areas are:
(1) inferior materials, (2)
lack of production
production capabilities,
capabilities, (3)
(3) environment1,
environment, and (4) unskilled
unskilled and
and
untrained labor forces.
Reports of rapid deterioration
deterioration and,
and, in
in some
some
instances1, total
total failure
failure of
of concrete
concrete structures
structures built in the
instances,
the Middle
Middle East
East are
are
appearing with greater frequency in engineering and construction journals.
The principal villains are the poor construction materials and the harsh
environment.
environment. The general absence of both fine and coarse good—quality aggregates, which make up 85 percent of the concrete, coupled with a lack of suitable quantities of potable water for concreting operations will present a real
challenge
challenge to
to troop
troop construction.
construction. The very high temperatures and strong prevailing winds associated with the area will compound the problem.
6—10
Nonetheless1, concrete
concrete is
is made
aiadeand
andused
useddaily
dailyin
inthe
the area;
area; this
this indicates
indicates that
that
Nonetheless,
with proper tr&ning
traning and planning, troops also could produce it.
The Engineer support associated with the size of the operation being conreport will
will not
not have
have the
the production
production equipaient
equipment nor
sidered in this report
nor expertise
expertise
needed to
to make
make anything
anything more
more than
than occasional
occasional batches
batche8 of
of concrete.
concrete. Once made1,
needed
transportation of the concrete will be difficult due to limited vehicular support and lack of suitable surfaces
8urfaces over which to transport it.
The following paragraphs describe the anticipated problems or areas of
The
need for most aspects
aBpects of concrete materials and concrete production.
aggregate problem will be difficult to solve, and does vary depending on site
location.
6.3.2.2
Portland Cement Concrete Production:
Portland cement. Although there is
i8 some
8ome local cement production in
the region, most cement will have to be imported.
Many countries ship cement
into the region.
In
therewill
willbe
beno
no control
control over
over what
what is
is received
received
In getieraL1,
general, there
If
sulfate—resistant (Type
(Type V) and low—heat
and its quality.
If possible1,
possible, sulfate—resistant
low—heat cements
cements
(Type IV) should be used.
1.
2.
Aggregates.
Natural sands are usually abundant, but their gradings
are
are generally
generally poor,
poor, and
and they
they are
are frequently
frequently contaminated
contaminated by
by deleterious
deleterious salts.
salts.
Typical grading curves and bands of aggregates
aggregate8 in desert
de8ert areas are provided in
Figures 7.2 through
outcrops may
may be
be friable
friable and
and porous,
porous, and
and contamconta—
through 7.6.
7.6. Rock outcrops
These problems,
problems, in
in combination
combination with
with extreaiely
extremely
mated with
inated
with deleterious
deleterious salts.
salts.
hot
hot weather,
weather, are
are of
of aiajor
major concern
concern for concrete construction.
construction.
3.
The entire
entire concrete
concrete operation
operation uses
uses large
large quantities
quantitiesof
ofwater1,
water,
Water.
curbeginning with the
the processing
processing and
and washing
washing of
of aggregates,
aggregates, through
through mixing1,
mixing, curIn most steps,
steps, it
it is
is usually
usually reconimended
recommended that the
ing, and
ing1,
and equipment
equipment cleanup.
cleanup.
especially for
for the
the temtemwater be potable;
potable; however,
however, exceptions
exceptions can
can be
be made1,
made, especially
mortar8 or
or concretes
concretes must
be used
used for
for aiixing
mixing mortars
porary construction. Water to be
not contain dissolved substances that
unduly or
or retard
retard
not
that affect
affect the
the setting
setting tiaie
time unduly
In general, the only
in natural
natural water
water that are
In
only iaipurities
impurities in
the hardening.
1ik1y to
likely
to be
be objectionable
objectionable are
are dissolved
dissolved salts;
salts; the
the permissible
permissible limits
limits for
for
are quite wide.
Seawater or brackish water has been used for mixing concrete in many
It has
haB been noted that seaareas where potable water is difficult to obtain.
water with a maximum concentration of salts on the order of 3.5 percent does
doe8
not
not appreciably
appreciably reduce
reduce the
the strength
strength of
of concrete,
concrete, although
although it
it may
may lead
lead to
to corcor—
At salt
salt concentrations
concentrations beyond
beyond that1,
that, a strength
8trength
ro8ion of reinforcement. At
rosion
reduction ranging from 8 to 15 percent can be expected. This reduction in
strength may be corrected by using somewhat less
leBs mixing water and somewhat
Mo8t engineers believe that seawater should
BhOuld not be used for mixmore cement. Most
ing reinforced
reinforced concrete;
concrete; however1,
however, after
after 44 years1,
years, no
no problems
problems were reported
reported
when coral aggregate
aggregate and
and seawater
seawater were
were used
used in
in aiilitary
military base
base construction
construction in
in
Therefore,
seawater
i5
is
acceptable
for
use
in
Portland
cement
conBermuda.
Bermuda.
crete construction
construction for
for temporary
temporary facilities.
facilities.
crete
If the quality and thickness of the concrete cover are inadequate, brack—
ish water
water or
or seawater,
seawater, when
when used
used as
as mixing
mixing water1,
water, may create
create conditions
conditions that
that
6—11
aggravate reinforcing steel corrosion. Saline mixing water tends to cause
dampness and surface
surface efflorescence
efflorescence in
in the
the hardened
hardened concrete,
concrete and
and should
should not
not be
be
used where
where surface
surface finish
finish is
is important,
important, or
or where
where the
the mortar
mortar or
or èoncrete
concrete is
is to
to
used
be covered with plastic or any decorative finish. It should also be noted
that saline water must never be used for mixing high alumina cement since it
baa an adverse effect on the strength.
has
Organic impurities in water may retard setting and hardening of cement;
however, these impurities do not usually occur to an objectionable extent,
except in artificially contaminated waters.
water8. It is improbable that
that aa water
water
used for curing would attack concrete if it were the type suitable for mixing
water.
Staining
Staining or
or discoloration
discoloration of
of the
the concrete
concrete by
by curing
curing waters
waters should
should be
be
the principal curing water problem.
Provisions should be made to retain and
recycle all water, when possible, at all steps of the concrete operation (see
Chapter
Chapter 5).
5).
Facilities for
for water
water storage
storage at
at the
the site
site of
of the
the aggregate
aggregate and/or
and/or concrete
concrete
Facilities
production must
product.ion
must be
be provided.
provided. The mixing water storage should also -include
provisions for water
water cooling
cooling to
to help
help the
the problem
problem of
of temperature
temperature development
developmentin
in
fresh and new concrete.
4.
Admixtures.
There is a definite need for using water reducing,
retarding, and superplasticizing admixtures for reduced water requirements,
improved consistency, and extended working time.
These will all have to be
brought
brought into
into the
the area.
area.
Mix proportions.
5.
Most concrete proportioning schemes are dictated by
the locally available materials which, for the problem at hand, a.re highly
variable.
The existing technology for developing concrete mixture designs is
not
not considered
considered applicable
applicable for
for proper
proper approaches
approaches to
to mixture
mixture designs
designs with
with
naterials available in the Gulf area.
materials
Suggested proportions for producing
expedient concrete and mortar mix using locally available aggregates are provided in Chapter 7.
6.
Placing. The
The very hot temperatures affect the
the consistency
consistency of
of the
the
fresh concrete and make it very difficult to place.
High temperature, winds,
and direct sunlIght should be avoided, when p1acing concrete. -If
.11 possible, the.
concrete should be
be placed
placed with
with the
the temperature
temperature below
below 90°F
90°F (33°C).
(33°C). Using ice
water or cool water will help lower the concrete temperature. If ice is used
to chill water for mixing, the ice should be melted when it leaves the mixer.
Doing concreting work at night should also be considered. The forms1,
forms, reinreinforcement,
forcement, and ground surface should
should be
be sprinkled
sprinkled with
with good—quality
good—quality water,
water) if
if
available1, just
available,
just prior
prior to
to placement.
placement.
7.
Finishing. There will be short finishing times due to the hot temperatures and strong winds of the area.
Shading and windscreens are a necessity to prolong the finishing period and reduce evaporation from the concrete
surface.
Concrete should be covered immediately after finishing with a temporary cover (e.g., burlap) whenever available.
The quality of finishing will
be marginal because the labor can be considered unskilled.
Curing.
8.
Troops seldom cure concrete but must do so in this area to
avoid excessive and severe plastic and drying shrinkage cracking. The general
lack of water suggests that either curing compounds or curing membranes be
6—12
The concrete should
Bhould be cured as
These would have to be brought in.
sectionB immedisoon as possible. The concrete should be uncovered in small sections
Any water suitable for mixing
ately prior
priort.'
t' applying
applying the
the curing
curing compound.
ately
As
windsereens and shades
As noted above, windscreens
u9ed to cure it.
concrete can also be used
would also be a great help.
used.
6.3.2.3
1.
Concrete Block Production:
Raw materials.
Basic materials required for concrete block produc
produc-
tion are:
tion
a.
Portland cement:
sulfate—resistant and low—heat cements, if avail-
able.
finea and coarse aggregates such as coral cinders,
fines
b.
Aggregates:
expanded shale,
shale sand,
sand, gravel,
gravel, clay,
clay, slag,
slag, and
and others.
c.
Water.
d.
Other agents which may or may not be added:
—
Hydrated lime
—
Pozzolans
—
such as
as air—entraining
air—entraining agents,
agents, pigmer?tB,
pigments, etc.
etc.
Other constituents, such
Concrete block may be manufactured with a
Manufacturing process.
Large
complex
stationary block production machines,
variety of equipment.
simpler mobile "egg laying" block machines, and basic hand—operated equipment
En each
each case,
ease, relatively
relatively dry
dry concrete
concrete is
is tamped
tamped
In
may be used to produce block.
in a mold which is immediately stripped
atripped off, and the procedure is repeated
and is as
again and again. The basic process, in each case, is similar end
described below and shown in Figure 6.4.
2.
A recomPrepare a well—graded mix of fine and coarse aggregates.
a.
Crushed aggregates are
to 44 by
by weight.
weight.
mended ratio of aggregate to sand is 7 to
generally better than rounded particles.
b.
Make sure aggregate is clean.
Wash, if necessary.
Mix the aggregate. Add the cement, water, and any other necessary
c.
additives; complete mixing. Mixtures for concrete block will vary with the
purpose of the block. However, a possible mix ratio by weight of cement to
aggregate is 1:4 or 1:5. A good water/cement ratio is about 0.3 for a 1:4 mix
ratio.* The primary objective is to achieve adequate
ratio and 0.38 for a 1:5 mix ratio.*
ratio
Depending on the type of aggregate, a standard
8tandard
strength with minimum density.
block (8 x 8 x 16 in. [200 x 200 x 400 inml) can weigh from 25 to 50 lb (11.4
to 22.8 kg).
*
*
Ronald terrel and Mushtag Ahmed, "Mortarleas
"Mortarless Block Construction for DevelopRonald
ing Countries," Housing
Housing Science,
Science, Vol
Vol 3,
3, No.
No. 55 (1979),
(1979), pp 327.
327.
6—13
AGGREGATES
CLEANING AGGREGATE
MIXING
SMALL BLOCK PRESS
°EGG-LAYING'MACHINE
CURING
FIgure 6.4.
Concrete block manufacturing procesB.
6—14
d.
Mold aid compact the concrete with a block machine or by hand with
metal molds.
e.
Cure the block1,
block, either
either naturally
naturally or
or in
in steam
steam rooms. Steam cure the
a 125°F
block at
125°F (52°C)
(52°C) for
for a period of 15 hours or naturally by protecting from
the sun
Bun and keeping it damp for 7 days. For indigenous sources, refer to the
listing of some Middle East
East concrete
concrete block
block plants
plants in
in Chapter
Chapter 10.
10.
3.
Dimensions.
Blocks can
can vary
vary greatly
greatly in
in size
size from
from region
region to
to region1,
region,
but the most common
common size
size is
is the
the 88 in.
in. xx 88 in.
in. xx 16
16 in.
in. (200
(200 mi
mm xx 200
200 mm
mm xx
400 ruin)
400
mm) hollow
hollow block.
block.
However1, block
However,
block machines
machines may be
be adjusted1,
adjusted, by
by simply
simply
changing molds1,
molds, to
to make
make almost
almost any
any size
size block.
block.
4.
Labor requirement for manufacture.
The labor required to manufacture
concrete blocks depends on the equipment
equipment available
available for
for production.
production. If a
large—scale concrete
large—scale
concrete block
block production
production plant
plant iB
is available1,
available, as
as many
many as
as 60
60 blocks
blocks
per minute1,
minute, depending
labor.
depending on
on the
the equipment,
equipment1, could
could be
be produced
produced with
with little labor.
A smaller mobile "egg
"egg laying
laying" block machine might produce somewhere between 24
and 48 blocks per
per minute1,
minute, with
equipment.
with several
several men
men required
required to operate the equipment.
Manual production will make less
less •than
than the
the 'egg
'egg laying'
laying" equipment
equipment per
per unit
unit
man—hour1, and
man—hour,
and will
will require
require many
many men
men to
to produce
produce a significant
significant number
number of
of blocks.
blocks.
6.3.2.4
Binding Agents for Concrete Blocks:
Typically1, cement
cement mortar
mortar is
is used
used as
as aa binding
binding agent,
agent1, but
but several
severalother
Typically,
other
Extremely
materials1, such
materials,
such as sulphur,
sulphur1, lime,
lime1,and
andcement
cement coatings,
coatings, may be
be used.
used.
temporary shelters can be erected without a binding agent.
However1, moat
most
However,
Each block is bonded
modern construction utilizes a portland cement mortar.
to the foundation with a thin joint of mortar and each successive block is
bonded to
to the
the wall
wall with
with aa layer
layer of
of mortar1,
mortar, until the wall is
is completed
completed to
to the
the
desired height1,
height, usually
usually no
no more
more than
than one
one story
story tall (approximately
(approximately 88 to
to 12
12 ft
ft
of
cement
to
mixes
A
recommended
range
of
cement
mortar
——
[2.4 to 3.6 m]).
provide
lime to
to sand
sand in
in the
the proportion
proportion 1:1:61,
1:1:6, 1:2:6,
1:2:61, 1:3:12
1:3:12 by volume ——
However, in
in situations
BituatiOfl8 vher,e
wher,e tradi—
tradi—
adequate bonding for most situations. However1,
tional block construction using cement mortar for bonding is not desirable,
be used.
used.
other types of bonding may be
will
A concrete block wall can easily be bonded with a mixture of sulphur,
First1, the
the bottom
bottom
fibers, and
fibers1,
and plasticizer,
plasticizer1,or
orwith
withaa cement—based
cement—based coating.
coating. First,
sulphur
molten sulphur
row of blocks is bonded to a concrete foundation by pouring the molten
mix or cement coating
coating into
into the
the cavities
cavities of
of the
the hollow
hollow blocks1,
blocks, bonding
bonding each
each
Next1, each
Next,
each following
following row
row of
of blocks
blocks is
is stacked
stacked up dry
block to the foundation.
on top of the lower row until the desired wall height is reached. If extra
strength
is desired1,
desired, steel
placing steel
steel rods
rods
atrength is
steel reinforcement
reinforcement may
way be added by placing
Then
Then the
the sulphur
sulphur mix
mix is
is
vertically through the cavities of the hollow blocks.
either brushed
brushed or
or sprayed
sprayed over
over the
the joints1,
joints, or sprayed over
over the
the entire
entire surface.
surface.
The
The cement—based coating is sprayed over the entire surface of the wall.
sulphur mix must be applied quickly to avoid unwanted hardening due to fast
Sulphur—surface bonding and cement—based coating produce a wall
cooling.
cooling.
which is as
as strong
strong as1,
as, or
masonry wall.
wall.
or stronger
stronger than,
than, a
a standard masonry
Lime—based mortars were the most prevalent before the introduction of
modern cement mortars. The lime—based mortars are a combination of burnt
The pozzolana reacts
reacts with
with nonhydraulic
nonhydraulic
lime1,
water1,and
andpossibly
possibly pozzolanas.
pozzolanas.
lime, water,
6—15
lime in a
a water
water medium
medium at
at ordinary
ordinary temperatures
temperaturesto
toforni
form aa cement.
In some
cement.
areas of the Middle East this mortar is still used.
It is applied with a
layer of mortar between each block, producing a strong steady wall.
Fast setting of concrete and greater initial shrinkage in desert regions
make
make the
the location
location of
of construction
construction joints
joints in
in concrete
concrete masonry
masonry more
more critical
critical
than
than in
in cooler
cooler cliniates.
climates.
Thus to prevent any potential problems, the following steps should be taken:
provide vertical control joints in the walls,
reinforce horizontal joints, and provide bond beams at appropriate locations.
The following table gives the appropriate spacing for concrete masonry wall
joints.
joints.
Concrete Masonry Will
Wall Joint
Joint Placement
Placement
Maximum Spacing of
Joint*
Control Joint*
Vertical Spacing of
Horizontal Joint
Reiriforcement+
Relnforcement+
H
=
*
=
+
=
16 ft
ft (5.0
(5.0 in)
m)
20 ft (6.0 in)
ni)
or 2 H
or 2.4 H
No reinf.
required
23
23 ft
ft (7.0
(7.0 in)
m)
or 2.6 H
26 ft (8.0 ci)
in)
or 3.2 H
24 in. (60 cm) 16 in. (40 cm) 8 in.
In. (20 cm)
c to c
c toc
c to c
Height of the wall
Spacing shall not exceed the smaller of the dimensions shown.
Joint
reiforceLuent
reiforceLuent shall
shall include
include two
two or
or more
more longitudinal
longitudinal steel
steel wires,
wires,
minimum total area
0.0346 sq in.
In the case of extremely temporary shelter, wide concrete blocks or slabs
can
can be
be used
used as
as aa foundation,
foundation, and
and concrete
concrete blocks
blocks can
can be
be stacked
stacked on
on top
top of
of the
the
foundation
foundation to
to form
form the
the walls.
walls.
is suggested that this type of shelter be
It Is
only in
used
used only
In emergencies or in very temporary situations.
Also, it is suggested that the height of a stacked block wait
wall be kept as low as acceptable.
acceptable.
6.3.2.5
1.
Concrete Block Construction:
Advantages:
a.
If
If blocks
blocks are
are available
available in
in large
large quantities,
quantities, concrete
concrete block
block construcconstruction can be cheap, quick, and durable.
b.
b.
Sulphur, an
an efficient
efficient bonding
bonding niaterial
material for
for concrete blocks,
blocks, iB
is a
byproduct
byproduct in
in oil
oil and
and natural
natural gas
gas refining,
refining, and
and is
is stockpiled
stockpiled In
in many refining
areas of the Middle East.
c.
Properly made concrete blocks have high compressive strength.
d.
Blocks may be produced by manual labor or by many
many different mechanical means.
In rural or field areas, It
it may be especially important to be able
able
to
to produce
produce construction
construction material
material with
with no
no more
more than
than manual
manual labor.
labor.
6— 16
2.
Disad'ntages:
Disadvnntages:
a.
Cement required for the production
productton of concrete block may not be
available.
b.
b.
The time required
required to
to produce
produce and
and cure
cure concrete
concrete blocks
blocks may
may be
be prohibiprohibi-
tive.
c.
In earthquake—prone regions,
region8, standard block construction can be problematic due to its inability to withstand strong lateral forces.
d.
d.
6.3.3
Proper aggregates may not be available.
EarthS,'sterns
StePn6
Earth
6.3.3.1
6.3.3.1
General:
The use of earth for building construction
city of wood and other construction
con8truction materials.
easy and has high insulation value against both
results partly from the scarAlso, earth con8truction
construction is
heat and cold.
Earth buildings are structurally sound and durable enough for many
cool in summer,
summer, and
and warm
warm in
the principal expense being the
are some kinds of mud that make
Stronger structures than others, and some construction
stronger
con8truction techniques that apply
better to some kinds of mud. Thus the type of construction method
cethod will be
affected by the type of soil available.
regions.
They are dry, fireproof, soundproof,
winter.
The cost of building the wall is low,
labor force, primarily
primarily unskilled
unskilled labor.
labor. There
Organic soils are the least suitable
Buitable for earth construction; a combination
tion of
of two
two types
typeB of
of soils
soils is
is ideal:
ideal:
sandy clays or clayey sands. However,
in very dry regions, clays are best.
There are several types of construction
methods for earth building:
adobe, baked clay, sand shale, and stabilized
8oil bricks are common types. Methods
soil
MethodB of making adobe and stabilized soil
Boil
bricks,
well aasconBtruction
constructionmethods
methods u8ing
using these
these materials,
materials, are described
described
bricks, as
a well
below.
be low.
6.3.3.2
6.3.3.2
Adobe:
The
The raw
raw materials
materials for
for making
making adobe
adobe are:
are:
Soils —— mix of clay, sand, and very fine silts.
A recommended proportion of soils
8oi18 is
i8 approximately one—third each of clay, sand, and fines.
fine8.
However, this
thi8 is only a guideline, and the proportion will vary with different
types of soil8.
soils. The blocks made with high sand content soils
8oils will crumble and
erode easily, whereas the blocks made with very high clay content soils will
shrink and crack too much. The best way to test soils
soil3 is
i8 to make a test
brick.
1.
2.
Agricultural materials —— crop residues are sometime8
sometimes used, ut are
not reconunended.
3.
3.
Water.
6—17
Soil suitable for making adobe bricks exists over a wide area of the Midcentu—
dle
dle East. Adobe has been the chief construction material in SWA for centu
ries; thus, wherever there are populated regions, there should be a source of
remote regionB,
regions, such
such as
as deserts
deserts and
and salt
salt
8oe remote
adobe nearby. However, in some
playas, no adobe dirt can be found.
The
The basic
basic procedure
procedure for
for making
making adobe
adobe brick
brick is
is as
as follows
follows (see
(see Figure
Figure
6.5):
Form a mixing pit or use a mechanical mixer such as plaster mixer or
1.
1.
pug mill suitable to mix enough mud for the forms that will be used.
2.
Place adobe dirt in
in the
the pit
pit and
and mix
mix with
with water
water and,
and, if
if desired,
desired crop
crop
residues.
3.
Mix the mud thoroughly
thoroughly by
by hand
hand or
or by
by aa oiechanical
mechanical mixer.
mixer.
4.
Put the forms on level ground and place a fine layer of sand,
sand straw,
straw,
or paper under the molds to facilitate removal of dried bricks.
5.
Add the adobe mixture and smooth it level with the top of the form.
The adobe mud should
should be
be stiff
stiff enough
enough to
to keep
keep the
the bricks
bricks fr'm
fr'm slumping
slumping
6.
too
too much,
much, yet
yet plastic
plastic enough
enough to
to conform
conform easily
easily to
to the
the mold
mold shape.
shape.
Pull off the forns
forms and let dry several days before standing them on
Pull
edge to complete drying, approximately 1 to 2 weeks.
7.
After the bricks are completely dry, they may be immediately
8.
They should
should be
be stacked
stacked on
on edge,
edge, and
and no
no more
more than
than
stacked and stored. They
atacked
If the bricks are going to be stored
four high to minimize breakage.
long
long time
time in
in the
the open,
open, it
it may
may be
be desirable
desirable to
to cover
cover the
the bricks
bricks with
with aa
proof sheet of plastic or tar paper.
used, or
three
three or
or
for a
waterwater-
Before proceeding with large—scale production of bricks, several test
bricks should be made to determine whether the mix proportions are satisfacTest bricks made should be able to withstand dropping from a
a couple
of
couple of
tory.
feet after completely drying. If the block is not satisfactory, the mixture
muet be adjusted by either adding àlay,
must
âlay, reducingsand content, addingcrop
residue,
or instance).
instance).
reeidue, or tempering
tempering (allowing
(allowing the
the mixture
mixture to
to soak
soak overnight,
overnight, ffor
There are no specific dimensions for adobe bricks.
Some suggested sizes
are 14l4xlOx4in.
x 10 x 4 in. (355
x 150 x 102 mm), 8 x 4 x 4 in.(200xlOOxlOOinm),
(200 x 100 x 100 mm),
are
(3SSxlSOxlO2mm),8x4x4in.
Somewhere within this range, a block
and 12 x 6 x 4 in. (300 x 150 x 100 mm).
Size satisfactory
size
Bati8factory for most situations can be found.
The properties of the block will depend on the type and amount of sand,
in general, have
eilt, clay, and crop residue in the mixture. But mud bricks, In
silt,
low
weathering resistance,
resistance, and
and high
high thermal
thermal insulainsulalow compressive strength,
8trength, low weathering
tion value.
Adobe brick production is a labor—intensive process, when rapid produc—
producIt is an Imposing,
imposing, time—consuming task to manually mix
tion is desired.
Although, if necessary, only a few
few people
people
enough mud for an entire building. Although,
6—18
\
PLACE ADOBE DIRT IN
MX THE MUD THOROUGHLY
BY HAND.
OR MIX MECHANICALLY.
PLACE THE FORM ON
LEVEL GROUND 8 PLACE
A ANE LAYER OF SAND
ON THE BOTTOM.
FORM TYPES.
ADO THE ADOBE MIXTURE
TO THE FORMS.
SMOOTH OFF LEVEL WITH
THE TOP OF THE FORMS.
PULL OFF THE FORMS B
LET DRY SEVERAL DAYS.
AFTER THE BRICKS ARE
THE rr a MIX WITH
WATER.
_
Th.
Figure 6.5.
6—19
Adobe.
COMPI..ETELY DRY (1-2
WEEKS) THEY SHOULD BE
STACKED B STORED.
could
could complete
complete the
the job
job in
In an
an expanded
expanded time
time frame.
frame. For Instance,
instance, according
according to.
to
Little in Demonstration
Demotstration of Stabilized Mud Brick in Egyptian Village Housing,
HouBing,
three people can manually produce eight bricks per minute.* Thus, the more
manpower, the more rapidly the blocks can be produced, provided adequate
volumes of raw material are available.
The chief use of adobe brick is as a load—bearing wall component.
Adobe
centurieB.
brick has been the major building unit in the Middle East for centuries.
In
fact, most rural construction in the Middle East consists of adobe brick construction. However
However adobe
adobe brick,
brick, as
as all
all other
other types
types of
of brick,
brick, may
may also
also be
be used
used
in infill construction, which is covered later.
Basic
Basic adobe
adobe construction
constuction starts
starts with
with the foundation.
foundation. Refer to Figure
6.19 for details of the foundation, wall, and roof. A complete poured coneon—
crete slab,
glab, concrete
concrete footing,
footing, heavy
heavy concrete
concrete block,
block, or
or rock
rock may
may be
be used
used as
as aa
crete
foundation.
The complete poured slab will be the most stable, and the rock
foundation
foundation the
the least
least stable.
stable.
In region8
regions where
where freezing
freezing and
and thawin,g
thawing will
will occur,
occur, it
it is
is imperative
imperativeto
to.get
get
the
the footing
footing below
below the
the frost
fro8t line
line so
so that
that heaving
heaving and
and buckling
buckling of
of the
the foundafoundation
tion will
will not
not occur.
occur. To help strengthen the foundation, steel reinforcing, if
available, may
may be
be added.
added. But in
available,
In regions
reglon8 where there is little or no chance of
freezing or thawing, such as hot desert climates, there is little need for a
deep footing.
Next, a stem
Stem to raise the wall above the footing must be added in all
areas where water, either surface drainage or groundwater, will be a problem.
Important since water viii
will destroy an adobe wall.
This is important
Poured concrete or
concrete block
block filled
filled with
with concrete
concrete or
or earth
earth may
may be
be used
used to
to build
build aa stem.
stem.
concrete
It
should be high enough above ground level to keep the adobe away from water.
If concrete block filled with earth is used as a stem, a cap of concrete
should be added to the top of the stem to prevent capillary action of groundwater up through the earth in the stem.
If desired,
deBired, reinforcement may be
added to increase
increase the
the strength
strength of
of the
the stern.
stem.
If necessary,
neceaBary, rock may be used as
gtem; most early adobe buildings did use this
thiB material.
a stem;
If rock is used as a stem and mud a
asaa-mortar,
-mottar,the
therocks
rocksshould
shouldbe•
be flat
to
to prevent
prevent settlement
settlement of
of the
the foundation
foundation and
and stem
stem caused
caused by
by the
the shifting
shifting of
of
uneven rock3 when the mortar gets wet. Concrete mortar,
mortar will
will alleviate
alleviate this
thiB
problem if it is available.
added to
Finally, the adobe wall is added
to the
the top
top of
of the
the stem. Traditionally,
mud mortar is used as a binding agent, but cement or lime mortar can also be
used (Table 6.2).
If desired, extra strength may be added to the wall by using steel, wood,
or bamboo reinforcement when available. However, standard adobe construction
in regions that are not earthquake prone does not require any special reinforcement
forcement —— unless, for some other reason, unusually high lateral loads are
*
*
Arthur
Arthur
Little, Demonstration
Demonstration of
of Stabilized
Stabilized Mud
Mud Brick
Brick in
in Egyptian
D. Little,
Egyptian Village
Village
Housing (Cambridge, Massachusetts, Technical Cooperation Administration,
1961).
1961).
6—20
Table 6.2
Mortar a
Cement mortar..
mortar...
1 cement, 2—1/2
2-1/2 to
to 33 sand
sand (by
(by volume),
volume), 1—1/2
1—1/2 gal
gal
asphalt emulsion per sack of cement.
cements 11 hydrated
Cement—line mortar.... 1 cement,
hydrated lime,
lime, 44 sand.
sand.
soil that bricks are
Cement—soil mortar.... 1 cement, 2 soil (use same soil
made from), 3 sand,
eand, 1—1/2 gal asphalt emulsion
per sack of cement.
Adobe mortar.......... The same mixture as the bricks are molded from.
(Slow—curing and requires
requtres working around the
building, laying no more than 2 or 3 courses
Courses
and allowing adequate drying time.)
anticipated. Wherever windows or openings in the walls are required,
reqUired, plans
should be made to provide support by using lintels (beams) over the top of the
openings.
When using mud as a mortar, do not lay more than about six layers of
bricks on any one day in order to prevent the weight of the bricks from
squeezing and compressing
Compressing the mud in the joints before it sets.
Adobe walls
valla
are not extremely stable, so tie—beams should be provided at the top of the
walls to stabilize the structure. The thickness of exterior walls should be
12 in. (300
(300 unu),
mm), or
or no
no less
less than
than one—tenth
one—tenth the wall height.
height.
After the wall is complete, the roof must be added.
Usually, roof
Usually,
roof beams
beaa
or joints are wooden; however,, steel, concrete, or other materials could be
used if proper bearing plates are provided on the tops of the walls. •1any
Many
types of roofing materials may be used. lightweight materials, such as woods,
sheet metals, corrugated asbestos cement sheets, and synthetics (plastic,
the poor
poor compressive
compressive strength
strength of
of
composites, etc.), are recommended due to
to the
the adobe.
The advantages of adobe are as follows:
—
It
—
It
is an indigenous material and is available over a wide range of
areas in the Middle East.
—
t
is
is cheap
Cheap and
and has
has good
good thermal
thermal resistance.
resistance.
It
is a simple material
material wtth
with which
which to
to work.
work. Native labor would be famfaa—
iliar with
with and
and easily
easily adapt
adapt to
to any
any construction
construction project
project involving
involving adobe.
adobe.
iliar
6—21
— It
has simple production procedures.
The disadvantages are;
are:
—
It
—
It
is not resistant to water. Groundwater or excessive precipitation
(>30 in./yr
(>30
in/yr L762
L762 aim/yr]) can easily damage it.
has poor earthquake resistance unless special
apecial reinforcement is added
specifically to resist lateral forces.
—
— Some areas of the Middle East ——
—— for instance, deserts and salt playas
do
do not
not have
have
Boilsoil
whichwhich
could be
could
used to
bemanufacture
used to manufacture
adobe bricks. adobe bricks.
—
6.3.3.3
Adobe bricks
bricks have low compressive strength.
Stabilized Soil Bricks:
Although untreated
untreated adobe
adobe bricks
bricks have
have been
been used
used with
with varying
varying degrees
degrees of
of
particular locality,
locality,
success, depending
depending on
On the
the wether
wether and environment
success
environment Of
of aa particular
adobe bricks
brick8 treated with stabilizer such
Buch as asphalt (rapid—curing road oil or
emulsion) have increased strength and durability, and will require very little
maintenance and upkeep.* The asphalt stabilizer treatment can be included in
the existing
exi8ting methods of manufacturing sun—dried bricks with a minirm of special equipment or skill.
Stabilized and unstabilized adobe bricks have eaBentially
essentially the same soil
soil
In general, soils
soile
and organic
organic matter
matter are
are usually not
containing
containing aa high
high percentage
percentage of
of loam,
loam silt, and
well—suited for adobe bricks. The soluble salts
Balts and organic material are
detrimental to the quality of bricks and should
8hOuld be avoided. Soils which consist primarily of sand and clay are usually most satisfactory for adobe constabilizerB such
Buch as cement, asphalt emulstruction. For stabilized brick, stabilizers
sion, and lime are
are used.
used.
requirements and can be made from a wide variety of soils.
requirements
silt,
Specifications for soil
aoil to be used for stabilized adobe bricks usually
èall for a range of 55 to 75 percent sand and 25 to 45 percent fines (silt and
clay).
About 15 percent clay seems
8eems to be ideal. Sands are normally defined
as material particlesizes
particle8izes between a No. 4 and No. 200 sieve,and
sieve, andfthesare•
fineBare
the material passing through a No. 200 sieve.
Soil suitable for making adobe bricks exists over a wide range of the
usually be found wherever there are popuMiddle East. Sources of adobe can uBually
lated regions. However, in some remote regions, such as deserts and salt
8alt
soil usable for adobe construction can be found.
Availability of
playas,no Boil
stabilizers will depend on the locality; they may have to be imported.
The manufacturing of stabilized soil bricks is similar to the manufacturing
ing of
of adobe
adobe brick.
brick. The only difference is in the addition of the stabilizer
asphalt emulsion, cement, or lime. Additional information about producing
etabilized bricks is provided below.
stabilized
—
Institute of
of Housing
Housing Technology,
Technology, The
The Manufacture
Manufacture of
of Asphalt
Asphalt
International Institute
** International
Emulsion
Emulsion Stabilized
Stabilized Soil
Soil Bricks
Bricks (California
(California State
State University,
University, 1978),
197B). pp 8.
8.
6—22
1.
Asphelt stablized brick.
Rapid—curing road oil (RC—250) Ia preferred to
a.
Road oil stabilizer.
medium—curing road oil (MC—70) because it permits a shorter drying period for
the bricks.
The amount of stab.
Determining the amount of stabilizer necessary.
bilizer required for mixing can be determined by field tests.
It is suggested
that one mixes several batches of soil with amounts of stabilizer varying from
1 percent to 3 percent for RC—250, or 2 percent to 6 percent for emulsion.
Three 2—in.—diameter x 2—in.—high (50.8 mm x 50.8 mm) and three 4—In. x 8—in.
x 16—in. (101.6 mm x 203.2 mm x 406.4 mm) bricks should be made from each
batch for compressive and modulus of rupture tests, which can be done by using
the set—up shown in Figures 6.6 and 6.7.
If the amount of stabilizer required is greater than 3 percent for RC—250
or S to 6 percent for emulsion, the soil probably will not be satisfactory for
brick making because of excessive cracking.
It is suggested that a power mixer
Mixing devices and facilities.
c.
(such as a pug mill or plaster mixer) be used for making stabilized brick
If a power mixer Is
since it will assure a more uniform mixture consistency.
A
not available) hand tools such as hoes, rakes, and shovels may be used.
A
mixing
device
havcement mixer is not suitable for mixing adobe brick mud.
ing a rotating shaft with paddles attached, which may be locally produced, is
best for proper blending of adobe ingredients.
TOTAL LOAD ON SPECIMEN WL + WI Of' LOAD BEAM (50*APPROX)
A
Figure
6.6.
CompressIve strength test set—up.
6—23
Figure 6.7.
Modulus of rupture test set—up.
Adequate space must be provided for both mixing and drying.
The brick
drying area must be level and provide enough room for the number of adobe
bricks being produced. The surface of the drying area should contain a layer
of sand, straw, or paper (which is preferable) placed under the molds to
facilitate removal of dried bricks.
Basic mixing procedures using mechanical equipment.
d.
Screened soil is
placed in the mixer. Water is then gradually added to the soil while the mix—
lag shaft is turning. While the soil is being thoroughly soaked with water,
asphalt stabilizer is added to the mud and mixed until no dark streaks of
asphalt are visible in the mixture. More water is added and mixed into the
mud until the thoroughly wet adobe has a thick plastic consistency.
To determine the proper molding consistency, a groove can be cut in the
mixed mud (small test pats about 1/2—in. [12.7' mm)' thick) with8 V—shaped
stick.
If the sides of the groove are not smooth, more water is required in
the mixture.
If the groove closes, the mixture is too wet and more dry soil
is required.
If the sides of the groove are smooth and bulge out, the mixture
contains the proper amount of water and soil.
Hand molding. The mixed adobe mud is carefully dumped from the
e.
wheelbarrow into the compartments of the brick mold. The mud is then worked
into all portions of the compartments to formamooth brick surfaces. Alter
the top of the model has been smoothed and leveled by hand or with the
straight edge of a piece of wood, the mold is carefully lifted from, the brick.
f.
Drying bricks. A hot, dry climate over long periods of time is most
favorable for curing stabilized adobe bricks. However1 on very hot1, dry1 or
windy days, when rapid surface drying occurs, bricks may crack. Paper or
Straw protective covering on the wet bricks will slow down the drying process.
After the bricks have dried for a few days, they will be strong enough to be
6—24
turned
turned on
on one
one edge
edge to
to proaiote
promote drying. Normally, it will take about 30 days to
dry bricks thorughly.
thorugh1y. However,
however, one
one can
can determine
determine when
when brl.ck8
bricks are
are ready for
8electi. 8amples
use by selecti.,
samples at
at random1
random1 breaking
breaking the
the bricks
bricks in
in half,
half, and
end examining
examining
their centers for dryness.
2.
Cement stabilized soil brick. The mixing
mixing of
of the
the soils
soils for
for celDent
cement
stabilized bricks
briek8 is somewhat
8omewhat similar to that for asphalt bricks, but the
forming of the brick is quite different. The mixing procedure begins with the
selection of the proper soil, according
accordirg to Table 6.3.
i8 selected, it should be crumbled up
Once the soil is
up and
and sieved
sieved through
through aa
No. 4 (5—mm)
(5—mm) sieve.
sieve. It can be mixed either manually, or mechanically in plasmixer8.
ter mixers.
Four to eight percent cement should be added to the soil. Also,
enough water should be added to get the soil
8011 to about 12 percent moisture concontent.
tent.
After thorough combining, the mixture is ready. Next, the bricks can
be formed in blockmaking presses. There are two basic types of presses:
conconstant pressure and constant volume. With con8tant
constant pressure machines, reduction of the volume of soil placed in the machine will result in the reduction
of the size of the block produced. However, with constant volume machines,
reduction of the volume of soil placed in the machine will result in under—
compacted blocks of low density. Once the block is formed it should be
allowed to cure for several weeks. The resulting strength of the block is
directly related to
to the
the pre88ure
pressure used
used to
to compact
compact the
the block..
block.
Typical strengths
8trengths
Table 6.3
Property Limits*
Properties
Areas of Rain Over
30 in./yr
Area of Medium or
Low Rain
Not les8
less than 33%
5—20%
5—20Z
Not less than 40%
40Z
5—30%
5—3O
10—14%
7—16%
Di8tribution by weight:
Distribution
Sand
Sand
Clay
Ideal moisture
Ideal
content
Grain size distribution:
Clay, loam
Sand, gravel
Not more than 30%
3OZ
Not lesa
lees than 70%
Girgis and
*Aziz Girgis
and M.
M. El—Hifnawi,
El—Hifnawi, Rural
Rural Low
Low Cost
Cost Houeing:
Housing: Bricks and Wall Units
Industry in Egypt (Cairo, General Organization for Housing Building and Planning Research), p. 43.
6—25
range from .15 ksi
to 40
40 MN/rn)
MN/rn) for
for stabilized
stabilized soil
soil
ksi to
to 5.80
5.80 kai
kai (1.0
(1.0 MN/tn2
w/tn2 to
blockg.*
blocks.* Once cured, the blocks are ready for use.
Lime—stabilized soil brick. Lime—stabilized soil brick production is
3.
Boil bricks. Once the soil has
quite similar to that for cement—stabilized soil
been
been selected
aelected according
according to
to specifications
specificationB stated
stated in
in the
the cement—stabilized
cement—etabilized secsection, test bricks containing a range from 2 percent to 6 percent lime should
be made.
Several moisture contents in the 12 percent to 20 percent range
should also be tried. Once the optinium
optimum percentages
percentage8 of
of lime
lime and
and water are
established,
same steps
etepe as
ae in
in concrete
concrete
established1, mass
ma8s production
production should
8hould proceed
proceed with the eame
stabilized soil bricks.
The properties of stabilized soil bricks will depend on the type and
Aephalt—stabilized bricks
amount of
of soils,
soils, stabilizers1,
stabilizers, and
and water
water in
in the mix. Asphalt—stabilized
tend to be more water—resistant than cement— or lime—stabilized bricke —
presaureB, >2.32
>2.32 ksi
unless high compaction pressures,
ksi (>16
the proproit/in2), are
are used
used in the
(>16 MN/rn2)1
duction of stabilized
stabilized soil
soil bricks.
bricks.
The labor required to produce asphalt—stabilized
aøphalt—stabilized bricks is identical to
that required for adobe brick production:
if large volume is desired, a large
lirge
amount of labor will be required. The labor required for production of cement
or lime
lime stabilized
stabilized soil
soil bricks
bricks will
will depend
depend on
on the
the equipment
equipment available.
available. If
or
many blockmaking presses and much labor were available, large volumes of block
could be produced. Approximately
Approximately two
two to
to three
three people
people per
per blockmaking
blockaking press
would be required to optimize production.
The primary use of stabilized soil brick is as a load bearing wall component and as a non—load—bearing component in inf ill construction.
The basic
procedure for construction with stabilized soil
Boil brick Is
is the same as that used
for adobe construction; refer to paragraph 6.3.3.2.
Stabilized soil brick is advantageous because:
— Most of
of the
the uiaterial
material used
used is
is Indigenous
indigenou8
—
—
—
—
It
It
It
It
is inexpensive
is durable
is more waterproof than standard adobe
provides good insulation.
insulation.
Stabilized soil bricks have several disadvantages:
di8advantages:
— They have poor
poor earthquake
earthquake resistance
resistance unless
unless special
special reinforcetnent
reinforcement is
is
added specifically to resist lateral forces.
* 11.
N.
C. Lunt, Stabilized Soil
C.
8il Blocks
Blocksfor
forBuilding
Building(Carston,
(Garsto, Watford, WD27JR,
Research Establishment, 1980), p 11.
Research
11.
Building
Building
6—26
6-26
— Some areas of the Middle East, for instance deserts and salt playas,
are totally deid of any soil which could be used to manufacture adobe
bricks.
— The
time required to produce and cure stabilized bricks may be prohibi-
tive.
—
Their
properties vary due
due to
to variations
variations in
in types
type8 of
of soils.
soils.
Cement—required for
for the
the production
production of
of cement—stabilized
cement—stabilized brick
brick may
ay not
not
be available.
In earthquake—prone regions, standard block construction can be problematic due to its inability to withstand strong
Btrong lateral forces.
—
6.3.4
SuZphur
Concrete
Instead of using Portland cement to bind sanda
sand& and aggregates to produce
Portland cement concrete, sulphur can be used to produce sulphur concrete.
Materials and methods for producing sulphur concrete are described below:.
Elemental sulfur:
dark grade, standard bright grade, or
laboratory grade
AggregateB:
Aggregates:
Coarse
Fi n
Fink
Modifiers:
Dicyclopentadiene (DCPD)
Dipentene (DP)
(1W)
Oligomers
Oligotoers (heavier
(heavier fractions
fractions from
from DCPD
DCPD manufacturer)
manufacturer)
Traditionally, sulphur sources are located underground in regions of past
or present volcanic activity. However, today more and more sulphur is being
produced as a byproduct of the desulphurization of oil, natural gas, and power
It is estimated that by the year 2000, 85 to 90 percent of
plant
plant emissions.
emissionG.
all sulphur production will come from secondary sources such as power plant
scrubbers and refineries.* Thus, the Middle East region is inadvertently
becoming aa large
large producer
producer of
of sulphur.
sulphur. Large volumes of sulphur are currently
becoming
En
and
stockpiled
near oil and natural gas refinery areas.. In
being produced
being
addition, several areas of the Middle East are also large mined—sulphur producers.
The availability of aggregates varies from region to region of the Middle
In certain areas, such as salt -playas and sand dunes, many types of
aggregates
aggregates may
may be
be nonexistent.
nonexistent. However, sulphur concrete will allow the use
of chloride— and sulphate—containing aggregates, which may be unsuitable for
It is generally suggested that each aggregate sysportland cement concrete.
tem considered
considered should
should be
be evaluated
evaluated for
for its
its coEnpatibility
compatibility with
with sulphur
sulphur and
and
aggregates
may
be
unacceptable
since
they
react
cheEnically
Some
aggregates
may
be
unacceptable
since
they
react
chemically
modifiers.
with sulphur. Also, aggregates that contain swelling clays are not suggested.
East.
*
in
Sulphur Concrete
Concrete Technology
Technology to
to Industry,
Industry," in
Bureau of Mines Transfers
Transfers Sulphur
"U.S. Bureau
The
The
Sulphur Research & Development, ed. J. S. Platou (Washington, D.C.:
Sulphur Institute, 1979), p 5.
6—27
In general, liiiestone
limestone aggregates
aggregates give
give higher
higher strength
strength and
and better
better freeze—thaw
freeze—thaw
resistance, and quartz aggregates give better corrosion resistance.
Modifiers are used in sulphur concrete to correct two problems: brittleness and combustibility. A commonly used modifier, dicyclopentadiene (DCPD),
corrects both of these problems. Other commonly used modifiers are dipentene
(DP) and oligoiners,
oligomers, which
which are
are heavier
heavier fractions
fractions from
from the
the manufacturing
manufacturing of
Since these
these are
are modern
modern commercially
commercially produced
produced chemicals,
chemicals, it
it may
may be
be
DCPD.* Since
assumed that any large quantity of modifier required in the Middle East will
have to be shipped into the area.
During manufacturing, modifiers must be added to optimize the performance
conatruetion for short duraof sulphur concrete. However, when considering construction
sulphur
tions, it might be conceivable to use unmodified sulphur to produce sulphur
concrete. According to research done by John M. Dale, elemental sulphur has
chart is
is aa section
section
reasonable structural properties of its own. The following chart
of a test data chart produced by Dale.**
LA3ORATORY TEST DATA
DATA
(Specimen Age at Test is 1 day)
Grade
of Sulphur
Tensile Strength
(Avg) psi (KN/m)
Compressive
Strenth
(Avg) psi (KN/m
)
Modulus of Rupture
(Avg) psi (KN/m2)
Dark
Standard Bright
Laboratory
147 (1014)
178
178 (1227)
(1227)
163 (1124)
3030 (20891)
3010 (20753)
3430 (23649)
275 (1896)
108 (745)
113 (779)
The strengths exhibited in the above tests show that reasonably good
strength8
strengths can
can be
be achieved
achieved with
with sulphur
sulphur alone.
alone. Thus even if only sulphur were
available, sound structural materials could be developed. However, unmodified
8ulphur does present some problems.
sulphur
Elemental sulphur is not fire—resistant,
In
addition,
when sulphur
sulphur burns
burns it
it produces
produces harin
harmaddition,
when
and it tends to be brittle.
ful gases such as hydrogen sulfide and sulphur
8ulphur dioxide.
But if modifiers and modifying equipment are not available, unmodified
first step
step -in:
-in using
using unmod•i—
-unmodi—
sulphur concrete could be the only solution. The first
meltitg equipment is
fled
fied sulphur is to acquire the raw materials. Then, melting
needed. This typically consists of a standard concrete mixer with liquid or
(LP) gas,
natural gas, or
gas, natural
gas burners located around the drum. Liquid propane (LP)
any other fuel source can be used to heat the drum. The only problem that
arises from using conventional concrete mixers is from the additional heat
the hot drum to the grease in the bearings
transferred from
from the
bearings of
of the
the unit.
unit. The
transferred
bearings must be closely watched and lubricated liberally if the grease starts
melting.
eltiug.
* "U.S.
*
Bureau of
of Mines
Mines Transfers
Transfers Sulphur
Sulphur Concrete
Concrete Technology
Technology to
to Industry,"
Industry," in
in
"U.S. Bureau
Sulphur Research
Re8earch & Development, ed. J. S. Platou (Washington, D.C.: The
Sulphur Institute, 1979), p 5.
**J. M. Dale, "Determination of the Mechanical Properties of Elemental Sulfur,"
fur1" Materials Research & Standards,
Standards1 Vol 1 (January 1961), p 25.
6—28
Onct the proper raw materials and equipment are located, the production
of unmodified sulphur concrete
corcrete can proceed.
proc€ed. The aggregate Is
is added first to
the mixer a'z is brought up to the desired mixing temperature range of 266 to
A
25 percent
percent sulphur
sulphur and
and 75
75 percent
percent aggregate
aggregate
A mix
mix of
of 25
302°F (1.30
302°F
(1.30 1o
to 150°C).
150°C).
However,
However,
the
the
most
moGt
effective
method
method
would
iou1d
be
be
to
to
try
try
several
several
can be
can
be used.*
used.*
mixes with
mixes
with difffereiit
different sulphur
sulphur and
and aggregate
aggregate ratios.
ratios.
The sulphur should be allowed to thoroughly melt and mix with the aggreEither poured—in—place sulphur conThen the mix Is
is ready to pour.
If sulphur con—
crete or sulphur concrete block can be formed with the mix.
crete blocks are desired, metal molds that can be separated must be acquired.
Molds that produce interlocking block or standard 8— x 8— x 16—In.
16—in. (200— x
insides of
of the
the mold
mold should
should
block may be used.
200— xx !.OO—mm)
iOO—mm) structural
used. The irLsides
200—
structural block
The
sulphur
concrete
be lightly oiled before adding the sulphur concrete.
wLll achieve full strength In
in about 1 hour; however, they can be
blocks wIll
relnoved from
from the
the motds
molds in
in as few
minutesafter
aftercasting.**
casting.** Thus, with
renoved
fe aas1010ninutea
only a few molds, fairly
fair'y rapid production can be achieved.
gates.
Pur€d—frl—place
Poured—fri—placesulphur
sulphur concrete
concrete Is
is placed
placed like
like ordinary
ordinary concretes
concrete, but
but
due
the
hardening of
of the
the sulphur,
sulphur, the
the mixture
mixture must
must be
be quickly
quickly worked
worked
qutck hardening
due to
t'
the quick
aproximately 11 hour
hour the
the sulphur
sulphur concrete
concrete will
will reach
reach full
full
into
place.
In apjroximately
into place.
Poured—in—place sulphur concrete is excellent for foundations,
.ctrngt1.
strength.
footings, slabs, and other structural materials.
If modifiers such as DCPD are available, it would be extremely beneficial
When modifiers
iodifiere such
8uch as
to
to incorporate
incorporate them
them into
Into the
the sulphur
sulphur concrete
concrete mix.
mix.
DCPD are
ar added
added in
in adequate
adequate quantities,
quantities, the
the sulphur concrete becomes
becomes fire—
fire—
and flexible.
resistant
flexible. The addition of 2 percent to 5 percent DCPD modifier
resistant and
is a
a re.isonably
reasonably complex
chemical
coiiiplex
chemicalreaction
reactionwhich
whichrequires
requires that
that the
the temperature
temperature
If the
the temperature
temperature exceeds
exceeds 284°F
284°F (140°C),
(140°C), the
the mix
mix
exceed 284°F (140°C). If
not exceed
not
The advantages
advantages of
of using
using modified
modified sulphur
sulphur cement
cement
become stiff
stiff and
and rubbery.
rubbery. The
my b€coue
may
below.+
are exeniplified
exeiplified in
in the
the properties
properties given
given in
in the chart below.+
SuJphur concrete can be poured In
Sulphur
in place like ordinary portland concrete,
Labor
block
can
be
formed
if
the
proper mold
mold is
is available.
available.
or
any
'1e
block
can
be
formed
if
the
proper
or ally size
required
to
pour
sulphur
concrete
would
be
similar
to
that
for
portland
cement
rquird to
If
mixing
equipment
equipment
is
i
available,
available,
men
men
will
will
be
be
needed
needed
to
load
and
concrete.
concrt.
operate the equipment
and
to
transfer
the
sulphur
cement
to
the
work
aite.
equipment and to transfer the sulphur cement to the work ate.
Also,
Also, men
men will
will be
be needed
needed to
to work
work the
the cement
cement Into
Lnto place.
place. If sulphur cement
blocks are going to be produced, the labor requited will vary depending on the
desired.
production volume desirea.
Alvaro
Alvaro
"Sulphur CoElcretes
Concretes in
Ortega, "Sulphur
in the
the Arabian
Arabian Desert,"
Desert," in
in Sulphur
Sulphur
Research & Development, ed. J. S. Platou (Washington, D.C.: The Sulphur Institute, 1979), p 14.
**Alvaro Ortega, "Sulphur Concretes In
in the Arabian Desert," in Sul?hur
S. Platou (Washington, D.C.: The Sulphur InResearch && DeveLpment,
Development, ed.
ed. 1.
3. S.
Reeacch
14.
stItute, 1979),
1979), pp 14.
stItute,
+ Frun
Sullivan,Development
Development
pialied
McBeeand
andThomas
Thomas A.
A. Sullivan,
of of
Specialized
C. 1Be
Frun William
William C.
(Washington,
of
Mines
Report
of
Investigations
8346
Sulfur
Concretes,
Bureau
of
Mines
Report
of
Investigations
8346
(Washington,
Sulfur
Bureau
Departrent of the Interior,
Interiors 1979), p 12.
U.S. Departrent
D.C., U.S.
*
*
6—29
Properties of
Properties
of
Aggregate
Sulphur
(pct)
Silica
Silica
Silica
Silica
Limestone
Limestone
Litneetone
Limestone
Limestone
24
26
22Ml*
22&*
24M1
22
24
21M1
23M
23M1
Sulphur Concrete Materials
Strength,
Stretgth) psi
Compressive
Flexural
5075
7280
5310
5310
6120
6740
6855
7990
9020
Tensile
845
845
905
1220
1220
1335
700
810
1235
1330
730
830
775
760
760
795
760
815
895
Specific
Specific
Gravity
Gravity
2.3409
2.40t2
2.4012
2.2132
2.2306
2.4762
2.4762
2.4974
2.4364
2.4281
2.4281
de9ignatee sulphur
designates
aulphur that has
hae been reacted with 5 percent dicyc1opntadiene.
dicyclopntadiene.
Sulphur concrete can be used to form block or poured—in—place structures.
Sulphur concrete block
block may
may be
be used
used as
as aa load
load bearing
bearing wall
wall component
component or
or as
as aa
non-load bearing component in inf Ill
non—load
ill construction.
The basic procedure for construction with hollow 8— x 8— x 16—in. (200— x
8ulphur concrete block is
iB the same
9ame procedure used in concrete
200— x 400—nim) sulphur
block construction. Cement mortar, lime mortar, or sulphur bonding may be
used to join the block.
If interlocking block is used, little or no bonding
may be required.
The procedure for sulphur concrete poured—in—place construction is identical to the procedure
procedure for
for portland
portland cement
cement construction,
construction, except
except quick
quick cooling
cooling
of
of the
the sulphur
sulphur concrete
concrete will
willcreate
create9olne•problems..
soineproblems.. Therefore,
Therefore,•special
special conconsideration will have to be given since sulphur
Bulphur concrete will cool quickly and
thus set up before being worked Into
into place.
The advantage8
advantages of sulphur concrete are as follow8:
follows:
—
plentiful in
in the
the Middle
Middle East
East
Sources of sulphur are plentiful
— The blocks have good compressive strength
—
Only sulphur and aggregate are needed to produce blocks
— The blocks
blocks are
are waterproof
waterproof
—
Sulphur can be stored outdoors
outdoor8 with no loss of value
6—30
6—30
— Sulphur concrete can easily be recycled by simply reheating.
The disadatages of sulphur concrete are as follows:
—
UnmodifLed sulphur concrete can burn and produce noxious gases
UnmodiHed
is unsatisfactory for
Modified sulphur concrete can melt and therefore i8
any structure which would normally experience temperatures above approximately
234°F (113°C)
—
Conventional cement and asphalt equipment can be used but must be
adapted to sulphur concrete
—
—
Separable ceramic or metal molds are required to produce blocks
Modifiers are required to produce a sulphur concrete which will not
burn or fail in
In a brittle manner
—
—
Modifiers
will probably not be available unless they are shipped and
brought to the area where they will be used.
6.3.5
6.3.5.1
Other
Local Construction Materiala
Materials
Sand—Lime Brick:
Sand—lime brick can be found in some
Bome parts of the Middle East, such as
Blocks
It is made of silica sand, quick lime, and water.
Kuwait and Qatar.
vary greatly in size from region to region, but several common sizes are 222 x
108 x 66.7 mm, 250 x 130 x 60 mm, and 222 x 108 x 139 mm. The chief uses of
sand—lime (calcium silicate) brick in the Middle East are as both non—load—
bearing and load—bearing wall components. However, in load—bearing applicaSand—lime brick may
8tory tall.
tions, the structure is usually not over one story
also be used in
In infill construction.
6.3.5.2
Stone Block:
Many different types of stone can be found throughout the Middle East.
Sandstones also are
are common
common in
in
are common in Israel and Egypt.
Israel. Many types of stones, such as limestone, sandstone,.
sandatone,. dolomite, and
marble, are presently mined in many areas. Thus, in addition to untapped
natural stone sources, there are operating quarries throughout the area.
Stone bl.ock
block may
may be
be used
used for
for many
many purposes,
purposes, but mainly stone
stone blocks
blocks are
are u8ed
used as
as
load—bearing wall components. Stone blocks may also be used in infill conatone block
struction as wall
wall fillers.
fillers. The basic procedure for constructing a stone
building is similar to the procedure used in adobe construction.
Limestones
Limestones
6.3.5.3
Wood:
In general, it is safe to assume that no wood will be available for major
In fact, however, some woods may be
construction projects in the Middle East.
The natural habitats of deciduous
available in some parts of the Middle East.
6—31
are located
located in
in the
the mountains
mountains and
and
and coniferou8
coniferous trees
trees suitable
suitable for
for 8awn
8awa tiakber
timber are
highland plains of Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, and Turkey. International
trade statistics*
stati8tic8* and individual country surveys**
surveya** show that forestry and wood
conversion
conversion industries
industries exist
exist in
in theee
these countries,
countries, although
although it
it cannot
cannot be
be asgutned
assumed
that supplies of sawn timber are necessarily available. Pakistan is attempting reforestation,
reforeatation, although some earlier plantations have been destroyed for
firewood.
firewood.
coabtal and low—lying areas of the region are sources
sourcea of roundwood
The coastal
from palm trees
treea of various species. These
These areas
areas support
support the
the growth
growth of
of
coconut, oil, and especially date palms —— the basis
baBiB of a diversifying
diversifying agriagricultural industry. Although unsuitable for sawn timber, palm tree trunks have
always been a traditional building material, used
ueed for columns and as floor and
atd
roof beams.
Small roundwooda, called "bally poles" in Iran, varying in diameter from
about 2 to 6 in. (51 to 152 imu), are used
u8ed traditionally for rafters,
raftera, purline,
purlins,
and
and po8ts.
posts. They come from a local poplar—like tree, and thus are generally
straight and èuitable for these purposes.
ia not normally
normally recommended
recommended in
in hot,
hots dry
dry regions
region8 of
of .SWA
Wood is
is
.SWA because it is
unavailable
unavailable locally
locally and
and much
much would
would be
be wa8ted
wasted due
due to
to the
the combination
combination of
of high
high
Bolar radiation and low humidity. However, if lumber is imported for consolar
structing gome
some of
of the
the required
required buildittgs,
buildings, such
such as
as AFCS
AFCS facilities,
facilitie9, certain
certain
steps may be taken to minimize the problem.
These steps
ateps are given below:
1.
Utmost
Utmost care must be
taken to
to limit
limit waste
waste due to cutting, etc.
be taken
ittatance, aa centralized
centralized cutting
cutting yard
yard may be used.
instance,
used.
For
If wood
wood is
is used,
used the
the stud8
studs must
must be
be used
used as
a soon
soon a
asthe
the bands
bands around
around
the stud package are broken to reduce wood stud loss
losa caused by warping. (Do
not untie the bands
banda until the studs
studa are ready to be used.)
2.
3.
The
rame must
must be
bewrapped
wrapped immediately
immediately with
with some
some material
material to
to ahield
shield it
it
The frame
from the suns
suas direct rays
raya to prevent warping and cracking.
4.
Sidings should be installed
inatalled as soon as
aa wall framings
framinga are completed.
5.
normally is
A raised foundation which requires wood norially
is not
not recommended.
recommended.
Pole Construction:
Construction: Figure 6.8 illustrates
6.3.5,4
6.3.5.4 Pole
illustratea the construction of the
main frame of a building utilizing roundwood poles embedded in the ground.
The advantage of pole construction is that the cantilevered poles reduce the
need for bracing, which is important when the building contains no internal
walls. Spacing of the poles will be determined by the enclosing wall system
system
selected.
selected.
Roof Timbers:
Timbers: The
6.3.5.5 Roundwood
Roundwood Roof
The use
useofof tree
tree trunks
trunks and
and large
large poles
poles is
is aa
traditional form
form of floor and roof support in the
traditional
the Middle
Middle East.
East. Figure 6.9
illustrates
illustrates aa cantilevered
cantilevered timber
timber floor
floor in
in an
an urban
urban house
house in
in Iraq.
Iraq. Roof
Foreign Trade
Statistica of
Trade Statistics
of Asia and Pacific (United Nations, 1978).
**The Middle East and North Africa 1981—82: A Survey and Directory (London,
Europa Publications
1981).
Publications Ltd.,
Ltd., 1981).
*
6—32
I
0
SCALE I/4.I'-O
4,
FOR TIE BEAM
5 WALL GIRTS
4.
Figure 6.8.
SLAB POURED
AFTER POLES ERECTED
Roundwood poles.
ROUNDOOO USED FOR
SEAM S W4U. GIRTS
SOFT SOILS
HARD SOILS
REQUIRED FOR
SOFT SOILS
I SOILS5 FEE
SOlLS3 FEE
Figure 6.9.
Trad1tinl
u1or construction (Iraq).
—34
construction by this method will require heavy external supporting walls, particularly if the traditional method is carried out to the extent of using
packed earth, on bearers, for the roof itself. This method can be used with
masonry or thick adobe wall materials, or if the building is buried to some
extent.
6.3.5.6
Cement—Asbestos Panels:
They are
These can be used In conventional ways and as roof coverings.
more suitable than metal panels in the desert since there is leBs heat gain in
If used, they should be
the material itself, and because they do not corrode.
insulated or shaded, depending on the application. Figure 6.10 shows an
application of cement—asbestos panels in which they are buried about 3 ft
(1 m) in the ground to form cantilevered walls.
6.4
Prefabricated Structural Systems
Prefabrication is production of buildings or parts of buildings before
Prefabrication may be used for expediency,
their installation on the site.
efficiency, or convenience when applicable. Prefabrication can take place in
highly mechanized factories but also at temporary locations with minimal
equipment and protection, as circumstances dictate.
Figure 6.10.
Cement—asbestos panels.
6—35
In Borne countries of the Middle East, there is considerable experience
with prefabrication, including Israel, Turkey, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia; new
prefabricating plants are constantly being established at industrial centers
and construction sites throughout the region as the market demands. Prefabrication in certain Middle East locations is as common as on—site or "conventional" construction.
construction. Therefore, locally produced prefabricated buildings
should be investigated for possible use in a base development.
Another problem common to lightweight structures is the desert wind which
can reach almost hurricane force in some regions.
It is essential to anchor
buildings securely to the ground with cables and ground anchors.
Caution must be used, however. Although prefabricated relocatable buildlightweights and their walls,
ings used for offices or barracks generally are lightweight,
roof, and floor systems are adequately insulated, they will function well and
provide comfortable working or living quarters only if they are cooled mechanically. Without mechanical cooling, the interior temperatures will rise above
daring some parts of the
the outside air temperature and' become intolerable during
day
day due
due to
to high
high solar
solar radiation
radiation and
and heat
heat generated
generated by
by the
the occupants
occupants (see
(See paraparagraph 6.2.5).
6.5
Tents
GnraZ.
GenraZ.
6.5.1
Tent, General—Purpose, Medium, and Tent, General—Purpose, Large are two
of the tents procured and available from depots for rapid issue.
Tent,
Extendable, Modular, Personnel (TEMPER tent) is being developed and ultimately
will replace the medium and large general—purpose tents.
Although the TEMPER
tent
tent has
has greater
greater flexibility
flexibility for
for use
use in
in different
different environments,
environments, the
the informainformathe use
use and
and habihabition detailed here
here covers
covers expedient
expedient modifications
modifications to
to iniprove
improve the
tability of the general—purpose tents in a desert environment.
Information on
the TEMPER tent is also provided.
Tents can be very undesirable quarters In the desert because of high
oir
.olarradiation,
radiation,desert
desert winds,
winds, and
and insects.
insects. However,
However, tents
tents a•è•
ië required
required for
for
th initial stage of military operations.
To make
maketents
tents more
more habitable,
habitable, double roofs should be used, and the outer roof should be painted in light color,
such as sand color when possible.
Concrete floors under the tents can also
make them more comfortable.
Expedient Modification8
ofGeneral—Purpose
Generczl—Purpos Tents
Modification8 of
Tents
6.5.2
The
The modifications detailed here can be procured and stocked as a kit, and
can be applied to the tent issued from depot atocks.
stocks.
The kit will consist of
a multicolored fly, 14 extenders, and a lightweight ground cloth or floor. A
liner must be used with the proposed
propoaed kit to produce a more effective tent, end
and
mu8t be
be requisitioned
requisitioned on
on aa one—to—one
one—to—one basis
basis for
for the
the tent.
tent. Figure 6.11 shows
must
the basic tent with the liner, extenders, and fly in position.
Multicolored
Multicolored fly.
fly. The fly must be made of a lightweight, vinyl—
coated fabric. One side is to be sand—colored for use when the temperatures
1.
6—36
-4
yjgt
b
jt
1tnet.
EXTtNORS
will be in the normal desert range. The other side must be white to be used
in desert extremes. The configuration of the fly is shown in Figure 6.12.
Extender.
The kit includes 14 extenders, which are to be used with
the fly to form an insulating air space between the fly and the tent roof top.
The extenders are used with the eave and door poles, as shown in Figure 6.11.
The basic concept of the extender is shown in Figure 6.13.
2.
3.
Ground cloth or floor. The kit includes a ground cloth which is to
be used primarily for protection against crawling insects and small animals.
The item must be made of a 12—oz (0.34—kg) forest—green, coated fabric. The
dimensions and configuration of the ground cloth or floor must
mu8t fit the interior of the tent.
Instead of using ground cloth, a concrete floor under the
tents can make the occupants more comfortable.
4
4.
Use in desert environment. The
The tent, to be effective in a desert
desert
environment, must: make maximum use of the screens in the liner and in the
environments
doors at each end.
end. The fabric on each of the sidewalls must be separated at
the ends, rolled back,and tied in place at the eaves with the-ties provided.
ia each of the ends must be unrolled and positioned over Lhe
door
The screens Ia
Lhe door
openings.
The screens and fly will lower the temperature of the a!r jr the
a
See Figure
Figure 6.14
6.14 for
for an
an exatnple
example of
of tents
tents used
used by the EgypL. Ar.y
Ar.y in a
tent.
environnent.
desert environment.
ir
5.
On—site fabrication of kit.
The fly, ground cloths
cloth, or
or floor,
floor, and
and
extender can
can be
he made
made on—site
on—site by
by aiaintenance
maintenance personnel if the
the requfred
required basic
basic
extender
materials tnd equipment are provided,
provided. This may be a little difficult for the
fly, since the multicolored, vinyl—coated fabric must be rolled and stitched
to fc.rni
to
form the
thedetailed
detailed shape
shape and
and size.
size.
Grominets can be used at designated locations and tie ropes added. A machine shop is necessary to fabricate the
extenders. The tube must be cut to the proper length and the ends drilled to
accept the rod at one end and the pins on the poles at the other end. Welding
equipmi'L is required to weld the pin to one end of the tube.
equipmerl
6.5.3
Modular,Personnel
Prsonwl
Tv, ciendble,
E±endble, Modular,
The TE1FER
tent can
can be
be used
used wIthaut.
witho.ut..modificatio.n
.modificatio.n in
In aa desert
desert environment.
environment.
TEMPER tent
This tent h:-s o types of covers. The tropical/desert type has windows and
screens i c}i side
For exaraple,
example, aa 24—ft--long
24—ft—long
screens
s.tde and
and on
on both
both sides
sides of
of the
the roof.
roof. For
(7.32—rn) tent has
1-s 12 side and roof openings. Sidewall windows are complete
with screens,
and blackout
blackout flaps.
screens, glass,
glass and
flaps. Roof openings are provided with
roll—up
roll—up weather
weather flaps.
flaps. Each end of the tent has two windows with screens and
glass, plus a door with a screen. A fly is also available in a basic 16—ft
(4.88—in) length;
length; additional
additional fly
fly sections
sections are each 8 ft (2.4
(4.88—m)
(2.4 m)
m) long.
long.
Extenders are available for positioning the fly over the tent roof top. A
ground cloth or floor is available in either a single layer or an insulated
floor with a foam encased between two sheets of coated fabric. A liner with
door or window openings is available. Another
Another feature
feature of
of the
the TE{PER
TE{PER tent
tent is
is
the transition section.
This makes it possible to develop a complete shelter
which
which does
does ijot
not require
require personnel
personnel to go outside. A single—layer ground cloth
or floor, plus the insulated floor and a frame—supported system are available
for the transitton section. Also included is a flexible door for the open end
of the transflion
transition section
section when
when it
it Is
[s not
not used
used for
for connecting
connecting two tents.
c}i
6—36
6—38
o.
o.
0
0
_____—
0o
Figure 6.12.
0
—
0
Q
0
—______
0
p
C
oc
0
Fly configuration for tent, general—purpose, medium.
0
p
00
p
0
THROUGH HOLE
HOLE FOR CAPTIVATING
THROUGH
PIN AND
HITCH PIN
HITCH
ND HOLDER
HOLDERASSEMBLY
ASSEMBLY
SLOT ONLY FOR CENTER
POLE EXTENDERS
Figure 6.13.
Extender concept for
for tents
tents, general—purpose,
general—purpose, large
large and
and medium.
medium.
6—40
rr.,
-
-
Figure 6.14.
tents.
Egyptian Army tents.
Figure 6.15 shows the TEMPER tent complete
conplete with aa transition
transition section.
section.
complete field
field feeding
feeding system.
system.
6.16 shows this tent
tent configured
configured •for
for aa complete
Figure
G'ow rchors for Tents
6.5.4
Sandy and rocky ground combined
combined with
with high
high wind8
winds in
in the
the desert
desert can cause
cause
problems
with pitching
pitching tents.
prob1es with
Possible solutions
solutions to
to the
the problem
problem are:
are
1.
Use of the deadman anchor for cohesionless soil such as sand or
loose, silty soils.
A deadman anchor consists of a steel rod or cable
attached to a mass such as steel plates, steel I—beam, pipe, concrete blocks,
etc., burled in the ground (Figure 6.17).
2.
Use of corkscrew anchors if the required resistance force is not
large (the corkscrew anchor is more suitable for clay—like soil).
To provide anchorage in rock or rock—like soil, it is necessary to
bore holes in the rock and grout in anchor bolts.
3.
4.
Explosive charges
charges can
can also
also be
be used
used to
to break
break up
up the
the rocks
rocks or
or hard
hard
install
soils
to install anchoring
o1ls to
anchoring devices.
devices.
5.
A wedge anchor embedded in an augered hole can also be used for rocky
conditions.
6—41
Figure: 6.15.
TEMPER
tent
44
with transition.
•
•;.
:' ;
F 1: F:
!
S
Figure 6.16.
A coniplete TEMPER tent system.
a:
I.1
PLATE
Figure 6.17.
6.6
riPE
ONCfEtE
Ground anchors.
Facility Design Drawings
Plans, elevations, sections, and selected details of a typical 24—ft
(7.3—rn) building are provided as an example for the block system construction
(Figures 6.18 through 6.20).
6-44
II
II
ii
t
A
A
c'.J
I
I
PLAN
I
SECTiON A-A
SECTION B-B
ELEVATIONS
Figure 6.18.
Typical 24—ft—wide
6—45
(7.3—in) building.
CONCRETE BLOCK
Figure 6.19.
Wall sections.
(JNSTABILIZED ADOBE
STABiLIZED ADOBE
/
4=
Figure 6—20.
Concrete block, precast concrete, and poured—in—place
concrete roof system.
6—47
CHAPTER
CHAPTER 7 —— HORIZONTAL CONSTRUCTION
7.1
7.1
General
Historically, TO construction has played a paramount role in providing
Movement of these units
the logistical support needed by U.S. combat units.
and 8upport
support units within a theater depends on lines of communications (LOC).
Because of the limited number of existing roads and the difficulty of off—road
niobility in
mobility
in some
some desert
desert areas,
areas, considerable
considerable effort
effort may
may be
be required
required to
to con
Con
struct and maintain roads forward to maneuver units (FM 90—3, p 4—21). New or
rehabilitated roads
roada and airfields are key elements
element8 in the mobility system (see
capabilittes In
in horizontal
In
addition,
engineer capabilities
TM 5—330 and TM 5—337 [Cl]).
construction will be employed in excavation and construction of revetments for
ammunition and petroleum—oil—lubricants (POL) storage, and in the repair of
bonib—damaged or
bomb—damaged
or sabotaged
sabotaged airfields.
airfields.
The harsh Mid—East environment presents
present8 critical horizontal construction
problems related to lack of water, temperature extremes, dust, lack of concon—
8truction materials, and soil conditions.
Fine aggregate.
aggregate is
is generally
generally abunstruction
dant; however, natural coarse aggregate is characteristic of the alluvial fan
and watercourse (wadi) areag.
areas. A positive note is that very little bridging,
Emphasis is
culvert, and roadway drainage construction
con8truction is required for LOC.
on getting the maximum use out of existing facilities.
To do this, it is necessary to have the capabilities to (1) repair bomb—
damaged or sabotaged runways, (2) build or rebuild adequate all—weather
damaged
traffic surfaces without
without bringing
bringing in
in large
large amounts
amounts of
of construction
construction materials,
materials,
(3) control dust, (4) estimate the future effects of heavy and sustained military traffic on road networks, (5) provide C—130 airstrips and heliports with
minimum essential construction efforts, and (6) build a limited number of
In
In general,
general, horizontal
horizontal conconbridges (in
(in some
some scenarios,
scenarios, perhaps
perhaps none
none at
at all).
all).
bridges
struction requires mat and membrane (see Table 7.1) as well as asphalt products, water (seawater will suffice for most requirements), and construction
total base
base developnient
development would
would be
be extremely difficult
difficult
equipment in quantity. AA total
equipment
using only
only indigenous
indigenous materials.
materials.
using
7.2
Existing Construction
Existing paved roads in developed areas will generally be structured for
wheeled—vehicle traffic. The dominant characteristic of the area affecting
Because some
horizontal construction is the absence of existing roadways.
This factor, coupled with poor
areas are sparsely populated, few roads exist.
off—road mobility in sand areas, increases the size of the road construction
workload. Population centers (cities and large towns) are usually connected
by paved roads that
that are
are fairly
fairly modern
modern and
and adequate
adequate for
for heavy
heavy traffic.
traffic. In
undeveloped areas, roads will be narrow (16 ft [5 mJ wide or less) and have
thin pavements that will not stand up under use by tracked or heavy wheeled
vehicles.
vehicles. Consideration should be given to widening the shoulders of such
roads Rnd using the shoulders for tracked-vehicle operations.
7—1
Table 7.1
Engineer Materials for Horizontal Construction
(Available from Depot Sources.)
Lságth
L.ágth
Item
M19 .ediu
•ediumduty
duty
M19
landing
landing mat
at
.ftd
•nd
Weight
Weight
Ibu/ug
(lbu/.g
ft)
it)
4.3
Width
Depth
(Iftche.)
(Inches)
(Ziche.)
(Inches)
50.2,
49.5
1.5
Unit
unit
Unit
Unit
of
of
P5K
PSN
Issue
lusue
5680—00—930—1524
*19
o
of
Iseue
Issue
Bundle
32
]0418 medium
duty
ediua duty
landing
landing mat
.at
4.9
144, 12
1.5
1.5
5680—00—089—7661
5680-00—089—7661
4—18
114—IS
Bundle
lundle
18 panels
18
148A1 light
light duty
duty
MSA1
lending
lending net
at
7.5
7.3
141.75, 19.5
1.1
5680-00—782—5577
5680-00—782—3577
M8A1
148A1
Bundle
14 panels
AM2 medium
AM2
ediu duty
duty
lending mat
lending
at
6.3
144,
144, 12
12
1.5
1.3
5680—NAEL—613370-1
5680—NAEL—613370—1
A142
*142
Bud1e
Bundle
panelB
18 panels
T17
Ti? membrane
.e.brane
0.31
0.31
100
ft
100 it, 66 ft
or
100
100 it, 36 ft
0.08
0.08
5680-00—921—5809
5680—00—921—5809
T—17
7—17
Roll
ft,
ft, 36 ft
7.3
panels
penels
5680—00—921—5810
Roll
Soils and Aggregates
Fookes* concisely describes engineering properties of various geographic
units found in desert areas in Figure 7.1 and Table 7.2. Figure 7.1 shows the
four geographic zones into which most desert regions can be subdivided:
Zone
mountain slopes;
slopes; Zones
Zones U,
II the
the apron
apron fan
fan or
or bajada;
bajada;Zones
ZonesIII,
III the
the alluvial
alluvial
I, mountain
plain;
the base plain,
salt
plain; and
and Zone
Zone IV,
IV the
plain, which
which includes
includessabkhas,
sabkhas playas,
playas salt
playas, salinas
salinas,and
andsand—dune
sand—dune areas.
areas.
Table 7.2 shows percentages of various
playas
types of
of terrain
terrain in
in several
several desert
desert regions.
regions.
types
The playas,
playas which
which usually
usually have
have aa deep
deep water
water tables
table, have cemented
cemented surfaces
surfaces
that
that are
are structurally
structurally satisfactory
satisfactory for
for most
most vehicle
vehicle and
and aircraft
aircraft loads.
loads.
Because the soils are primarily silts, dust problems are severe. The sabkhas
(coastal flats that are inundated by seawater at very high. tide) and salinas
cenented surface crusts and water at shallow depths. While each
usually have cemented
each•
has a cemented
cenented crust,
crusts its usefulness under heavy loads depends on the depth to
water
water because
because the
the material
naterial below
below the
the water
water table
table is
is usually
usually quite
quite weak.
weak.
The sandy areas consist of so—called desert flats and sand dunes.
Together
Together they
they account
account for
for 20
20 to
to 40
40 percent
percent of
of desert
desert regions.
regions. Windblown sand
(0.06— to 0.6—mm grain size) can present a significant maintenance problem
problen on
roadways and
and in
in base
base areas.
areas. It
It also
also impedes
impedes off—road
off—road mobility
mobility
and airfields,
airfields and
of wheeled vehicles.
Based on these geographic zones, the aggregates in the Mid—East have been
classified
classified into
into eight
eight major
major categories:
categories: beach sand, dune sand, sand Zone II,
*
*
P.
P. G.
G. Fookes,
Fookes, "Road
"Road Geotechnics
Geotechnics in
in Hot
Hot Deserts,"
Deserts," The
The Highway
Highway Engineer,
Engineers
nal
No. 10
nal of
of the
the Institution
Institution of
of Highway
Highway Engineers,
Engineers, Vol
Vol XXIII,
XXIII, No.
10 (October
(October
1976),
pp 11—23.
11—23.
l976) pp
7—2
-
-AN DEPOSITS OVERLYING
1E ROCK PEDIMENT
CANYON
FAN
INTERMITTENT STREAM
YOUNG/ANCIENT ROCKS
OU NE S
UNCONFORMITY
DESERT DEPOSITS
SALT FLATS OR PLAVAS
Figure
7.1.
1ock diagram of hot desert mount and plain terrain
showing the four engineering zones (adapted from
P. C. Fookes, "Road Geotechnics in Hot Deserts," The
Highway Engineer Journal of the Institution of Highway
Engineers, Vol XXIII, No. 10 [October 1976], pp 11—23).
desert fill Zone IV, silty stone Zone III, fan gravel Zone It, sandy stone
Zone III, and stone pavement Zone IV. Typical gradations of various sands and
These
aggregates found in these areas are shown in Figures 7.2 through 7.6.
soil gradation data are provided for general guidance and are not Intended as
a substitute for on—site investigations. Since laboratory equipment probably
will not be available, field classification will be required.
It is also important to be alert to sources of man—made and other materials to serve as aggregate for horizontal construction. These include cinder
Such
block, baked and adobe bricks, and tailing from quarry operations.
materials may be crushed into smaller sizes by trafficking with heavy tracked
vehicles such as tanks and dozers.
7.4
Horizontal Construction Techniques
Certain techniques and guidance on design mixes for asphalt and portland
cement materials that are peculiar to expedient construction In arid regions
are described as follows. These general guidelines are not intended to take
the place of field experimentation and application of engineering judgment in
individual situations, but are mainly presented to provide general informaIn situations where suitable materials, aggregate, binder) and water
tion.
are available and time and equipment permit, then conventional construction
procedures should be followed and the appropriate field manual or technical
manual consulted. For situations involving expedient construction, It may be
advantageous to observe and evaluate local construction methods in the operational area. In some of the more undeveloped areas, what may appear to be
somewhat. crude construction techniques compared to conventional advanced
methodology may serve well in expedient situations. Thus, it may be possible
to duplicate what appears to be the standard practice in the local area to
7—3
:
3
2
1
Smpe No.
Samp'e
No.
I
.
-
I
EJ Du
Du$h
Eli'.
coesas
coeuas
I
.&.&...
'—
I
-
I
FIgure 7.2.
Figure
IL.
LI
•.
.
-_____
PL
.
PU
PP
I
CLAY
I
I
D
o
!IJ_______________________
-—___
_________________
Gradations of sands and aggregates.
Nit w %
SAND
GRAIN
GRAINSIZE
SIZ(ININNILLIMETERS
NIL1IMflER
U.S STARDARO SIEVE NUMBERS
GRADATION CURVES
Beach
Beach and dune
sand —
—
dune sand
lower limit
limit
Beach sand
Beach
sand—— upper lImit
limit
Dunesand--upperlimit
P4...r...upperJimit
-
GRAVEL
i- '
U. S STANDARD SlEW OPEIflNG Sl INCHES
L
(1ev
(1ev iiii O,ith
conBL(s
I
—.------ ---—-——.—
---—-.——.—
2
1
Sample No.
I
C1.uIrc.ton
IV
I
.a
I
II
SAND
MIlD
I
P1
P1
I
——
—
Sand zone II.
--- .--...—
Nat%
.
GRAIN
GRAINS*ZC
S*ZC IN
IN MILLIMET(RS
MILLIMET(RS
FIgure 7.3.
GRADATION CURVES
.
Sand Zone
Zone II
II
fjll.Zone
Desert fill.
Desert
Zone
ast
GRAWfl.
GRAW4
rr-
!l
!i
u
ku
LT
Q CLAY
--
I
0'
I
£Ie
coaaus
coasus
DsVth
I
_i
-
I
i
Kal •• %
Nil
U.
SAND
SAND
I
GRAiN SIZE IN MLLINLTERS
U.S.
U.
S.STANDARD
STANDARD Sa(VF NUMBERS
NUMBERS
FL
lNt
Figure 7.4.
GRADATION CURVES
..
Silty stone.
Stone.
.
Sllty stone Zone Iii
III
_______ .ppcJI!4t
.PPJT!4t
._____
2
—.—-----—.—-——----—-— Lotjer limit —---—-—---------——-—
--—-—-- -___ --.-___ — -—
_
Simple No.
I
OPthINGIN
III INCHES
U. S.STANDARD
U.S.
STANDARD
$l!W
$lV! OPthING
.
SILT oa
O a.aY
D.
L_..NO
!____
•
PSCI
— Iu
u
P(
Fl
I
HYVRONETE
—________
I
I
I
-4
—4
-4
-
ii
0
.
:'2
1
CO&(S
I
111
hI
-
I1
I
GRAVEL
\\
Ia
L0
—__ .
11
.---.-
I
II II ii
I1
11
1 -
11
I
I
T
.6
N.
I
I
I
OS
I,.
L
I
..
-.
.
DpIh
tl. o D.plh
tI
-.--S
—
-
Cls.ifsbon
Cl.s.ifiibon
-
-
Nat
Fi gurt.'
gurt' •77 •• 5.
GRADATION CURVES
.
-
gr;ive. Zime
gr;iveI.
Zinc II
II1
11ptr lfrnit
11pr
lfrnit
1,*wtt1iini
1,*,wtr 1tnit
Fan
—
S
.
-
—
--——
—
-
I
—
.-
.
.
IVOM(TI
70
I0
.
A,..
Na
- --. —.—.------—.
—
001
Ol5
-.
—--.——.
... .._
.
.
07
WIT Oil c*_*y
—-______
0.
.--.
I I1
M
i_ IIEEi_
IIEEiT
Xl)
_-..
.—--.
.
Pt
01
—
.-.-
.
-
—-——-S.-.
—-——
-..-.
-.-.—.
PL
Pt.
FM
Fan grav.1
gravt'l
-
LI
11
GRAIN Sill
GRAIN
Sill IN
INMIUIMEIERS
MIUIMIIERS
SMO
_______
I
20 ) 40 0 70 1I 140
140
U.S STANDARD
STANDARD SIEVE
SI(VE NUUBES
NUUBES
1416
30 10
110
L_Hi--!Jj-°i__-—- —---J
to —
20—
IL)
I
-
-.—.___
.—.___
I 1 11
II
1
J
1 11 —
—
-jill J_____
S.npI.
npte No
S.
a
12
S2
701
.w —
+ '[,_i_
+
!_._
U. Ii STNeARD
STNeARD 111W
111W 0PtNVG
0PtNVG II 1N04(S
1N04(S
!4 _J 1+ .i tt
.i.__'if.'
3
2
1
Swipe.
S.mpl. No.
No.
I
I
Lkv
COBBL(S
Ds
I
I
rust
.1
-
I
4
-
m
.1
I
-
..
Figure 7.6.
GRADATION CURVES
I
.
.
—______
P1.
rust
Sandy stone.
---————
LI.
U.
w0
GRAINSIZE
GMN
SIZEVI
Ill MIWM(T(RS
MIWMLT(RS
I46
U. S STANDARD
SWIDARD SIEVE
SIEVENUMBERS
NUMBERS
1416 20
40
$10
a.uzrn
a.uzrn
N.t %
Sandy stone Zone III
Upper limit
Lower Limit
- ——-—————--—
---— --——-———
Zone IV
IV
Stone pavement Zone
.—•—-
GRAWL
1
U S.
S. SWSOARO
SWSOARD$$UW
$$W ONIIG
ONIIGl lhOlES
haltS
P1
I
.
n
——. A,u
A(U
—
——---—
-
-—-—
(.TOM
T
OM cLAY
CLAY
nt*
-__--__
.__--__
I
I
Table 7.2
Comparison of Desert Surface Types by Plan Area
(Reprinted from P. C. Pookes,
Fookes, "Road Geotechnics in Hot Deserts,"
Deserts,"
The Highway Engineer, Journal of the Institution of Highway
Engineer, Vol XXIII, No. 10 [October 1976], pp 11—23.
Reproduced by permission of the Institution of Highway Engineers.)
Likely Occurrence
Coonest
Coone8t in
Gographica1 Zone
Geographical
Zone
Engfneerfng Zone
Engineering
S*hara
Sahara
Ltbyan
Libyan
Degert
Desert
Saudi Southweetern
Southweitern
Arabia
Aribta
U.S.
Desert
DeBert Pbuntatns
Pbuntatn
I
43X
39Z
391
47X
471
38.1Z
38.11
Volc8nic
Volcanic ConeB
Cones and
and
Fields
I
3
1
2
0.2
1/lI
1/11
2
8
11
2.6
IIii/Iii
I/II/iiI
1
1
1
3.6
11
11
1
1
4
31.4
10
6
1
0.7
1
3
11
1.2
10
18
16
20.5
Badland8 and
Badlands
and Subdued
Badd lande
Ba
Ia nd a
Wadis
Fanø
Bedrock Pavements
Bedrock
Paveent8
Il/Ill
U/Ill
Regions Bordertng
RegonB
Bordering
Throughf lowing
lowing Rivers
Rivera
II/iil/iv
1I/1II/Iv
Desert
DeBert Flat8
Flats
hIlly
III/IV
P1aya and
Playas
and SBlin&8
Salin&s
IV
1
1
1
1
1.1
Sand Dunes
IV
28
100
22
100
26
100
0.6
100.0
100.0
advantage
advantage since such practices are often dictated by availability of engineering materials.
7.4.1
Compaction of Dry
Soils
Compaction of dry soils is generally best accomplished by vibratory
methods.
Soils most suitable for vibratory compaction are sands and gravels
which are susceptible
Busceptible to consolidation under vibratory motion.
Very fine
sands and silty and clayey sands may be compacted to some degree but not as
successfully as the more granular materials. The most
mo8t desirable equipment for
compaction is a vibratory roller, either driven or self—propelled.
Tracked
vehicles such as tanks and crawler tractors may also be used for compacting
dry granular materials since such vehicles are heavy and impact vibratory
motion to the underlying soil. Although vibratory compaction is most desirable, dry materials may also be densified using heavy pneumatic—tired equipment having low tire inflation pressure.
This method relies primarily on
weight alone to force the soil grains
grainB into a closer configuration while the
high
lower tire contact pressure prevents surface rutting. Although fairly high
soil strengths may be obtained in some soils that are compacted dry, maintenance of unsurfaced roads and parking areas may be a problem.
Since
Since dry
dry sands
sands
depend on confinement to maintain strength, unsurfaced roads, airfields, and
7—9
parking
to
parking areas
areas subject
subject to
to traffic
traffic with
with high—pressure
high—presBure tires
tires will
will tend
tendto
deteriorate and will require close attention to maintenance. In areas used
frequently by heavy tracked vehicles,
vehicleB, the soil
Boil will generally remain compacted
to some depth as aa result
reBult of
of traffic;
traffic; however,
however, tank
tank traffic
traffic will
will also
also tend
tend to
o
maintenance of
of the
the surface
Burface layer
layer
Therefore, maintenance
deteriorate surface
Burface conditions.
conditionB.
will be required.
7.4.1.1
Soil Types:
The primary soil types that can be compacted successfully
auccessfully at or near zero
water content are the gravels,
gravelB, sands,
BandB, and gravelly and sandy
Bandy materials. These
materials include the following soils
Boils classified
claBBified according to the Unified Soil
ClasBification System: GW, GP, GM, GC, GM—GC, SW, SP, SM, SC, and SM—SC.
Classification
Bhould not exceed about 40 percent of the total
Generally, the fines content should
Extremely
soil weight.
Eictremelydry,
dry,powdery,
powdery and pulverized soils
Boils that are easily
windblown and that are characterized by the formation of trails of dust clouds
when exposed to vehicular traffic are extremely difficult to densify from a
Burface
practical standpoint.
standpoint. Generally, these soils are characterized as surface
material
material with
with the
the underlying
underlying soil
Boil being
being depended
depended on
on to
to offer
offer structural
structural supsupThese
These materials
materials generally
generally classify
classify as
as the
the silts
silts and
and clays:
clays:
port.
CL., CH,
CH, ML,
ML,
CL.,
MU, and
and ML—CL..
ML—CL.
P111,
7.4.1.2
Equipment:
Vibratory rollers are best suited for compaction of
Vibratory rollers:
dry soils. Examples of typical equipment usedin vibratory compaction are the
single—drum, 5—ton (4.5 tonnes) towed vibratory roller and the single—drum,
Belf—propelled vibratory roller.
10—ton (9.1 tonnes) self—propelled
Tracked vehicles:
Heavy tracked equipment such as crawler tractors,
dozers, and tanks can also be used to compact dry soils since such
Buch equipment
naturally induces vibratory motion into the underlying soils during normal
operations.
Pneumatic—tired rollers: Heavily loaded pneumatic—tired rollers may also
be used to compact
compact dry
dry soils
soils although
although generally
generally not
not as
as successfully
successfully as
a vibravibratory equipment.
The most suitable pneumatic—tired roller is the drawn four—
tired roller ballasted to a weight of 25 tons (22.7 tonnes) and with the tire
It is doubtful that
that any
any
pressure lowered
lowered to
to about
about.45
45 psi
psi (310.3
(310.3 KN/tn2).
KN/m2).
pressure
large—scale compaction can be accomplished with smaller paeumat1.c—tire rollers, although they may be used for smaller compaction projects. Pneumatic—
tired rollers such as the 9—ton (8.2 tonnes) self—propelled
self-propelled or towed rollers
rollerB
should be loaded to maximum capacity with tire inflation pressure of about 40
psi (275.6
(275.6 KN/in2).
KN/m2).
Trucks and construction
construction equipment:
equipment: Heavy trucks and construction
conBtruction equipment such as front—end loaders may also be used to a limited extent for comuBing principles similar to those for standard
paction of dry materials using
pneumatic—tired compaction equipment.
Such vehicles should
Bhould be loaded as
heavily as
a possible
possible and
and have
have tire
tire inflation
inflation pressures
pressures in
in the
the raage
range of
of 25
25 to
to 30
30
psi (172.3 to 206.7 KN/m2). Care should be taken to prevent tire damage.
7—10
7—10
7.4.1.3
Construction Procedures:
Construct'on procedures for compaction of dry soils differ in one signiIn dry compaction and in the
ficant aspect rom normal
norKnal compaction
coKnpaction techniques.
techniques.
expedient construction situation, the
the assumption
assumption is
is made
made that
that the
the soil
soil is
is at
at
or near zero water content condition and that no adjustuent
adjustment in water content
can be made. Also, in expedient
expedient conatruction,
construction, equipKnent
equipment may not be available
available
to check soil water
water content
content or
or in—place
in—place density;
density; therefore,
therefore, the
the engineer
engineer may
ay
have
have to
to rely
rely on
on judgKnent
judgment to
to determine
determine whether acceptable
acceptable densification
densification has
has
may be
be
been achieved. An airfield penetrometer
penetrometer or
or standard
standard cone
cone penetrometer
penetroeter may
useful in evaluating
evaluating the
the effectiveneas
effectiveness of
of coKnpaction
compaction procedures.
procedures.
When vibratory equipment or tracked vehicles are used, dry sands may be
coKnpacted
compacted in
in lifts
lifts up
up to 12 in. (304.8
(304.8 nun)
mm) thick,
thick, while
while lift thickness
thickness for
for
In
in thickness.
thickness.
fine—gralned soils
fine—grained
soils should
shouldbe
bekept
kepttotoabout
about9 9in.
in.
(228.6
(228.6
mm)) in
any event,
it
will
probably
be
necessary
to
construct
sKnall
test
sections
of
event, it will probably be necessary to construct small test sections of
various lift
lift thicknesses
thicknesses to
to determine
determine the
the optimuKn
optimum lift thickness.
thickness. Vehicle or
roller speed
roller
speed should
should range
rangefroKn
from 11 to
to 33 Knph
mph (1.6
(1.6 to 4.8
4.8 km/br).
kKn/hr). The number of
passes required to develop adequate thickness will depend on soil type and
should
ahould be determined in the field on test sections.
Compaction
CoKnpaction of
of dry
dry soils
soils with
wit.hpneumatic—tired
pnewnatic—tiredrollers
rollers generally
generally requires
requires
thinner lift
lift thickness
thickness of
of about
about 44 to
to 66 in.
in. (101.6
(101.6to
to152.4
152.4KnKn),
mm), depending
depending on
on
Again, experimentation in the
the roller or vehicle weight and soil type.
field
field using
using test
test sections
sections of
of varioul3
varioul3 thicknesses
thicknesses will
will be
be required
required to
to determine
determine
optiKnum thickness
optimum
thickness and
and number
nwnber of
of vehicle
vehicle passes.
passes. Vehicle or roller speed will
generally be determined by the resistance the soil being compacted offers to
the vehicle.
7.4.1.4
Maintenance:
Unsurfaced compacted dry soils will tend to deteriorate under traffic of
In order
order to
to Knain—
mainvehicles
vehicles or
or aircraft
aircraft having
having high—pressure
high—pressure pneumatic
pneumatic tires.
tire8.
tain or restore stability
stability to
to the
the soil,
soil, it
it will
will be
be necessary
necessary to
to apply
apply repeated
repeated
tam
maintenance
Timely Knaintenance
passes of a compactor or, preferably, a tracked vehicle. Timely
subject to
to
If
is required to prevent progressively deepening deterioration.
If subject
considerable tracked vehicle traffic, surface deterioration will not be as
track paths
paths will
will
severe; however, channelized traffic or traffic in the same track
tend to cause rutting. Therefore, continual recompaction of the surface will
duet problems, but
be necessary. Dust palliatives may be used to alleviate dust
they will provide little or no structural stabilization.
7.4.2
A.splialt Mix
Mix
Expedient Aaplialt
Expedient
naturally occurring
thethe
Mid—East
occurring aggregates
aggregates are
areavailable
availableinin
Mid—East
number ofof naturally
A number
region,
some of
which can
construction of
of bituminous
bituKninouspavements.
pavements.
region, some
of which
can be
be used
used for
for construction
The following
The
followingguidelines
guidelinesfor
for use
use and
and expected
expectedperforKnance
performanceofofeach
eachofofthe
the eight
eight
aggregate
types likely
likely to
to be
be found
found in
in the
the Mid—East
Mid—East are
are useful
useful for
for planning
planning
aggregate types
needed
before
using
Further
analysis
such
as
mixture
design
is
needed
before
using
Further analysis such as mixture design is
purposes.
mixtures.
these aggregates
aggregates in
in pavement
pavement mixtures.
these
7—11
7—li
7.4.2.1
7.4.2.1.
Asphalts:
Asphelts:
Three types of asphalt materials are generally available for pavement
cement, asphalt
aaphalt emulsinr, and cutback asphalt.
construction: asphalt cement)
Although all three of these materials can be used in the production of asphalt
mixes,
mixes, asphalt
asphalt emulsions
emulsions and
and cutback
cutback asphalts
asphalts are
are primarily
primarily used
used when
when the
the
materials are mixed in place; asphalt cements are primarily used when materiSince water
water is
is in
in short supply in the Midals ar
ar mixed
mixed at
at aa central
central point.
point. Since
East, it is doubtful that a signiftcant amount of asphalt emulsions will be
Hence, it is anticipated that the two types of asphalt materials availused.
able for construction will be asphalt cement and cutback asphalt.
7.4.2.2
Aggregate:
Since aggregate makes
makes up
up over
over 90
90 percent
percent of
of the
the asphalt
asphalt concrete
concretemixture,
mixture
the performance
performance of
of the
the mixture
mixture depends
depends aa great
great deal
deal on
on the
the quality
quality and
and gradagradathe
It is
is desirable
desirable to
to use
use crushed
crushed aggregates,
aggregates, well—graded
well—graded
tion of the aggregate.
aggregate. It
Generally,
from coarse to fine,
fine) for best performance of bituminous mixtures.
it is desirable that the bituminous mixture consist of 30 to 40 percent coarse
percent fine
fine aggregate
aggregate (No.
(No. 44 to
to No.
No.
aggregate (+ No. 4 material), 55 to 65
65 percent
200
200 material),
material), and
and approximately
approximately 55 percent
percent filler
filler (material
(material passing
passing the
the No.
No.
Uncrushed aggregates can be used for pavement constrvcton ata
200 sieve).
reduced cost and for expediency, but the performance anticipated is less than
that for bituminous pavements composed of crushed aggregates.
7.4.2.3
Bituminous Mixtures:
The bituminous mixture should be designed and constructed so that a
stable, durable pavement is obtained. The pavement surface must possess
satisfactory friction properties to carry the intended traffic safely at the
anticipated speeds. All
All of
of these
these items
items muSt
must be
be considered
considered in
in the
the design
design and
and
conètructton
construction of a bituminous mixture. Dense—graded bituminous mixtures are
Often uniformly
normally u8ed to provide a tight, stable, durable surface.
graded (one size) aggregates are used in the production of porous friction
Courses or bituminous surface treatments to improve surface friction propercourses
Dense and uniformly graded aggregates have applications in the conties.
Dense—graded bituminous
struction of bituminous pavements in the Mid—East.
mixtures
mixtures are designed to have 3 to
to 55 percent
percent air
air voids in the laboratory—
compacted mixture8, resulting in 3 to 7 percent air voids in the field—
The low
low voids
voids (3
(3 to
to 77 percent)
percent) and
and high
high density
density (98
(98 to
to 100
100
compacted mixture. The
percent of laboratory
laboratory density)
density) result
result in
in aa durable,
durable, stable
stable pavement
pavement with
with tight
tight
surface texture. The quality of the aggregate is important for dense—graded
well—graded from coarse to fine, is desired.
mixtures; crushed aggregate, veil—graded
Because asphalt binder tends to bond better to crushed than uncrushed
unCrushed aggregate, less raveling occurs in mixtures with crushed aggregate.
In aa well—
well—
In
graded mixture, particle interlock is greater with crushed aggregate, than
with uncrushed aggregate resultiüg in a more stable mixture.
The quality of
dense—graded
dense—graded mixture
mixture is
is sensitive
senaitive to
to aa change
change in
in the
the amount
amount of
of —200
—200 material.
material.
Adding or reducing the amount
anount of —200 material generally changes optimum
asphalt content and stability. An increase in the amount of —200 material
normally
asphalt content
content and
and increases
increases the
the stability.
stability.
normally decreases the optimum asphalt
This is because the —200 material fills the voids in the mineral aggregates,
resulting
resulting in
in fewer
fewer voids
voids to
to be
be filled
filled with
with asphalt
asphalt and
and aa stiffer
stiffer asphalt—
asphalt—
filler
filler matrix.
matrix. In a well—graded mixture, stability and optimum asphalt
7—12
content are also functions of the maximum aggregate size.
Generally, mixtures
with larger e'regate sizes result in higher stabilities at lower optimum
asphalt cont .s. The asphalt type plays an important part in the performance
of a bituminous mixture.
The higher
higher viscosity
viscosity asphai.ts
asphalts (lower-penetration)
(lowerpenetration)
produce mixes having higher stability but more susceptibility to cracking at
lower temperatures.
The lower viscosity
viBcosity asphalts (higher penetration) produce
mixes having low stability at higher temperatures but less susceptibility to
cracking at lower temperatures.
7.4.2.4
Gradation8 and Recommended Uses of Aggregates Found in the Mid—East:
Mid—EaBt:
Gradations
Based on the
the eight
eight major
major categories
categories of
of aggregates
aggregatesfound
foundin
inthe
theMid'-EaBt,
Mid—East,
asphalt
asphalt mix
mix designs
designs have
have been
been developed.
developed. The predicted stability, asphalt
content, and performance for each of these gradations is shown in Table 7.3.
In addition, design mixes for midband gradings are also presented for beach
These values
value8 are for
sand, fan gravel (Zone II), and Bandy
sandy stone (Zone III).
guidance only and should
8hould not be substituted for further analysis when needed.
For this report, poor performance describe8
describes mixtures which will perform satisfactorily less than 1 year, fair performance
performance describes
describes mixtures
mixtures which
which will
will
perform satisfactorily for at least 1 year, and good per.formance describes
mixtures that should provide satisfactory performance for 2 or more years.
Beach sand:
8and;
A wide range of gradations may be found for beach sand;
therefore, this aggregate type was evaluated for the upper—bound gradation,
lower—bound
lower—bound gradation,
gradation, and
and tuidband
midband gradation
gradation (Figure
(Figure 7.2).
7.2). Sand mixtures usually provide tight surfaces but are often unstable under traffic and may not
be suitable for tracked vehicles. These mixtures can be expected to perform
satisfactorily in cooler weather, but traffic during the hot summer months may
cause excessive rutting, resulting In
in shear failure and subsequent deterioration of the pavement.
pavement. When sand mixtures are to be subjected to traffic during summer, a higher viscosity (lower penetration) asphalt cement may be
selected to provide some additional stability however, this may result in an
Blending of aggregates is
increase in deterioration in the winter months.
desirable to optimize the aggregate gradation to improve mixture properties.
For instance,
instance, coarse
coarse aggregate
aggregate can
can be
be blended
blended with
withthe
thebeach
beachsand
sandtotoitnprove
improve
the overall aggregate gradation, resulting in better mixture properties.
The
beach sand mixture requires a large amount of asphalt to properly coat the.
aggregate particles. The stability of mixtures
aixtures prepared with aggregate meeting
ing the
the lower—bound,
lower—bound, midbartd,
rnidband, and
and upper—bound
upper—bound gradations
gradations will
will generally
generally be
be
between
between 100
100 and
and 500
500 lb
lb (45.4
(45.4 to
to 226.8
226.8 kg).
kg). The upper—bound gradation requires
the most asphalt (9 to 11 percent) while the lower—bound gradation requires
the least asphalt (6 to 8 percent). The midband gradation will probably
result tn the best mixture, with probable poor to fair performance.
The
lower—bound and upper—bound gradations would probably result in poor performance.
Sand mixes that have
beach
have aa small
small amount
amount of
of —200
—200 material,
material, such
such as
a beach
sand,
Beach sand can be readily mixed in
Band, are easy to mix, place, and compact.
place or at a central plant. The upper—bound gradation may present some mixing problems since the gradation is very fine (100 percent of the material
passes the No. 50 sieve).
Dune sand: Mixtures prepared with dune sand (Figure 7.2) should perform
similarly
similarly to
to mixtures
mixtures prepared
prepared with
with beach
beach sand.
sand.
7—13
Table 7.3
Expected Performance of Bituminous Mixtures
Prepared Prom Aggregates Found in the Mid—east
Approximate
Aaphalt Content)
Mphalt
Content) %
Approximate
Stability, lb
Expected
Performance
9—11
7—9
6—8
100—500
100—500
100—500
Poor
Poor—Fair
Poor
Dune Sand
Sand
Upper Bound
Lower Bound
9—11
8—10
100—500
100—500
Poor
Poor
Sand Zone II
7—9
100—500
100—500
Poor—Fair
Desert Fill Zone IV
Iv
6—8
1000—1500
Cood
Good
Material
Beach Sand
Upper Bound
Hid
Mid Band
Lower Bound
Silty Stone Zone III
UNSATISFACTORY
UpperBound
7—9
1000—1500
Fair
Fan Gravel
Cravel Zone II
Upper Bound
Mid Band
Lover Bound
5—7
5—7
5—7
5—7
500—1000
1000—1500
Not Applicable
Fair
Good
Cood
Fair
Fair
Sandy Stone Zone III
III
ijpperBound
.UpperBound
Mid Band
Lover Bound
Lower
5—7
5—7
5—7
1000—1500
500—1000
500—1000
Good
Cood
Fair
Stone Pavement Zone IV
5—7
5—7
Not Applicable
Fair
Lower Bound
UNSATISFACTORY
Sand Zone II: Mixtures prepared with Sand Zone IL
It (Figure 7.3) should
vith the beach sand of midband gradaperform similarly to mixtures prepared with
tion.
Desert Fill Zone IV. Mixtures prepared with
vith aggregate having a gradation
similar to that of desert fill Zone IV (Figure 7.3) should provide very tough,
tight sufaces. These mixtures should support traffic during the hot summer
summer
months
The asphalt
asphalt required
required for
for this
this mixture
mixture is
is 66
morths with a minimum of distress. The
to 8 percent, and the resulting stability should be 100 to
1500 pounds
pounds (45.4
to 1500
(45.4
kg). The performance of
with ravelirg
raveling
to 680.4
680.4 kg).
to
of this
this mixture
mixture should
should be
be good,
good with
7—14
and cracking the most likely problems. These problems should occur over a
period of t':, however, and thus not cause early failure. It will be difficult to obtain a well—coated mixture because the amount of —200 material is
high (22 percent).
It is recommended that this type of mixture be mixed
nixed in a
central plant so that mixing can be better controlled.
Placing and compacting
this mixture may also present problems.
When lifts 2 in. (50.8 mm) or less
In an
are placed, the coarse aggregate will tend to tear the mat, resulting in
uneven surface that is
iB difficult to compact. To insure good performance
performance with
with
this mixture, steps must be taken to make sure mixing, placing, and compacting
are done properly.
properly.
Silty Stone Zone III:
The silty stone material has a large amount of
—200 material (Figure 7.4) and is generally not acceptable in asphalt mixtures.
The material represented by the upper—bound curve can be used as a
as the only aggregate
mineral filler in asphalt mixtures but is not acceptable ae
an asphalt mixture. The material represented by the lower—bound curve can
in en
be used satisfactorily; however, the amount of —200 material is on the upper
limit of that which can be properly mixed and compacted. When the amount of
—200 material exceeds 30 percent In the blend of aggregate to be used in aa
bituminous mixture,
mixture, the
the aggregate
aggregate should
should be
be considered
considered unsatisfactory.
unsatisfactory. When
bituminous
the amount of —200 material is high, additional mixing time will be necessary.
Mixtures prepared with the aggregate represented by the lower—bound curve
should
should require
require 77 to
to 99 percent
percent asphalt
asphalt and
atd hav'e
hav'e stability
stability values
values in
in the
the range
of 1000 to 1500 pounds (453.6 to 680.4 kg). The performance of such a mixture
is no better than fair —— even though the stability is high —— because the
material is
is high
high and
and very
very little
little of
of the
the aggregate
aggregate is
is larger
larger
amount of —200 material
than a No. 4 sieve. This mixture will be difficult to mix sufficiently to
obtain
obtain aa homogeneous
honogeneous mixture.
mixture. Since there is little coarse aggregate, little
difficulty in placement of the mixture would be expected.
Compaction of lifts
up to 1—1/2 in. (38.1 mm) should not be difficult, but thicker layers may
present compaction problems such as lateral movement of the mixture during
rolling
rolling and
and ruts
ruts that
that cannot
cannot be
be removed
removed with
with the
the finish
finish roller.
roller.
Fan Gravel Zone II:
The gradation
gradation of
of the
the aggregate
aggregate found
found irt
in fan
fan gravel
deposits varies considerably. The aggregate represented by the upper—bound
and mldband
midband gradation curves (Figure 7.5) can produce fair to good dense—
graded bituminous mixtures. However, the aggregate represented by the lower—
bound
bound curve
curve should
should be
be used
used to
to produce.
produce, an
an open—graded
open—graded mixture
mixture since
since very
very few
few
fines
fines are
are available,
available, or
or it
it should
should be
be crushed
crushed to
to produce
produce aa dense—graded
dense—graded mixmixture.
The upper—bound material should require 5 to 7 percent asphalt and produce a stability of 500 to 1000 pounds
pounds (226.8
(226.8 to
to 453.6 kg).
It should be
mixed, placed, and compacted with standard
standard procedures,
procedures, and
and should
should provide
provide fair
fair
performance. The most likely problem with this
thiB mixture is rutting during hot
weather.
The aggregate represented by the midband gradation is very similar in
size to that used for dense—graded mixtures for airfields.
It is well—graded
and should produce a tight, stable mixture. The estimated asphalt content
Content for
this mixture is 5 to 7 percent, which should result in an estimated stability
of 1000 to 1500 pounds (453.6 to 680.4 kg). The estimated performance is
good. No major problems are anticipated in mixing, placing, and compacting.
conpacting.
The aggregate represented
represented by
by the
the lower—bound
lower—bound gradation
gradation curve
curve is
is not
not gengenerally recommended
recommended for
for use
use In
in bituminous
bituminous mixtures.
mixtures. Ideally,
Ideally, this
this aggregate
aggregate
7—15
should be crushed to produce an aggregate that could be used to produce a
If this aggrebituminous mixture that would provide excellent performance.
gate is not crushed and is
19 used
u9ed to produce a bituminous mixture, 5 to 7 pereagy to mix but
cent asphalt
aaphalt should generally be used. The mixture should be easy
Compaction for this mixture would primarily
difficult to place and compact.
be to seat the aggregate so that it bonds to the layer underneath and to the
i9 not applicable to mixtures having
adjacent aggregates. The stability test is
Performance should be fair with raveling being the most
aggregate this
thi8 large.
likely problem.
Sandy
Sandy Stone
Stone Zone
Zone III:
III: The aggregate represented by the upper—bound grabituminoue m.txtures. The amount of
dation (Figure 7.6) is not acceptable for bituminous
—200 material should not exceed 30 percent. Material with gradation similar
to the upper bound
bound can
can be
be u8ed
used as
as aa filler
filler in
in bituminous
bituminous mixturee
mixtures but
but muet
must be
be
The midband
blended
blended with
with other
other aggregates
aggregates to
to produce
produce an
an acceptable
acceptable gradation.
gradation.
gradation is the upper limit of aggregates
aggregate8 that should be used
ueed in bituminous
This
gradation
will
produce
a
tight,
stable
mixture
requiring a 5
mixtures.
to 7 percent asphalt binder and having a stability of 1000 to 1500 pounds
bituminous mixtures produced with this type of aggregate
(453.6 to 680.4 kg). Bituminous
should provide good performance (Figure 7.6). Mixing and compaction may be
difficult because of the large amount of —200 material, but spreading should
preseit no major problem.
present
problem.
Aggregate represented by the lower—bound gradation curve should produce a
tiis mixture is 5 to 7 perstable mixture. The estimated asphalt content for this
cent, which ehould
should produce
produce aa stability of 500 to 1000 pounds
pounds (226.8
(226.8 to
to 453.6
453.6
kg).
Bituminous mixtures produced with this aggregate should provide fair
but spreading
spreading
should be
be no
no problem
problem in
in mixing
mixingthis
thismixture,
ixture but
perforoiane. There should
performance.
and compaction may be difficult because of the coarse
coaree aggregate.
stability
The performance of this aggregate (Figure 7.6)
Stone Pavement Zone IV:
in
in bituminous
bituminous mixtures
mixtures should
should be
be similar
eimilar to
to that
that for
for the
the lower—bound
lover—bound gradation
gradation
of the fan gravel Zone II aggregate.
7.4.3
Expedient Concrete and Mortar Mix
is one
one where
where evaporation
evaporation exceeds
exceeds precipitation,
precipitation, as
a th
An arid climate is
in the
the
hot, arid areas ofthe Middle East. Exttenre temperaturespresent peciai
problems in concrete production. High temperatures increase the hardening of
concrete. The length of time within which the concrete is handled is more
critical, making it more difficult to place. High range water reducers, commonly known as
ae "super plasticizers," have proven beneficial in improving the
The cliueing additional water.
handling characteristics of concrete without using
mate also increases mixing water demand that promotes bleeding. The time in
which protective measures are applied is critical because difficulties in
retaining uniform temperature conditions adversely affect concrete strength.
The harmful effects of hot weather on concrete may be minimized by a
jue—
number of practical procedures. The degree to which their application is justified depends on circumstances. One or more of the ingredients may be cooled
to keep the temperature of the concrete from being excessive at the time of
placement.
Storing aggregate in the shade may help maintain lower temperaplacement.
Because o.
o the
maintained
the heat
heat of
of hydration
hydration cement
cement content
content should be maintained
ture.
at the minimum permitted. Concrete in place may be protected to minimize
7—16
drying and absorption of heat. Difficulties resulting frow high temperatures,
such as plastc
p1astc shrinkage cracking, can only be controlled by last—minute
improvisations.
construction may
may alleviate
alleviate some
some of
of the
the heat
heatand
andtein—
temNight construction
perature problems encountered during daytime construction.
Portland cement:
Although there is some local cement production in the
region, most cement
cement will
will have
have to
to be
be imported. Numerous
Numetous countries ship cement
into the region,
region, and
and it
it varies
varies in
in quality
quality froiu
from bad to good.
good.
In
In general,
general, there
there
will be no control over what is received and its quality.
If possible,
sulfate—resistant (Type V) and low—heat (Type IV) cements
cenents should be used.
These are the main types being imported. Unless bulk handling capabilities
are available locally,
locally, the
the troops
troops will
will not
not be
be able
able to
to handle
handle and
and transport
transport
large quantities
quantities of
of cement
cement 4'ith
with their
their equipment.
equipment. Bag handling of cement is
If
very slow, labor intensive, and not recommended except as a last resort.
none exists locally, airtight storage will have to be provided for the cement
in all coastal areas. This
Any
This is
is best
best accomplished
accomplished by
by rubberized
rubberized bulk
bulk bags.
bags.
prolonged storage of cement at the high temperatures of the region will result
in a degradation of the cement.
Aggregates:
Typical grading curves and
aid bands for desert areas are illustrated in Figures 7.2 to 7.6.
Natural sands are usually abundant, but their
gradings are generally poor and they are frequently contaminated by deleterious salts.
Rock outcrops may be of a friable and porous nature and may also
be contaminated with deleterious salts. These problens
problems and the climatic condition are
are of
of major
major concern
concern In
in horizontal
horizontalar'id
ard vertical
dition
vertical construction.
construction.
Mix proportions:
Mixture proportions are given in Table 7.4 for each of
the sand and composite material gradation curves given in Figures 7.2 through
7.6.
7.6.
When only sand is available in a given location, it is assumed that
1—1/2—In. (38 mm) maximum—size aggregate available from other sources will be
added in the quantities noted to produce the concrete. When the indigenous
niatertal Is
niaterlal
is already a composite material of sand and rock, it can be used in
its already—combined condition.
Adjustments in the amount of fine material
(sand) and water may be necessary to achieve the workability needed to place
the material.
Construction Techniques
Techniques
Miscellaneozw Construction
Miscellaneou8
7.4.4
Horizontal construction
construction on
on bases
bases or
orbetween
between bases
bases will require innovative
innovative
Horizontal
construction techniques to offset the additional time required by harsh
environment.
1.
Use seawater (see Section 5.7, pp 5—60 to 5—67), crude oil, or waste oil
for compaction and stabilization.
Portland cement
cement may
may also
also be
be used
usedif
ifavailable.
avilable.
Portland
2
2.
Blend available on—site soils for road—base materials.
3.
Increase priority on transportation of replacement and repair parts
maintenance.
due to
to irtcreased
increased maintenance.
4.
Shoulders of existing roadways, or expedient roadways constructed
parallel to the existing pavement, may be used for tank traffic, thereby
extending the life of the existing pavement.
7—17
Table 7.4
Proportioning Guidelines and Expected Performance
for Concrete Made With Aggregates
Aggregate8 Found in the Mid—East
Part A.
Naturally Occurring Sands to Which Coarse
Coaree Aggregate (Rock) Must Be Added
Approximate Weights in
Pounds per Cubic Yard
of Concrete
Sand
Cement
Rock
Approx.
Batch
Water
(gallons)
Estimated
Slump
(inches)
28—day
Strength
of
Concrete
Beach Sand
Upper Bound
Midband
Lower Bound
Bound
Lower
700—750
550—600
400—450
1350—1450
1300—1400
1230—1300
1650—1750
1850—1950
2030—2130
33—39
33—39
33-39
33-39
33—39
Dune Sand
Upper Bound
Lower
Lower Bound
440—490
440—490
400—450
1230—1300
1230—1300
2030—2130
2030—2130
32—38
33—39
3
3
Fair
Fair
Sand, Zone II
550—600
1300—1400
1850—1950
33—39
2
Good
Silty Stone,
Zone III
Upper
Upper Bound
Lower Bound
440—490
1230—1300
Unsatisfactor
2030—2130
2030—2130
33—39
3
Fair
Fair
Fan Gravel
Lover Bound
5.50—600
1300—1400
1300—1400
1850—1950
2
Good
Part B.
Desert Fill,
Zone IV
700—750
3000—3200
Fan Gravel,
Mid Bound
Upper Bound
450—500
550—600
3200—3400
3200—3400
3150—3350
Stone Pavement,
Zone IV
3
Good
Good
Fair
Naturally Occurring Blends (Composites) of Sand and Rock
Approximate Weights
Weighte in
pounds per cubic
cubIc yard
of Concrete
Composite
Cement
Materials
Sandy Stone,
Zone III
Upper Bound
Nidband
Lower
Lover Bound
33—39
1
2
—
550—600
700—750
900—1000
Approx.
Batch
Water
(gallons)
.
.
7—18
7—18
28—day
28—day
Strength
Strength
of
Concrete
35—41
22
Fair
33—39
33—39
3
Good
Good
Unsatisfactor
Unsatisfactor
3150—3350
35—41
3000—3200
35—41
2330—2550
(No
(No Sand)
Sand)
Estimated
Slump
(inches)
54—60
2
22
Fair
Fair
FaIr
2
Good
2
Clays may be blended with sands in low rainfall areas to provide a
riding surface.
5.
Uar
6.
crusty sections may require no construction
con8truction effort if left
undisturbed.
7.
A general—purpose, lightweight, low—cost matting could be developed
for
for road
road and
and other
other uses
uses over
over sands.
sands.
Membrane encapsulated soil layer8,
layers, sand grids, and soil reinforcement
8.
would enhance road construction by conventional methods.
Increase use of locally available cutback and emulsified petroleum
9.
products.
Do not expect road construction equipment to be used without modifi10.
cations (i.e., cooling fans may have to be side—mounted instead of front—
mounted to prevent abrasive action of sand).
11.
Do not expect timber to be available for culverts and trusses.
12.
12.
Rippers may be required on large tractors for removal of hardpan.
13.
13.
Tires will deteriorate more quickly due to extreme heat.
14.
14.
Equipment life and performance may be severely hampered in harsh
environments.
environmen
ts.
7.5
Roads Over Loose Sand
Over—the—shore transportation of supplies in loose sand is very difficult
Supply roads and storage areas over loose sand
without treatment of the sand.
will be required.
7.5.1
7.5.1
Possible Solztions
Use lighter traffic loads and reduce tire pressures. A general rule
1.
1.
of thumb is to lower tire pressure so that tire deflection is increased by 50
percent.
percent.
Sand stabilization using portland cement is a well—established method
See TM 5—330, "Portland Cement Stabilfor constructing pavement base layers.
2.
ization
.'
ization.'•
3.
3.
traffiMix available local gravel or soils with the sand to improve traffi—
cability.
If a firmer material lies at shallow depths, keep blading loose sands
4.
off the roadway.
to
Bury membrane (T—17) filter fabric, netting, or other materials 3 to
Tests
have
shown
best
performance
over
4 in. (76 to 102 miii) in the sand.
buried
buried membrane
membrane occurs
occurs when
when traffic
traffic stays
stays in
in the
the same
same ruts.
ruts.
5.
7—19
Any of the airfield landing
landing mats
mats in
in inventory
inventory can
can be
be used on a
smoothed surface to provide a roadway for over—the—beach truck traffic (see
Table 7.1).
6.
7.
Place building rubble in the ruts.
8.
Use crude oil, if available, for stabilizing the sand.
Don't
7.5.2
Do not place membranes, even if anchored, on the surface of the loose
sands for improving trafficability. Tests have shown that best performance
results when the membrane Is
is buried 3. to 4 in. (76 to 102 mm).
Special Considerationa
ConsiderationB
7.5.3
equip—
Blowing sands may cause operation problems with the construction equipment and high maintenance for the roadway or storage facility.
sent
Almost anything mixed with a loose sand will improve its trafficability.
7.6
Intermittent Stream Crossing
Build a ford instead
instead of
of aa bridge
bridge to
to niake
make the
the roadway
roadway unusable
unusable during
during and
and
for a few hours after an unusual storm. If such
such aa storm
storm does
does occur,•
occur, a
bulldozer, a front—end loader, and some dump trucks should be able to restore
in a few hours after the water subsides by removing boulders washed
operation In
onto the roadway and filling areas eroded by the stream.
Concrete fords are
are
very successful and allow almost immediate return to operation after rainfall.
7.7
Control of Drifting Sand
Obviously loose sand and dune areas are best avoided. However, if small
dunes must be crossed, several methods are available for controlling them or
at least minimizing their effects.
1.
Align
Align routes
routes or
or airfields
airfields upwind
upwind from
from existing
existing dune,
dune areas
areas or
or sand—
sand—
Source areas.
source
2.
2.
Oil the surface of windblown sands with high—gravity crude oil for
011
temporary dust control.
Erect porous barriers (i.e., snow—type fences or spaced nonporous
barriers).
barriers).
3.
4.
Build roadways on an embankment above normal surface elevation.
5.
Dig trenches to destroy the symmetry of a dune and thus accelerate
its destruction by wind. Trenching on the windward side of the works to be
protected and using the excavated material as a second barrier orniound
or mound
between the trench and the item to be protected can control sand temporarily.
7-20
Further guidance provided by Fookes* way
also
be useful:
level road will receive a layer of
of sand
sand over
over the
the
leeward side during
wind conditions.
conditions. The layer
leeward
during nornial
normal wind
will be thin and will probably not impede vehicles
vehic1es even
if they are equipped with high pressure tyres. When
wind of the opposite direction occurs, the thin layer
A
of sand will shift to the other side of the road.
crown to the road
road will
will aggravate
aggravate the
the down—wind
down—wind side
side
accumulations, and for this reason the crown should be
kept to
kept
to aa minimum..
minimum.
Ideally for dune areas flat roads
are
are to
to be
be preferred,
preferred,but
butthe
the
embankment
embankment should
should be
be
greatly rounded
greatly
rounded at
at the
the shoulder
shoulder break
break point.
point.
Unbanked, single—line roads on elevated grades are
Unbanked,
generally self—cleaning and do not usually present a
serious
serious problem
problem by
by drifting
drifting sand.
sand. They are, however)
however,
Banked horizontal
vulnerable to migrating dune masses.
curves
curves are
are troublesome
troublesome and
and vulnerable
vulnerable to
to drifting
drifting sand,
sand,
if the wind first Impinges
impinges on the high side of the
bank.
The high windward side will remain exposed, but
the lower leeward side will receive a deposit of sand,
the
the depth
depth of
of which
which depends
depends on
on the
the amount
amount of
of super—
super—
elevation of the windward side.
aide. Curves should, therefore, have as long a radius as possible and banking
should be held to a minimum.
Cut8 can be serious problems and probably the best
remedy is to build Impounding
impounding fences up—wind from the
cut, stabilize the sand between the cut and the
increase the
the height
height of
of the
the fence
fence when-S
whenfence...and then increase
ever it loses its trapping efficiency.
It is important to remove all obstructions upwind
Any obstruction will cause a drift
from
from the road.
It is not uncommon for
stream to develop downwind.
obstruc—
these drifts to be 20 times the height of the obstrucA large bush a metre high may send out a streation.
tion.
long. A hummock of earth or a rock a few
mer 35 metres longcentimetres high at the edge of the road can send a
side of the
drift across the entire road. The up—wind aide
road should therefore be cleaned off and smoothed with
a drag for a width of at least 20 metres
metrea or even wider
if
or hummocks
hummocks are
are present..
present.
if large bushes or
Migrating dunes that are approaching the road are
Destruction or immobilization
another serious hazard.
of the dunes can be accomplished if it is carried out
while the dune is over 20 times its height away from
tf the dune is allowed to approach closer
If
the road.
*
Engineer,
P. G. Fookes, "Road Geotechnics in Hot Deserts," The Highway Engineers
No. 10 (October
nal of the Institution of Highway Engineers, Vol xxttt,
xxitt, No.
1976), p 11—23.
7—21
than this distance, it will probably have to be immo—
bilised by oil stabilisation and then restricted
against further growth by building an impounding fence
up—wind from it. This would cut off new supplies of
sand that would otherwise cause it to become elongated
down—wind.
To prevent erosion of embankments built with dune
sand choose low slope angles (1:4) and protect the
slope with a stabilising material.
During construction
construction vehicles
vehicles should
should be
be discouraged
discouraged
from running wild over the existing desert surface upwind of the road as it could destory an existing
natural thin
thin crust
crust or
or sparse
sparse binding
binding vegetation
vegetation which
which
natural
in torn
turn could lead to sand near the road being mobil—
ised by the wind.
1.8
Dust Control
Dust control will be necessary to prevent increased engine maintenance
and reduced
reduced propeller—blade
propeller—blade life,
life,and
andto
tolessen
lessenbattlefield
battlefieldsicntire
s1nure location.
Possjbl
Possible Solutions
Solutions
1.8.1
7.8.1
Define technology currently being used by contractors operating in
1.
1.
the area.
2.
Use an asphalt distributor for application of dust—control agents.
Recommended materials for dust control include peneprime types, DCA 1295,
crude
crude oil,
oil, and
and saltwater.
saltwater.
3.
Install grease fittings on the asphalt distributor pump to allow
manual lubrication when spraying DCA 1295, a low—viscosity dust—control
dust—contrQl agent.
Li.
4.
Use a fiberglass scrim with DCA 1295 reinforcement, especially for
trafficked areas.
5.
Mechanical means of dust control, such as plywood or membranes, may
be used temporarily.
6.
Use asphalt—based
asphalt—based crude
crude oil'(will
oil(will require
require heating
heating before
before spraying).
spraying).
If available, other
such as
as resin
resin emulsions
emulsions (e.g.,
(e.g.,
other dust
dust palliativ-es
palliatives such
Coherox), magnesium chloride, liquid products, etc., may be used.
7.
7.8.2
Don'ts
1.
1.
Do not use experimental or unproven chemicals for dust control.
2.
Do not expect water or light oil applications to control dust for a
long time.
7—22
Special Considerations
7.8.3
7.8.3
Higi.y
porous materials
materials require
require dust
dust control.
control.
Higiy porous
1.
2.
En trafficked
trafficked areas1,
areas, sand
In
sand will
will rut,
ruts causing
causing deterioration
deterioration of
of dust
dust
control preparations.
preparations.
Seawater may be used
used for
for the
the prewetting
prewetting recommended
recommended in
in DA
DA PAN
PAN 525—5.
525—5.
3.
4.
The minimum
minimum flash
flash point
point of
of penepriine
peneprime and
and cutback
cutback asphalt is
is about
about
80°F (26.6°C).
Asphalt products will have a tacky surface
aurface above 100°F (37.8°C).
5.
5.
7.9
Construction of C—130 Airstrips
Many areas in the arid flat regions such
8uch as the playas and desert pavements may allow operation of C—130 aircraft with minimal construction effort,
while areas of large active sand dunes may present considerable problems in
constructing
constructing and
and maintaining
maintaining aa suitable
suitable airstrip
airstrip surface.
surface. Some Important
important considerations that must be addressed in constructing C—130 airstrips include
soil strength,
strengths runway length, surface roughness and obstacles,
obstacle8, and lateral and
approach zone clearances.
The
The expedient
expedient runway
runway must
must have
have enough
enough strength
strength to
to
maintain the desired number of aircraft operations. It must also meet certain
criteria of length
length and
and grade1,
grade, have
have safe
safe lateral
lateral and
and approach
approach zone
zone clearances,
clearances,
and be reasonably free of surface obstacles and unsafe
un8afe ground irregularities.
Detailed
Detailed Information
Information on
on construction
construction of
of expedient
expedient C—130
C—130 runways
runways is
is in
in TM
TM 5—
5—
Vol 111,
II, "Planning
"Planning and
and Design
Design of
of Roads,
Roads, Airbases,
Airbases, and
and Heliports
Hellports
330/AIM 86—3,
86—31, Vol
in the Theater of
of Operations.'
Operations."
7.9.1
Strengti Requirinents
Requirements
Strength requirements for C—130 airstrips
Strength
air8trips without surfacing and with membrane and light— and medium—duty landing
laidthg mat surfacing are shownin Figure
7.7.
These
These criteria indicate the number of cycles of aircraft traffic allowed
for different gross aircraft weights in kips and different soil strengths in
In
One cycle is equal to one takeoff and one
terms of airfield index (A.l.).
(A.I.).
landing.
7.9.1.1
Index:
Airfield Index:
soil
strength measurement
measurement normally
normally obtained
obtained using
using an
an
Airfield
Airfield index is a soil strength
8hOuld ensure that an airfield
airfield perletrometer.
airfield
penetrometer. Therefore, the engineer should
penetrometer is included as part of his equipment for initial engineer reconnaissance.
If no airfield penetrometer is
ia available, the standard trafficability
cone penetrometer
penetrometer may
may be
be used
used arid
and the
the readings
readings converted to
to A.I.
A.I. Two types of
cones are
are used
used with
with the
the trafficability
trafficability perletrometer;
penetrometer: one having a base area
of 0.2 cq in. and another having a base area of 0.5 sq in. To determine
values of A.I.,
A.I. readings
readings taken
taken with
with the
the 0.2
02 sq in. and 0.5 sq In.
in. must be
These converted readings may then be used
divided by 20 and 50, respectively.
with Figure 7—7.
7—23
SOTE
ICTE
SLDIUM Dull SAT
SLOlUM
-
Figure
OlE CTCI.I
OttE
CC.I • COt.A
£OU*
OC LA.OIIIG.
OIL
LOtG.
7.7.
•fl SOD
•VSOO
ISO
SO
250 100
200
iSO
100
CycleS
TNAFF.C CVCCCS
TaSFIC
Subgrade strength requirements, C—130 aircraft.
TO Ott*
.t
VAEI-O?E AO
TO
0* TAEIOTE
L CC £ TO
NO
LCG(
SINSIfSC(OSITS
SINSIfSC(D
S,TS
ONON
WITItOUT
WiY,U1ISCMSN*SC
ISCMSN*I
IAT
—— LISY
(In? 0UT
OUT.14*?
C
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z
0
Use of Penetrometers:
7.9.1.2
PenetroneLera
PenetromeLers are crude field—expedient methods of evaluating soil
Their use must be tempered with an understanding of soil behavior.
If a site consists of dry, clean sands (sands with no fines or material passing the No. 200 sieve), the confining effect of the large C—130 tire generally
will allow the aircraft to operate regardless of the measured or converted
airfield index. Windblown beach and desert sands
eands are examples of this type of
material. The airfield index is a fairly reliable indicator of the strength
of many clays, but there are exceptions.
Certain clay soils can lose over 90
percent of
of their
their strength
strength when
when reniolded
remolded and
and turn into thick,
thick, viscous
viscous liquids.
liquids.
residual. clay soils formed in tropical and subtropical areas and known as
Some residual,
laterites have good bearing capacity when they are undisturbed, but if
in the present of moisture, they become a plasreworked with heavy equipment In
tic, low—strength material. It is impossible to predict behavior of such
soils on the basis of in situ penetrometer readings alone.
The
The engineer
engineer must
must
also consider the effects of moisture on soils when evaluating a site.
Some
soils (clays and silts) can have large reductions In
in strength when they become
wet.
Consequently, rain can make these soils unusable, and they should be
avoided if an unsurfaced
unsurfaced soilsoil
is needed
is needed
for operations
for in
operations
wet weather. in wet weather. Aircraft will behave differently in different types of soil.
If an aircraft is
braking or turning in a cohesionless soil (particularly clean sand), the soil
will rut very easily and the aircraft may bog down.
However, simplyshoveling
the sand from in front of the wheels will often allow the C—130 to taxi out of
the rut without assistance. The pilot
pilot can
can also
also help
help prevent
prevent delay
delay of
of •takeoff
takeoff
by cyclic braking.
Plastic soils, particularly CH clays, will allow braking
and turning with less rutting when dry, but a light rain will make their surfaces very slick and hazardous.
strength.
7.9.2
Clearance Requirennts
Minimum runway
Min1riuai
runwayand
andclearance
clearance criteria
criteria for
for the
the C—130 are given in TM 5—330
(Departuient of
of the
the Army,
Army, 1968);
1968); these
these criteria
criteria are
are summarized
summarized in
in Figure
Figure 7.8.
7.8.
(Department
actual clearance
clearance criteria
criteria and
and runway
runway length
length used
used in
in th.e
the mission
However, the actual
mission
must be established by the aircraft commander to reflect factors such as load,
aircraft model.
Operation on runways meeting these
altitude, temperature, and atrcraft
criteria will still be hazardous, inefficient, and limited to good weather.
cooperdtion between the engineers and aircraft commanders Is
is vitally
Close cooperation
important in selecting a usable expedient runway and cannot
äannot be overemphasized.
7.9.3
SurfaceRouqhness
Rouqhnessand
andObstacles
Ob8tacls
Srface
TM 5—330 provides allowable limits for runway roughness and obstacles.
If the landing strip is used by more than
These are summarized in Table 7.5.
one aircraft at a time, the engineer must plan and build parking areas adjacent to the strip. TM 5—330 provides guidance on parking requiremente
requirements for
forward area fields,
fields, which
which would
would be
be applicable
applicable under
under these
these conditions.
conditions. If
only one aircraft will use the landing strip at a time, the engineer must plan
NorNoradequate space for the aircraft to turn around at the end of the strip.
mally, a C—130 can turn around within the 60—ft (18—rn) wide strip with 10—ft
(3—m) shoulders,
(3—rn)
shoulders, but
but requirements
requirements for
for the
the turnaround area should
should be
be planned
planned
ahead of time with the aircraft commander.
7—25
0'
S
S
It
j
Figure 7.8.
-J
I—
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hi
4/
.//
ji-'I
hi
-i
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hi
hi
I-
z
0
N
hi
I..
PLAN VIEW
300'
2000'
RUNWAY TRANSVERSE SECTION
ISO'
for
for aaC—130.
C—130.
NOTES ALLOWABLE GRADIENTS LONGITUDINAL 0 * 3 %
CHANGESI0O FT 0 ± 2 %
TRAI1SVERSE 0.5TRAISVERSE
0.5- 3 S
RUNWAY LONGITUDINAL SECTION
Minimum
MinimumrInway
rinwayrequirenvmts
requirenvmts
/
/
/
______________
_______
______
I'I.-
Ilii
hi
z
2
0
N
hi
-J
\
S
D
9
\
2000
-APPROACH
APPROACH ZONE
ZONE
36:1
'Ii
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—'-
9
D
It
2
z
2
hi
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II-
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0
0
0
8
5
0
Si4
0
0
\\
I—.
—
ZONE
—
Table 7.5
Minimum Runway Requirements for C—130
a.
Anticipated life........
b.
Runways;
Runways:
Length
Length...
(1)
Width.......
........
Width..........................................
•se..........
(3)
Gradients:
b)
(b)
(
Cc)
(c)
(4)
(4)
(b)
(5)
(6)
60 ft
..........
............
0+ 33 percent
04
percent
O+2percent
0+ 2 percent
percent
0.5—3 percent
Width......
Width.....
.......................
Transversegrade........................
Transverse
grade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ft
10 ft
10
1.5—5 percent
Longitudinal.
........
Changes/lOOft..................................
Changes/IOU ft.............................
Transverse.
Transverse
............
Clear areas:
(a)
Width
Width.................................
(b)
Maximum
grade........................
Maximum transverse
transversegrade........................
35
35 ft
ft
5 percent
Overruns;
Overruns:
(a)
(
C
(7)
2000 ft*
2000
Shoulders:
(a)
b)
Length.......
Length...................
.
................
............
Width....
•................4*....
Width...........................................
ft
100 ft
60 ft
Lateral safety zones:
(a)
(
b)
Slope
Width
Width
...........-...
...
...
......
...............
•......................
..................
.....
7:1
7:1
ft
75
75 ft
Runway
Runway end clear zone:
(1)
Length....
Length
(2)
Width:
(a)
(
(3)
d.
..........
...
..
(2)
(a)
c.
C.
3 days
b)
.....
...•b...*ø.....
.
ft
500
500 ft
..........
..
.......................
ft
150 ft
ft
300 ft
...........
.
Inner
Outer............
O.iter
...
..
...........
5
5 percent
...........................
ft
10,500
10,500 ft
Grade, maximum....
maximum...................
Runway approach zones:
(1)
Length.......
Length......
(2)
Width:
(a)
(
(3)
b)
. . . . . .
. .
Inner
Inner................................
.............................
Outer.
Outer...........................................
.
Glide slope......
slope........
.
.
.................
.............
•....
.
.
....
300 ft
ft
2000 ft
35:1
35:1
*Runway length is computed for conditions of sea level and 59°F.
Increase In
in
elevation and temperature will require adjustments in runway lengths and/or
aircraft load.
Such determination should be made In
in coordination with the
aircraft commander.
1
ft
Metric co'iversion
conversion factor:
0.3048
Metric
factor:
ft
0.3048 rn.
m.
7—27
7.9.4
Use of
Existing
Roads
Operating aircraft from an existing road is an attractive concept since
paved roads are widely avatlable,
available, and the problems associated with repairing a
badly damaged runway can be avoided. However, the runway length and the width
requirements
requirements and
and the
the necessary
nece9sary clear
clear areas
areas around
around the
the landing
landing strip
strip are
are so
so
te8trictive that only a four—lane highway with shoulders and without a median
re8trictive
In addition
would come close to meeting the landing strip
8trip width requirements.
to widening the road to support
8upport C—130 aircraft, the engineers will also have
to clear trees,
trees) buildings, and power lines around the road to provide required
lateral and approach clearances.
clearanceB.
Figure 7.9 shows the requirements for widening a typical two—lane road having a width of 22 ft (6.7 in). Depending on the
natural ground contours,
contours) cut or fill may be required. Drainage ditches
ditcheB on
If the
the drainage
drainage ditch
ditch cross
cross sections
sections
either side of the road must be filled. If
are considered
considered typical,
typical) 2000
2000 Cu
cu yd
yd (1529.1
(1529.1 in3)
m3) of
from TM 5—330 are
of fill
fill will
will be
be
Even
ditche9 for a 2000—ft (610—rn)
(610—in) long landing strip.
required to fill these ditches
•under
under favorable
favorable conditions,
condition8, filling
filling the
the ditches
ditches will
will require about 6 hr for a
light dozer (D—6).
(D—6). Additional time will be needed for grading and compacting.
If the surrounding topography requires much cut and fill, widening of the road
may become a massive earthmoving operation; therefore, site selection is an
extremely important aspect of this type of operation.
7.10
Runway Bomb Damage Repair
Existing runway pavements cratered as a result of bomb damage and rocket
and cannon fire must be repaired quickly toallow operations of cargo,
fighter, or other aircraft.
airrraft. The effort
effort required
required to
to repair
repair aacrater.wi].1
crater.will
depend on the extent of damage and crater size. Pavement damage will range
from spalls and scabs
ft (1.5 m) in diameter to large craters
scabs less
less than
than 55 ft
craters over
over
in diameter.
diameter.
In
consideration must
must be
be given
given
In repairing craters, consideration
15 ft
ft (4.6
(4.6in)
m) in
15
to the structural adequacy of the repair to carry aircraft loadings, surface
roughness of the finished repair with impacts on aircraft performance, and
cleanup of surface
surface debris
debris to
o minimize
minimize Coreign
foreign object
object damage
damage (FOD)
(FOD) potential.
potential.
7.10.1
7.10.1
Clearing and
Clearing
and Bczckfilling
Backfilling
The area around the crater should be cleared of surface debris as soon as
possible.
possible. Broken pieces of pavement around the edge of the crater should be
removed
removed to
to provide
provide aa level
level surface
surface depending
depending on
on the
the desired
desired quality
quality of
of repair.
repair.
Some of the ejected debris and broken pavement pieces may be pushed into the
bottom of the crater to provide fill material. The remainder should be
cleared from the runway. The fill should. be compacted as much as possible.
If the fill material and crater bottom are saturated from rain water or ground
water,
water, compaction
compaction may
may not
not be
be possible.
possible. It may be necessary to place large
aggregate, 3 to 55 in.
in. (76
(76 to
to 127
127 mm)
mm) in
in diauieter,
diameter, in
in the
the crater
crater bottom
bottom to
to proprovide stability.
The crater may be backfilled with compacted debris or large
aggregate to within 24 in. (610 mm) of the surface. Above
Above this
this fill)
fill, well—
well—
graded crushed aggregate should be used.
If crushed aggregate is not available, it may be necessary
necessary to
to use
use aggregate
aggregate or
or gravel
gravel obtaitted
obtained from
from natural
natural
depositE; however, the stability of such fill material will depend on its
natural gradation and the angularity of the aggregate particles.
Placement of
a membrane layer, such as T—17, between the upper and lower fill materials
willalso add stability. The aggregate fill must be well compacted. A
7—28
I.
I.. tO
SHOULDER
\CUT
13'
DRAINAGE
1u
22'
t 6' t
WIdening a two—way road.
60'
RUNWAY WIDTH
Figure 7.9.
5'4
13'
DRAINAGE
C)
SHOULDER
I-,
s-1
—
vibratory roller will normally be required; however, a heavy tracked vehicle
such as a crawler tractor or tank may also be used.
As indicated, a minimum
of crushed
crushed aggregate
aggregate below the crater
depth of 24
24 in.
in. (610
(610 cnn)
mm) of
crater surface
surface is
is
required. Thus, for small craters having a total depth of backfill only
slightly over 54 in. (1372 mm), it may be more convenient to fill the entire
crater with crushed aggregate.
7.10.2
Crater Repair Surface
Szrface
The
The use
use of
of A11—2
A11—2 landing
landing mat
mat as
as aa surface
surface cap
cap haa
has been
been the
the standard
standard procedure,
cedure, as
as outlined
outlined in
in Al'
AF Regulation
Regulation 93—2 and Army
Army Field
Field Reference
Reference Document
Document
Airfield Damage Repair, Office, Chief of Engineers. This solution requires
prepositioning of the mat kit or having
prepositioning
having the
the kit8
kits air
air dropped.
dropped. Use of the AM—2
kits requires additional logistical support.
Ideally, the surface of the finished repair should be flush with the surface of the surrounding pavement.
If
time
concrete cap
cap may
may be
be placed
placed
tithe and
and materials
materials are
are available,
available, aa portland
portland cement concrete
to cover and fill the top surface of the crater.
Such a cap should have a
minimum thickness of 6 in. (152 mm). The
The cap
cap material
material may
may be
be batched
batched using
using
portland
aetting time,
portlatd cement aggregate, sand, and water.
To accelerate the setting
calcium chloride may be added to. the grout at a rate of 11 percent
percent by
by weight
weight of
of
cement.
The concrete should have sufficient slump
Slump to facilitate screeding of
the
th repair
repair surface
surface flush
flu8h with
with the
the surrounding pavement.
pavement. A concrete cap with
with
accelerated curing will require 10 to 15 hours to achieve adequate strength.
Another surfacing alternative which has been satisfactorily tested by the Navy
is the use of a fiberglass reinforced polyester (FRP) cover. The FRP cover
offers little structural support but is intended primarily for protection
against FOD. Fabrication and placement
placement instructions
instructions are
are given
given in
in "Rapid
"Rapid RunRunCuide (RRRIFG)."
(RRRLPG)." The finished surface profile
way Repair Interim Planning Guide
depend on
on the
the type
type aircraft
aircraft using
u9ing the
the facility.
facility. Criteria
requirements will,
will depend
in
the
RRRIPC
and
AFR
specified
RRRIPC
and
AIR
93—2
in
surface
roughness cricriterms
of
surface
roughness
93—2
are,
teria.
teria.
Surface roughness is critical to both cargo and fighter aircraft.
7.10.3
FOP Pr3r.ction
FOP
Prrction
As indicated, the FRP cover is used primarily to provide FOD
FOP protection
at the crater repair site. Hard surfacing materials such as AM—2 or a grout
cap
cap also minimize FOD potential from
from the
the underlying
underlying fill
fill material.
material. All loose
material generally should be cleared from the runway site; however, in special
cases it may be necessary to operate aircraft with no FOD protection on the
surfdce.
crater surface.
Thus, there will be FOD potential from the exposed aggregate
fill material.
In such cases, the decision to operate aircraft without FOP
protection on the crater repair will be at the discretion of the aircraft,
Squadron, or
as appropriate.
appropriate.
squadron,
or wing
wing coaimander
commander as
7.11
Foundation
FoundatIon Pads
In areas where drifting sand and dry dusty soil present a problem, sta
stabe constructed
constructed to
to provide
provide firm
firm foundations
bilized pads may be
for small
small foot
foot
foundations for
traic areas,
traftc
areas, placement
placement of
of equipment,
equipment, and
and possibly
possibly tent foundations.
foundations. Thickness requirements for cement stabilized pads and asphalt stabilized pads are
designs are
are divided
divided frito
into
presented In Tables 7.6 and 7.7, respectively.
Pad designs
7—30
7—30
Table 7.6
Thickness Requirements
Thickness
Requirements for
for Cetnent
Cement Stabilized
Stabilized Foundation Pads
Pads
Weight
Thickness (in.)
(in.) for
for
Thickness
CBR Indicated
Classification,
Category
lb
Light duty
Medium duty
Heavy duty
15*
4
8
1000
3.0
2.5
2.5
2500
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.5
5000
4.5
3.0
2.5
10,000
10,000
6.0
4.5
4.5
3.0
15,000
8.0
5.0
3.0
20,000
9.0
6.0
3.5
25,000
10.0
7.0
4.5
35,000
12.5
9.0
6.0
45,000
14.0
10.0
7.0
55,000
16.0
10.5
7.5
65,000
17.0
11.5
8.0
75,000
18.0
12.5
9.0
*Use this column for sandy soils and silty soils for which no appreciable set—
tleoient is anticipated.
tiesient
Metric convertion factors:
lb = 0.373 kg
1 lb
1
1
in. =
25.4 mm
three general categories:
light, medium, and heavy duty. Within each
pads are further classified according to specific weight limits.
category, pads
category,
Light duty pads include those to be used for foot traffic or foot loadings,
light vehicles or equipment, and small storage areas; medium duty pads are
those to be used for passenger vehicles, light— to medium—weight trucks,
storage areas for heavy stock items, and small shop equipment.
Heavy duty
pads approach the structural characteristics of pavements and include foundations for heavy equipment storage areas, placement areas for large shop equipequip—
ment,
went, and possibly parking areas for some large construction equipment. In
each class of pads, thickness designs are given based on the strength of the
underlying soil in terms of CBR. If natural
natural soil
soil strengths
strengths are
are not
not adequate,
adequate
the soil should be compacted to increase the strength to the desired level.
7—31
Table 7.7
Thickness Requirements for Asphalt Stabilized Foundation Pads
Thickness (in.) for
CBR Indicated
Weight
Classification
Category
Light duty
Medium duty
Heavy duty
15*
4
8
1000
2.0
2.0
2.0
2500
2.5
2.0
2.0
5000
4.0
2.5
2.0
10,000
10,000
5.0
4.0
2.5
15,000
7.0
4.5
2.5
2.5
20,000
8.0
5.0
5.0
3.0
25,000
9.0
6.0
4.0
35000
35,000
11.0
8.0
5.0
45,000
12.0
8.5
6.0
55,000
14.0
9.0
6.5
65,000
15.0
10.0
7.0
75,000
16.0
10.0
10.0
8.0
lb
1is
for sandy
sandy soils
soils and
and silty
silty Boils
Boils for
for which
which no
no appreciable
appreciable set—
set—
column for
tiement
tiement is
is anticipated.
anticipated.
Metric
conversion factors:
Metric conversion
factors:
lb = 0.373 kg
1 lb
1
1
in.
35.4 mm
For pads resting on cohesionless soils, e.g., primary sandy soils, as on silty
soils on which no appreciable settlement is anticipated, thickness criteria
indicated
indicated under
under the
the columns
columns for
for 15
15 CBR
CBR should
should be
be used.
used.
7—32
7.12
7.12
Field Identification of Soils
7.12.1
Intrauction
Intrczuction
Lack of time and facilities often make laboratory soil testing impossible
in military construction. Even where laboratory tests are to follow, field
In
identification tests must be made during the soil exploration to distinguish
between the different
different soil
soil types
types encountered
encountered so
so that
that duplication
duplication of
of samples
samples
for laboratory testing will be held to a minimum.
Several simple tests
tests that
that
can
can be
be used
used in
in field
field identification
identification are
are described
described in
in this
this report.
report.
Each
test
Each test
can be performed with a minimum of time arid equipment, although seldom will
all of them be required to identify any given sample. The number of tests
employed will depend on the type of soil, and on the experience of the individual
dual performing
performing them.
them. Using these tests, the soil properties can be estimated
and the materials classified. Such classification should be recognized as an
and
approximation, since even experienced personnel have difficulty estimating
detailed soil properties with a high degree of accuracy.
The material which
follows is intended to aid in the identification and classification of soils
according
according to
to the
the Unified
Unified Soil
Soil Classification
Classification System.
System.
7.12.2
7.12.2.1
General Procedures
Coarse—Grained Soils:
Coarse—Crained
An approximate identification of a coarse—grained soil can be made by
spreading a dry sample on a flat surface and examining it, paying particular
attention to grain size, gradation, grain shape, and hardness of particles.
All lumps in the sample must be thoroughly pulverized to expose the individual
grains and to obtain a uniform mixture when water is added to the fine—grained
portion.
portion. The use of a rubber—faced or wooden pestle and a mixing bowl is
recommended for this purpose. The material also may be pulverized by placing
a portion of the sample on a firm,
finn, smooth surface and mashing it with the
feet.
The use of an iron pestle for pulverizing will break up the mineral
grains and change the character of the soil.
7.12.2.2
Fine—Grained Soils:
Tests for identification of the fine—grained portion of any soil are performed on the portion of the material which passes a
i No. 40 sieve. This Is
is
the same soil fraction used in the laboratory for Atterberg limits tests, such
If this sieve is not available, a rough separation can be made
as plasticity.
by spreading the material on a flat surface and removing the gravel and larger
Fine—grained soils are examined primarily for characteristics
sand particles.
related to plasticity.
7.12.3
Equipment Required
Practically all the tests described can be performed with no equipment or
accessories other than a small amount of water. However, the accuracy and
uniformity of results will be greatly
greatly increased
Increased by
by the
the proper
proper use
use of
of certain
certain
Items
items of equipment. The following items of equipment, which will meet most
7—33
7—33
requirements, are available in nearly all engineer units or may be improvised,
and are easily transported:
7.12.3.1
Sieves:
sieve is
is perhaps
perhaps the
the most
most useful
useful item
item of
of equipequipA No. 40 U.s. standard sieve
ment. Any screen with about 40 openings per lineal inch could be used, or an
approximate
approximate separation
separation may
may be
be made
made by
by sorting
8Orting the
the materials
materials by
by hand.
hand. No. 4
and No. 200 sieves are useful for separating gravel, sand,
8and, and fines.
fine8.
7.12.3.2
Pioneer Tools:
A pick and shovel or a set of entrenching tools is used in obtaining sam—
A hand earth auger is
i8 useful if samples are desired from depths more
ples.
plea.
than
than aa few
few feet
feet below
below the
the surface.
surface.
7.12.3.3
Stirrer:
The spoon issued as part of mess equipment serves in mixing materials
It also will aid in
in obtaining
obtaining samples.
samples.
with water to desired consistency.
7.12.3.4
Knife:
A combat knife, or engineer pocket knife, is useful in obtaining samples
and trimming them to the desired size.
7.12.3.5
7.12.3.5
Mixing Bowl:
A small bowl with a rubber faced pestle is used in pulverizing the fine—
grained portion of the soil. Both may be improvised, such as by using canteen
cup and wood pestle.
7.12.3.6
7.12.3.6
Paper:
Paper:
Several sheets of heavy paper are needed for rolling samples.
7.12.3.7
7.12.3.7
Heating Samples:
Samples:
Heating
A pan and heating element are used for drying samples.
Bamples.
7.12.3.8
Scales:
Scales:
Balances or scales are used in weighing samples.
7.12.4
Factor8 Considered
Factors
Considered in Identification of Soils
Soils
The soil properties which form the basis for the Unified Soil Classificathe percentages of gravel, sand, and
tion
are:
the
and fines;
fines; shape
shape of
of the
the
tion systecn
System are:
grain—size
grain—size distribution
distribution curve;
curve; and
and plasticity.
plasticity. These same properties are,
therefore) the primary ones to be considered in field identification, but
therefore,
other
other claracteristice
c1-aracteristicsobserved
observedshould
shouldbebeincluded
includedinindescribing
describingthe
thesoil.,
soil,
whether the identification
identification is
is made
made by
by field
field or
or laboratory
laboratory cnethods.
methods.
7—34
7.12.4.1
Soil
Soil Description;
Description:
Properties normally included in a description of a soil are as follows:
1.
Color.
2.
Grain
GraIn size.
a.
a.
Estimated maximum
maximum grain
grain size.
size.
b.
Estimated percent by weight of fines (material passing No. 200
sieve).
3.
Gradation.
4.
Grain shape.
5.
Plasticity.
Plasticity.
6.
Predominant soil type.
7.
Secondary components of soil.
8.
Classification symbol.
9.
Other remarks such as ——
a.
Organic, chemical, or metallic content.
b.
Compactness.
Compactness.
c.
Consistency.
d.
Cohesiveness near plastic limit.
e.
Dry strength.
Source ——
f.
deposit, etc.).
7.12.4.2
residual)
residual,
or transported
.glacial
transported (aeolian,
(aeolian, waterborcie,
waterborne, .glacial
Example of Soil Description:
An example of a soil description using the sequence and considering the
properties
properties referred
referred to
to above,
above, might
might be
be as
as follows:
follows:
1.
Dark brown to white.
Coarse—grained soil, maximum particle size 2—3/4 in. (69.9 mm),
2.
estimated 60 percent gravel, 36 percent sand, and 4 percent passing No. 200
sieve.
3.
Poorly graded (insufficient fine gravel, gap—graded).
7—35
7—35
4.
Gravel particles subrounded to rounded.
5.
Nonplastic.
Nonpiastic.
6.
Predom1nntly gravel.
PredomInantly
gravel.
7.
With considerable
fines (silt).
considerable sand
sand and
and small,
small amount
amount of
of noriplastic
nonplastic fines
8.
GP.
9.
Slightly calcareous, no dry strength, dense
den8e in the undisturbed state.
7.12.4.3
Importance of Descriptions:
A complete description with the proper classification symbol obviously
the reader than the symbol or any other
more to
to the
other portion
portion of
of the
the
conveys much more
description used alone.
7.12.5
7.12.5
Visual
Ex.ynination
Ex.ijnination
xarntnatfon, it is possible to determine the color, grain size,
By visual examination,
and grain shape of the coarse—grained portion of a soil, and estLnte the
grain—size distribution. To observe these properties, a sample of the
material is first dried and then spread on a fiat surface.
7.12.5.1
7.12.5.1
Color:
In field soil surveys, color is often helpful in distinguishing between
various soil strata, and with enough preliminary experience with local soils,
cclcr also may be useful for identifying soil types. Since the color of a
color
soil often varies with its moisture content, the condition of the soil when
color is deteriined
determined must
must always
always be
be recorded.
recorded. There is generally more contrast
in these colors when the soil is moist, with all the colors becoming lighter
In fine—graded soils, certain dark or
as the moisture contents are reduced.
drab shades of gray or brown, including almost black colors, indicate organic
colloidal matter (OL, OH). In contract, clean and bright looking colors,
including medium and light gray, olive green,
greeQ, brown, red, yellow,
yellowa and white
generally are associated with inorganic soils. Soil color also may indicate
Red, yellow, and yellowish brown soil
the presence of certain chemicals.
cheiicals.
colors may result from the presence of iron oxides. White to pinkish colors
may Indicate
indicate considerable silica, calcium carbonate, or aluminum compounds in
Grayish blue, and gray and yellow mottled colors frequently indi8ome
some cases.
cases.
cate poor drainage.
cate
7.12.5.2
7.12.5.2
Grain Size:
The maximum particle size should always be estimated for each sample considered, thereby establishing the upper limit of the grain—size distribution
curve for
for that
that sample.
sample. To help determine the lower limit of the grain size
curve
distribution, It
it is
Is useful to know the naked eye can normally distinguish the
This means that all of the
individual grains of soil down to about 0.07 mm.
particles in the gravel and sand ranges are visible to the naked eye. All of
the silt particles and all of the clay particles are smaller than this size
7—36
and are therefore invisible to the naked eye.
will pass the N. 200 sieve.
7.12.5.3
Material smaller
Material
smaller than
than 0.07
0.07 mui
mm
Approximate Grain—Size Distribution:
The laboratory mechanical analysis must be performed whenever the grain—
size distribution of a soil sample must be determined accurately. However,
the grain—size distribution can be approximated by visual inspection. The
best method of observing a material for such
Buch a determination without using
laboratory equipment is to spread a portion of the dry sample on a flat surface; then, using the hands or a piece of paper, attempt to separate the
material into its various grain—size components. By this method, the gravel
particles and some of the sand particles can be separated from the remainder.
This will at least give the observer an opportunity to estimate whether the
total sample is to be considered coarse—grained or fine—grained, depending on
whether or not more than 50 percent of the material would pass the No. 200
sieve. Percentage values refer to the dry weight of the soil fractions indicated as compared to the dry weight of the original sample.
If
If the
the material
material is
is believed
believed to
to be
be coarse—grained,
coarse—gralned,
Coarse—Grained Soil:
then
then there
there are
are two
two other
other criteria
criteria to
to consider.
consider. First, is less than 5 percent
If both
passing the No. 200 sieve; and second, are the fines nonplastic?
these criteria can be satisfied and there appears to be a good representation
of all grain sizes from largest to smallest, without an excessive amount or a
or
deficiency of any one size, the material may be said to be well graded (GW or
If
any
intermediate
sizes
appear
to
be
missing,
or
if
there
is
too
much
SW).
of any one size, then the material is poorly graded (GF
(GP or SF). In some
field.
cases, it may be possible to take a few of the standard sieves into the field.
ca8es,
When such is the case, the No. 4, No. 40, and No. 200 sieves should be
included. Using the No. 4 and No. 200 sieves, the sample may be separated
included.
Band, and fines. However, if there
into the three main fractions —— gravel, sand,
is a considerable quantity of fines, particularly clay particles, the fines
In
can only be readily separated by washing them through the No. 200 sieve. In
such cases, a determination of the percentage of fines is made by comparing
the dry weight of the original sample with that retained on the No. 200 sieve
difference between
between these
these two
two is
is the
the weight
weght of the fines
after washing. The difference
For determination of plasticity, only that porlost in the washing process.
tion of the soil which viii
will pass through a No. 40 sieve should be used.
Estimating the grain—size distribution of a sample
Fine—Grained Soil:
using no equipment at all is probably the most difficult part of field identification and obviously places great importance on the experience of the
individual making the estimate. A better approximation of the relative proportions of the components of the finer soil fraction may sometimes be
obtained by shaking a portion of this sample into a jar of water and then
allowing
allowit,g the
the material
material to
to settle
settle to
to the
the bottom.
bottom. The material will settle in
layers, with the gravel
gravel and
and coarse
coarse sand
sand particles
particles settling
settling out
Out aloiost
almost immediimmediately, the fine sand particles within a minute, the silt
ailt particles requiring
as much as
ae an hour, and the clay particles remaining in suspension indef in—
this niethod,
method, it
it should
should be
be kept
kept
itely, or until,
the water
water is
is clear.
clear. In using this
itely,
until the
in mind that the gravel and sand will settle into a much
nuch more dense formation
than will either the silt or clay.
7—37
7.12.5.4
Grain Shape:
The grain shape of the sand and gravel particles can be determined
deternined by
close examination of the individual grains. The grain shape affects the stability of the soil because of the increased resistance to displacement that is
A material whose grains are rounded
found in the more irregular particles.
has only
only the
the friction
friction between
between the
the surfaces
surfaces of
of the
the particles
particles to
to help
help hold
hold them
them
has
in place. An angular material has this same friction, which is increased by
inter—
the roughness of the surface and the area of contact. In action, an interlocking action is developed between the angular particles; thi8
this gives a much
greater
greater stability
stability than
than friction
friction alone.
alone.
7.12.5.5
Undisturbed Soil Properties:
A complete description of a soil should include prominent characteristics
of the undisturbed materials. The aggregate properties of sand and gravel are
described qualitatively
described
qualitatively by
by the
the terms
terms "loose,"
"loose' 'medium,"
'medium)" and "dense,"
"dense" while
while
those of
of clays
clays are
are described
described by
by "hard,"
"hard,""Btiff,"
"Buff," "mediuni,"
"medium," and
and "soft."
"soft." These
characteristics usually •are evaluated on the basis of several factors, including the relative ease or difficulty of advancing the drilling and sampling
tools and the consistency of the samples.
In soils that are described as
"soft," it should
should also
also be
be Indicated
indicated whether
whether the
the material
material is
is loose
loose 'nd
'nd comprescopres—
sible, as in an area under cultivation, or spongy or elastic, as in highly
(Moisture conditions will influence these characterist.ics and
organic soils.
soi1s.
should be included In
in the report.)
7.12.6
7.12.6.1
Breaking or Dry Strength Test
Preparation of Sample:
The breaking test is performed only on the material passing the No. 40
This test, as well as the roll test and the ribbon test, is used to
The test
test nornormeasure the cohesive and plastic characteristics of the soil. The
mally is made on a small pat of soil about 1/2 in. thick and about 1—1/2 in.
wet
in diameter. The pat is prepared by molding a portion of the soil in the vet
plastic state into the size and shape desired and then allowing the pat to dry
completely.
Samples may be tested for dry
4ry st.rength
strength it)
ir their natural condition
as they are found in the field, but too much reliance must not be given to
such tests because of the variations that exist in the drying conditions under
field circumstances.
Such a test may be used in an approximation, however,
and verified later by a carefully prepared sample.
sieve.
7.12.6.2
Breaking the Sample:
gample is thoroughly dry, attempt to break it using
After the prepared sample
the thumb and forefingers of both hands (Figure 7.10). If it can be broken,
try to powder It
it by rubbing it with the thumb and fingers of one hand.
7.12.6.3
Typical Reactions:
Typical reactions obtained in this test for various type8
types of soil are
described below.
7—38
¼
F
i'
Figure 7.10.
Breaking or dry strength test.
Very Highly Plastic Soils (CH): Very high dry strength.
strength.
be broken or powdered by use of finger pressure.
Highly Plastic Soils (CH): High dry strength.
with great effort, but cannot be powdered.
Medium Plastic Soils (CL):
and powdered
powdered with
with sotne
some effort.
effort.
Medium dry strength.
Slightly Plastic
Plastic Soils
Soils (ML,
(ML,MH,
Slightly
MH, or CL):
be broken quite easily and powdered readily.
Samples canno.t
Samples
Satnples can
can be
be broken
broken
Samples can be broken
Low dry strength.
Low
Samples can
Nonplasttc
MU): Very little or no dry strength.
Nonplastl.c Soils
Soils (ML
(ML or MU):
crumble and powder on being picked up in the hands.
7.12.6.4
Samples
Precautions:
PrecautIons:
The test
te8t described above is one of the best for distinguishing between
plastic clays and nonpiastic
nonplastic silts or fine sands. However, a word of
of caution
caution
7—39
is appropriate. Dry pats of highly plastic clays quite often display shrinkage
age cracks. To break the sample along such a crack will indicate only a very
small part of the
the true
true dry
dry strength
strength of
of the
the soil.
soil. It is important to distinguIsh
guish between a break along such a crack, and a clean, fresh break that indicates the true dry strength of the soil.
7.12.7
7.12.7.1
Roll or Thread Teat
TeBt
Sample:
The roll or thread test is done only on the material passing the No. 4
The soil sample used in this test is prepared by adding water until
the moisture content is such that the sample may be easily remolded without
sticking to the fingers. This is sometimes referred to as being just below
sticky limit." Using a nonabsorbent surface, such as glass, this sample
the •sticky
the
is rolled rather rapidly into a thread approximately 1/8 in. (3.18 mm) in
diameter (Figure 7.11).
sieve.
7.12.7.2
Rolling:
If a moist soil can be rolled into such a thread at some moisture conrolled in
Materials which
which cannot
cannot bc
b rolled
tent, it is said to have some plasticity. Materials
this manner are nonpiastic,
nonplastic, or have very low plasticity.
a
I)
.1..
a
-'C
Figure 7.11.
Roll or thread test.
test.
7—40
reactions:
7.12.7.3 pica1
pical_reactions:
After reaching the plastic limit, the degree of plasticity may be
described as follows:
described
High Plasticity (CH):
The
The soil may be remolded into a ball and the ball
deformed under extreme pressure by the fingers without cracking or crumbling.
Medium Plasticity (CL):
The soil may be remolded into a ball, but the
ball will crack and easily crumble under pressure of the fingers.
The soil cannot be lumped into a ball
Low Plasticity
Plasticity (CL,
(CL, ML,
ML,or
orMI!):
NH):
without completely breaking up.
Organic Materials (OL or HO):
Soils containing organic materials on mica
particles will form soft spongy threads or balls when remolded.
Nonplastic Soils (ML or MH):
Nonpiastic
MU):
moisture content.
7.12.7.4
These cannot
at any
any
cannot be
be rolled
rolled Into
into aa thread,
thread at
Description of Cohesiveness:
From this test, the cohesiveness of the material near the plastic limit
may also be
be described
described as
as weak,
weak, finn,
firm, or
or totigh.
toigh. The higher the poait•ion
posit•ion of a
soil on the plasticity chart, the stiffer are the threads as they dry out and
the tougher are the lumps if the soil is remolded after rolling.
7.12.8
Ribbon Test
The ribbon test is performed only on
on the
the material
material passing
passing the
the No.
No. 40
40
sieve.
The sample prepared for use in
In this test should have a moisture content that is slightly below the "sticky limit." The "sticky limit" is the
lowest water content at which the soil will adhere to a metal tool. Using
this material, form
form aa roll of soil
soil about
about 1/2
1/2 to
to 3/4
3/4 in.
in. (12.7
(12.7 to'
to 19.05 mm)
Place the
the material
material in
in
diameter and about 3 to 5 in. (76.2 to 127 mm) long. Place
the
the palm
palm of
of the
the hand
hand and,
and, starting
starting with
with one
one end,
end, flatten
flatten the
the roll,
roll, forming
forming aa
the
ribbon 1/8
1/8 to
to 1/4
1/4 in.
in. (3.18
(3.18 to
to 6.35
6.35 mm)
mm) thick
thick by
bysqueezing
squeezingLtitbetween
betweenthe
thumb and forefinger (Figure 7.12). The sample should be handled carefully to
form the maximum length of ribbon that can be supported by the cohesive properties of the material.
If the soil sample holds together for a length of 8
to 10 in. (203 to 254 mm) without breaking, the material is then considered to
be both highly plastic and highly compressive (CH).
If the soil cannot
cannot be
be
If
it
can
be
ribboned
only
with
diffiribboned, it is nonpiastic
nonplastic (ML or MH).
MU).
culty into short lengths, the soil is considered to have low plasticity (CL).
The roll test and the ribbon test complement
complement each
each other
other in
in giving
giving aa clearer
clearer
picture of the degree of plasticity of soil.
7.12.9
7.12.9.1
Wet Shaking
Shakzng Test
Test
Sample Preparation:
No, 40
The wet shaking test is performed only on the material passing the No.
For this test, enough material to form a ball about 3/4 in.
In. (19.05 mm)
in
in diameter
diameter is
is moistened
moistened with
with water.
water. This sample should be just wet enough
sieve.
7—41
7—4 1
k.tc'1
Figure 7.12.
Ribbon test.
that the soil will not stick to the fingers upon remolding or just below the
"sticky limit."
limit.
7.12.9.2
7.12.9.2
Testing:
The sample is then placed in the palm of the hand and shaken vigorously.
This is usually done by jarring the hand on the table or some other firm
object, or by jarring it against the other hand. The soil is said to have
given a reaction to this test when, on shaking, water comes to the surface of
the sample producing a smooth, shiny appearance. This appearance is frequently described as "livery" (Figures 7.13a and 7.13b). Then, upon sqeezing
the sample between the thumb and forefinger of the other hand, this surface
water will quickly disappear; the surface will become dull (Figure 7.13c); the
material will become
become firm,
firm, resisting
resisting deformation;
deformation; and
and cracks
cracks will
will occur
occur as
as
pressure is continued, with the sample finally crumbling like a brittle
7—42
material (Figure 7.13d). The vibration caused by the shaking of the soil sample tends to reorient the soil grains, decrease the voids, and force water,
which had been within these voids, to the surface. Pressing the sample
between the fingers tends to disarrange the soil grains and increase the voids
space; and the water is drawn into the soil.
If the water content is still
adequate, shaking the broken pieces will cause them to liquefy again and flow
together, and the complete cycle may be repeated. This process can occur only
vhen the soil grains are bulky in shape and noncohesive in character.
when
7.12.9.3
Typical Reactions:
Very fine sands and silts fall into this category and are readily identified by the wet
vet shaking
shaking test.
test. Since it is rare that sands and silts occur
without some clay mixed with them, there are varying degrees of reaction to
this test. Even a small
8mall amount of clay will tend to greatly retard this reaction.
tion.
Some of the descriptive terms applied to the different rates of reaction
tion to
to this
this test
test are
are as
as follows:
follows:
Sudden or Rapid: A rapid reaction to the shaking
8haking test is typical of non—
plastic, fine sands and silts (Figure 7.13b).
Sluggish or Slow: A sluggish reaction indicates slight plasticity such
as might be found from a test of some organic silts, or silts containing a
small amount of clay.
No Reaction:
Obtaining no reaction at all to this test does not indicate
a complete absence of silt or fine sand.
7.12.10
Odor Test
Organic soils of the OL and OH groups usually have a distinctive, musty,
slightly offensive odor which,
vhich, with
vith experience, can be used to aid their identification.
This odor is especially apparent from fresh samples. It is gradually reduced by exposure to air, but can again to made more pronounced by
heating a wet sample. Organic soils are undesirable as foundation or base
course material and usually are removed from the construction site and wasted.
7.12.11
Bite or Grit Test
The bite and grit test is a quick and useful method of identifying sand,
silt, or clay. In this test, a small pinch of the soil material is ground
lightly between the teeth and the soils are identified as follows:
7.12.11.1
Sandy Soils:
The sharp, hard particles of sand will grate very harshly between the
teeth and will be highly objectionable.
This is true even of the fine 8and.
sand.
7.12.11.2
Silty Soils:
The silt grains are so much smaller than sand grains that they do not
feel nearly so harsh between the teeth, and are not particularly gritty
although their presence is still easily detected.
7—43
-:
•
S
aTh1
Figure 13a.
Wet shaking e$t
test (initial sample).
et
e
avce
Figure 13b.
Wet shaking test (livery appearance).
b.
7—44
k
Figure 7.l3c.
7.13c.
Wet shaking test (crumbling the sample).
4,
-
..
a
:s
ac, —
Figure 7.13d.
Wet shaking test (squeezing the sample).
7—45
7.12.11.3
Clayey Soils:
The clay grains are not at all gritty, but feel smooth and powdery like
flour between the teeth. Dry lumps on clayey soils will stick when lightly
touched with the tongue.
7.12.12
Slaking T68t
Test
The
The slaking.test
slaking.test is
is used
used to
to assist
assist in
in determining
determining the
the quality
quality of
of certain
certain
soft shales and other soft "rocklike" materials. The test is performed by
placing the soil in the sun or in an oven to dry, and then allowing it to
to soak
soak
in water for at least 24 hours. The strength of the soil is then examined.
Certain types of shale will completely disintegrate, losing all strength.
7.12.13
Acid Test
Test
The acid
The
acid test
test is
is used
used to
to determine
determine the
the presence
presence of
of calcium
calcium carbonate
carbonate and
and
is done by placing .a few drops of hydrochloric acid on a piece of the soil. A
fixing reaction (effervescence)
(effervescence) to
to this
this test
test indicates
indicates the
the presence
presence of
of calciuxn
calcium
carbonate,
carbonate, and
and the
the degree
degree of
of reaction
reaction gives
gives an
an indication
indication of
of the
the concentraconcentration.
Calcium carbonate normally Is
is desirable in a soil because of the
cementing action it provides to add to the stability.
(In some very dry non—
illusion of effervescalcareous soils, the absorption of the acid creates the Illusion
cence.
This effect
effect can
can be
be eliminated
eliminated in
in all
all dry
dry soils
soils by
bymoistening
moisteningthe
thesoil.
soil
before applying the acid.)
Since this cementation normally is developed only
after a considerable curing period, it cannot be counted upon for strength in
most military construction. The primary use for this test is, therefore, to
permit better understanding of what appear to be abnormally high strength
values on fine—grained soils which are tested In place, where this property
may exert considerable influence.
7.12.14
7.12.14
Shine Test
Test
The
The shine test is another means of measuring the plasticity characteristics
tics of
of clays.
clays. A slightly moist or
or dry
dry piece
piece of
of highly
highly plastic
plastic clay
clay will
will give
give
a definite shine when rubbed with a fingernail, a pocket knife blade, or any
smooth metal surface. AA piece of lean clayw1ll -remain
-remain dull..
dull..
clay will
7.12.15
Fee7
Test
Fe.l Test
The
The feel is a general
general purpose
purpose test
test that
that requires
requires considerable
considerable experience
experience
and practice to obtain reliable results.
The extent of its use will grow with
Increasing
increasing familiarity with soils.
Some of the following characteristics can
be readily estimated by proper use of this test.
7.12.15.1
Moisture Content:
The natural moisture content of a soil is of value as an indicator of the
drainage characteristics, nearness to water table, or other factors, which may
affect this property. A piece of undisturbed soil is tested by squeezing it
between the thumb and
and forefinger
forefinger to
to determine
determine its
its consistency.
consistency. The consistency is described by such terms as
as "hard,
"hard,' "stiff,"
stiff," 'brittle," "friable,"
"sticky,"
or "soft."
"soft." The soil is
"sticky," "plastic,"
"plastic, or
Is then remolded
remolded by
by working
working it
it in
In
the hands, and changes are observed.
This test indicates the natural water
7—46
content relative
relative to
to the
the liquid
liquid or
or plastic
plastic limit
limit of
o the soil.
soil. Clays which turn
almost liquid on remolding are probably near or above the liquid limit.
If
the clay re!E".ns
rem".ns stiff,
stiff, and
and crumbles
crumbles upon
upon being
being remolded,
remolded, the
the natural
natural water
water
content is below the plastic limit.
7.12.15.2
Texture:
"Texture, as
"Texture,"
as applied
applied to
to the
the fine—grained
fine—grained portion
portion of a soil,
soil, refers
refers to
to
the degree of fineness and uniformity.
It is described by such expressions as
"floury,"
floury," "smooth,"
"smooth," 'gritty,"
"gritty, or
or "sharp,"
"sharp," depending
depending on the sensation produced
produced
by rubbing the soil
soil between
between the
the fingers.
fingers. Sensitivity to this sensation may be
increased by rubbing some of the material on a more tender skin area such as
the wrist. Fine sand will feel gritty.
Typical dry
dry silts
silts will
will dust
dust readily,
readily
and feel relatively soft and silky to the touch. Clay soils are powdered only
with difficulty but become smooth and gritless like flour.
7.12.16
Hasty Method
With the standard methods of field identification supplemented with a few
simplified field tests, an approximate and hasty classification can be
obtained for almost any soil. The three simple or hasty tests outlined below
will, for the most part, eliminate the need for specialized equipment such as
sieves. The results of these tests, when used or supplemented with the
results of the tests described in the previous paragraphs, will give at least
a tentative classification to almost any soil.
The schematic diagram
diagram (Figure
(Figure
7.14) may
may be
be used as a guide to the testing sequence in the process of assign7.14)
ing a symbol to a sample of soil.
7.12.16.1
7.12.16.1
Sedimentation Test:
Test;
From the visual observation test described above, it is relatively simple
to approximate the comparative proportions of sand and gravel in a sample of
Out on a flat surface, and separating the
soil by spreading a dry sample out
gravel particles by hand. Separating the fines from the sand particles is
Small particles will,
will. settle
more difficult
difftcult although just as important.
through
through water at a slower rate than large particles. By placing a small,
representative amOunt
amount of soil (such as a heaping tablespoon measure) in a
transparent cup or jar, covering with about 5 in. (127 mm)
mn) of water, and agitating by
tating
by stirring
stirring or
or shaking,
shaking the'
the soil
soil willbe'
wilibe' compLetelysuspended
c'ompletelysuspended in
in the
water.
With most cohesive soil it will be necessary to break up the lumps of
soil before adding the water. This can be done by grinding the soil in a canteen cup with an improvised wood pestle. After the soil particles have been
thoroughly dispersed in the water and then left, they will start to settle
Outs beginning with
with the
the larger
larger size
size particles,
particles in
out,
In time
time periods
periods approximately
approximately
as indicated in Table 7.8.
sedimentation test
test is
is to
to differentiate
differentiate
1.
The most important use of the sedimentation
Since all of
the coarse (0.072 mm) fraction from
fror the fine fraction of a soil.
the particles of soil larger than 0.072 mm will have settled to the bottom of
the cup or jar 30 seconds after the mixture has been agitated, it follows that
If the water containing
containing the
the
the particles
particles remaining
remaining in
in suspension
suspension are
are fines.
fines.
the
suspended
suspended fines
fines is
is carefully
carefully poured
poured into
into another
another container
container 30
30 seconds
seconds after
after
agitation, if more water is added to the cup or jar containing the coarse
fraction, and if the procedure is repeated until the water—soil mixture
7—4 7
—4
I
PINT
Figure 7—14.
SEPARATE PARTICLES I/B
OR
OR LARGER
LARGER (GRAVEL
(GRAVEL SIZE)
SIZE)
ICNT1EN CUP FULL)
S4UPL F
S4UPt
F OF SOIL --
SEL(CT RPREZENTATy
SEL(CT
RPRLNTA1VL
[ST
[5T
F INE
INA S
FINES IN
FNC5
IN ORIG.
INL
INALS&JAPLE
ESflMA1E %/
ESIIMA1E
[SLDIE A
jI
Suggested procedure for hasty field identi-fication.
identi-ficatlon.
AT VOLUME
GRAVEL-O%
-O%
\, GRAVEL
GRAVELS. O%
GRVEL.
O 94
BY VOLUME
ESTIMIE %
ESTIM1(
S€tcling Times for
Settling
for Small
Small Particles
Particles
of
Tim e of
Approximate Time
Set1ement Through
Set1eruent
Thro ugh
Water
Water
51r.(127_mc
51r.(127_m
22 seconds
30 seconds
10 minutes
1 hour
Grain Diameter
0.4 mm
0.072
0.03
0.01
Differentiates
Coarse 8and—fine
sand—fine sand
Sand—fines
Coarse silt——fine
silt——fine silt
8ilt
Silt——clay
becomes ciear 30 seconds after mixing, then the cup or jar will contain the
coarse fraction of soil and the pan containing
concaining the suspension viii
will hold the
fines.
fines.
if the water can be wicked or evaporated off, the relative amounts of
ti.ies
ti.ies crd sand
sand can
can he
he detertnined
determined fairly accurately.
accurately. Otherwise a direct mean—
meas—
urcmnt 3fofthe
;rcineat
thesettled
settledOut
outfines
finescan
can be
be obcained
obtained as
as aa guide.
guide. Thus, in a
sense, th.. test
test acts
acts like
like a
a No. 200 sieve.
sense3
d
..
2.
Most
field identification
identification tests are done on the No.
Most field
No. 40
40 sieve
sieve soil
soil
fraction (fines and fine sand portion). This fraction can be separated by
procedure similar
similar to
to that
that outlined
outlined above,
above,except
exceptthat
thatthe
thewater
wateris
using a procedure
is
poured cit within
within 11 to
to 22 seconds
seconds after
after completion
completion of
of agitation.
agitation. The suspended
portion will then include the particles of the fine sand range.
3.
i
difficulty
encountered with many clay soils is that the clay parti-
cles will
wifl often
often form
form small
small lumps
lumps (flocculate)
(flocculate) that
that will
will not
not break
break up
up in
in water.
water.
Tsua1iy
Tsua1ly
.t condition can be detected by examining the coarse fraction of the
8011 acer
soil
atr several
several repetitions
repetitions of the teat.
teat. If substantial amounts of clay
are ti1
tii present, the sand will have a somewhat
8Omewhat slippery feel, and further
break up
up theBe
these
help break
mixing ar.i
ari grthding
grthding with
with aa wood
wood stick
stick will
will be
be necessary
necessary to help
lunp.
1unp.
7.12.15.i
7.l2.1.i'
Cast Test:
test
The cast
cast test refers to the strength of a moist soil sample when squeezed
nji.d.
in t n4i.d. It is
is used
used to
indicatethe
theapproximate
approximate type
type and
and quant.tty
quantity of
of
to indicate
tr cie
fines tr
cne sample.
sample. The
The correct amount of water to add to the soil must be
fines
estimated by trial
trial and
and error,
although maximum
maximum cohesion
cohesion or
or attraction
attraction between
between
error, although
the lndijidual
kLdiJ1dual soil particles generally will occur when the soil is damp but
The test consists of compressing a handful of the moist soil into
not sticky.
a ball
cigar—shaped
cast and
and observing
observing its
its capability
capability to
towithstand
withstandhar.dllng
handling
cigar—shaped cast
is desirable
desirable in
in making
making predictions
predictions based
based
without crumbling. While experience is
upon thi.
thi, test, Table 7.9 may serve as a general guide of the behavior of dif—
ferent soil
typeswhen
when formed
formed into
soil types
into aa cast
cast and tested.
ferent
7.12.L6.3
7.12.16.3
Wash,
and Smear
Smear Teats:
Dust and
Tests;
Wash Dust,
A small amount of silt (less than 5 percent), when Intermixed
intermixed with a
coarse—grained
soil, normally
normally will
will not
not lessen
lessen the
the value
value of
of the
the Boll
Boll as
as aa con—
con—
coars—grained soil,
structiort
material.
However, increasing quantities of silt will sharply
struct1or material.
7—49
Table 7.9
Cast Test Reactions
Soil Type
R eaction to Handling
Handling
GF, SF,
GP,
SP, SW, GW
SM,
SM,
Cast crumbles
crunibles when
when touched
touched
Cast
SC
Cast withstands careful
careful handling
handling
ML, MH
•i
Cast can be handled freely
CL, CH
Cast withstands
withstands rough
rough handling
handling
reduce the strength and interfere with the free drainage haracteristics of
the coarse—grained soil, thus making it lees
leás desirable as a road or airfield
construction material. To decide
harmful concentration
concentration of
decide what
what COfl8titutes
con8titutes aa harmful
silt by the field identification methods generally requires extensive field
experience.
experience.
If the dust,
dust, wash,
wash, and
and smear
smear tests
tests are
are first
first practiceci
practiced on soils
soils
of known silt contents, they can be used to produce a fairly accurate result.
In the dust test, when a completely dry sample of soil (with the gravel portion removed) is dropped from a height of I
1 or 2 ft (0.3 or 0.6 m) onto a
solid surface, a silt content higher than 10 percent will generally cause a
fairly large amount of dust to be produced.
In the iiash test,
test, an
an identical
Identical
soil sample,
sample, as
as above,
above, is
is placed
placed in
in the
the palm
palm of
of aa hand,
hand, and
and covered
covered with
with about
about
soil
1/8 in. (3.18 mm) of water.
If the water becomes completely discolored and
hides the sand grains, this indicates that the soil sample contains a silt
content higher than 5 percent.
In the smear test, a sample of soil, again
with the gravel
gravel portion
portion removed,
removed, is
is moistened
moistened to
tojust
justbeloii
below •the
•the "sticky
"sticky
limit," and then smeared between the thumb and forefinger. When it produces a
gritty, harsh feel, this Indicates
indicates that it contains a silt content of less
than 10 percent. A rough, less harsh feel, however, Indicates that the sample
contains more than 10 percent silt.
It should be emphasized that all of the
above tests require the testing engineer to have sorne expez'iènce
exper'ience in their use
before they can be considered reliable indicators of the silt contents.
7— 0
CHAPTER 88 —
CHAPTER
— PORT
PORT CONSTRUCTION
8.1
Introduction
Certain
Certain geographic
geographic areas
areas of
of operation
operation nay
nay require
require use
use of
of beach
beach sites
sites for
for
extended
extended periods
periods of
of time
time beasue
beasue there
there are
are few--—or
few--—or no——facilities
no——facilities for
for handling
handling
containers in most
most ports
ports in
in the
the Middle
Middle East
East at
at present,
present, and
and container
container termiterminals are only in the planning stage.
Wooden and concrete jetties are used
throughout for shipping crude and refined oil for local consumption and for
exporting oil products.
products.
currently designated
designated U.S.
U.S. Army
Army Port
Port
It appears that currently
Construction Companies (one regular Army, two reserves) require new equipment
and training to become familiar with the best methods of performing container
port construction.
Because of construction limitations caused by the equipment presently authorized the Engineer Combat Battalion Heavy, time restrictions preclude any extensive repairs on heavily damaged ports. Characteristics of selected "major" ports in the Middle East reveal two common problems:
most ports in the region are not equipped to handle heavy cargo or con(1)
than 40—ft
40—ft (12—in)
(l2—m) draft
draft available
available in
in the
the
tainer lifts, and (2) some have less than
channel or at dockside.
A typical small port involved in coastal
coastal trade
trade is
iS
8.1.
shown in Figure 8.1,
8.2
Dredging of Channels
Rapid dredging of channels with depths of a least 40 ft (12 m) is needed
to accommodate container ships.
There are no expedient solutions to this
problem.
Hopper dredges and sidecasting dredges are the only ones that are
seagoing.
The cutterhead dredge is the most functional of all dredges because
it can operate in materials up to a consistency of soft rock. The dredge works
Its use is
most efficiently when making a deep cut in
In relatively calm waters.
very limited in waters
waters subject
subject to
to waves
waves over
over 22 to
to 33 ft
ft (0.6
(0.6 to
to (1.9
0.9 m).
m). It
takes a significant amount of time to move equipment such as dredges from
secured areas to occupied areas.
In fact, the equipment would not arrive for
more
pre-positioned so
sent at
at
inore than
than 48
48 hours
hours unless
unless it
it were pre-positioneci
so that
that it
it could be sent
a morriont's
notice.
moment's notice.
Identifying items
are 4lfficuit
4ffficuit, to
to move
move is
is imperative
imperative
Identifying
items thafl
that are
for the completion of large—scale mis&ions
missions such as port rehabilitation.
8.3
Personnel in
in Operation
Operation and
and Maintenance
Maintenance of
of Local
Local Materials—
'1rainUwof
'lraininLof Personnel
lln.&±sLu.ma!p!
Personnel who will operate a port may be unfamiliar with the operation
and maintenance of civilian material—handling equipment left in an operational
status by departed host nation personnel.
status
personnel. One solution may be familiarization
schooling for personnel assigned to rapid deployment forces.
Other approaches
could be the importation of allied civilian workers skilled in operation of
such equipment or on—the—job orientation for untrained military personnel.
8—1
ASPHALT PLANT
Stole in miles
V.
S.
C
S
itit
IIII
1I
•1
-—
——
CAAAW.H
ROUTE
I
(
II
UI
if
.17
I
'S
C..
'/
a.
I.
/
/I'
CI,.
a
sea v
/
$4
.4
WI'
1W
/
I
SI
a
I
/
flit
I.
ii
I.
.
CARAVAN
.
ROUTE
•'
1
'a
1•it.
S.
F
—I——si—,.
C.—
a aa ç vC—'
ScSS
a a
•
p
Figure 8.1.
,S
S.
S...
r p4LAVa
rw
sns4va *z
4—--;,.
I-—
I-.-
—.
Typical facilities in a small port in the Middle East.
(From Tropical Engineering, NAVDOCKS P—39 [Navy
Department, 19511.)
To enhance operation capabilities, detailed information should be gathered
concerning the type and quantity of equipment available at the Persian Gulf
ports so that familiarization schoolingcatt
schoolingcafl be done.
On—the—job training is
not recommended as the best solution learning accidents can he
be costly in a
operation
operation for
for which
which time
time is
is minimal.
minimal.
8.4
POL Terminal Facilities
Construction, rehabilitation, and/or improvement of POL terminal facilities
ties are
are needed
needed to
to achieve
achieve an
an early
early capability
capability for
for unloading
unloading POL
POL tankers.
tankers.
Tactical marine terminals consisting of two functional portions, an offshore
and an onshore portion, will bring ashore, store, and issue bulk petroleum
products where no facilities exist for doing so.
The storage capacity of the
terminal should accommodate
accommodate large
large ocean—going
ocean—going tankers.
tankers. Holds of ships not
not
being
provide aa temporary
temporary oil
oil reservoir.
reservoir. If the
being used for other purposes can provide
ship is floating, it can be towed to larger tankers, have the hold filled,
8—2
and then
then be
be t..ed
t.ed to
to aa storage
storage site. Collapsible tanks are vulnerable to puncture from standard materials—handling equipment and, due to their weight and
bulk, require considerable manpower for positioning. This solution is susceptible
Also, disabled ships
to enemy attack since any ship must be exposed in the water.
Collaor unpowered barges require powered vessels to get to and from tankers. Collapsible POL
tankscan
canbebeinserted
inserted in
in below-ground
pits or
or underwater
to reduce
psible
POL tanks
below-ground pits
underwater to
reduce
vulnerability
fire.
vulnerability and
and exposure
exposure to
to weapons
weapons fire.
8.5
8.5
Lack of Container—Handling Facilities
Capability is required for the rapid construction of expedient container
However, there are no quick
ports to meet rapid deployment force requirements.
It should be recognized that plans for
and easy solutions to this problem.
future uses
uses of
of expedient
expedient military
military ports
ports must
must be
be especially
especially adaptable
adaptable for
for
future
container—handling operations and must employ the latest innovative commercial
conmercial
applications for reducing off—loading and turnaround times of container ships.
Pre—positioning of critical equipment for off—loading operations may provide
flexibility
flexibility to
to reaèt
react in
in undeveloped
undeveloped port
port areas.
areas.
8.6
Rapid Removal of Debris
Removal of horizontal and vertical structures that are damaged beyond
repair and are interfering
interfering with
with completion
completion ef
f the
the port
port operation
operation mission
mission may
may
Material that has been reduced to rubble, such as broken
brokdn conbe required.
crete, can be turned into fill material within the port area to act as
foundation for extensions of piers breakwaters, and construction of new
piers, or to fill
fill craters.
craters. Blasting techniques have been effective in reducing
ing structures
structures to
to rubble.
rubble. However, blasting and the handling of explosives
To facilitate debris removal the
should be done only by trained personnel.
addition of adding a dump truck company could make it easier to handle large
quantities of earth, rubble, or damaged construction material. Also,
subassemblies salvaged from a destoryed structure could serve as structural
membranes in other facilities; e.g., salvageable wood could be used for
expedient roadway surfacing in areas of weak soil.
8.7
Lack of Adequate Road Networks
Lack of adequate road networks from port to inland areas may hinder
Expedient construction techniques may be used with minimum
transportation.
quantities of hauled—in materials to provide binder for In—place,
in—place, sandy
Use sea—water to obtain compaction with heavy construction equipmaterials.
ment and dump trucks. The minimum length and width of one—way roads should be
constructed until
until semipermanent
semipermanent and/or
and/or permanent
permanent inland
inland road
road nets
nets are
are reached.
reached.
in
If proper consolidation and compaction of sandy soils cannot be completed in
the allotted time, re—outfitting trucks with tires that perform well in
trapped
loose sand may prevent having to extract vehicles that have become trapped
A minimum stand—by force of water trucks and dozers is
in the sand.
required to smooth the road surface as ruts occur from vehicle traffice.
8—3
8.8
Temporary Methods of Through—Put Operations
will
During the rehabilitation of ports, the off—loading of supply ships viii
On possible solution
be
be hindered
hindered until
until wharves
wharves and
and quays
quays can
can be
be reconstructed.
reconstructed.
is iighterage
lighterage operations from ships anchored within the harbor to barges for
Other solutions could include; lighterage from lighter
transfer to shore.
aboard ship (LASH) or SEABEE ships for over—the—beach discharge of cargo; use
of heavy—lift
heavy—lift helicopters
helicopters to
to off—load
off—load break—bulk
break—bulkor
orcontainer
containercargoes;
cargoes or
or
use of causeway barges to ferry containers from ship to shore (in calm seas).
For example:
There are certain considerations to be observed.
Ligherage from ships that do
do not
not have
have self—sustaining
self—sustaining capability
capability would
would
require the use of a floating crane or use of helicopters.
—
—
Lighterage
operations cannot be conducted in heavy seas.
—
or roll—on/roll—off
roll—on/roll—off (RO/RO)
(RO/RO) ships
ships is
is only
only possible
possible through
through
Discharge or
Discharg Light
the Army's Beach Discharge
Light (EbL),
(BDL), of
of which
which there
there is
is only
only one.
one.
—
restricts cargo
cargo weight
weight to
to useful
useful limits
limits of
of the
the
Use of helicopters restricts
be
carried
can
be
caried
by
helicopter.
Nominal loads of up ot 18,200 lb (16 380 int)
tnt)
helicopters.
CH—47C helicopters.
dH—47C
It
should noted that all of the foregoing methods are time consuming
and should only be used until docking facilities are available. In addition,
movement of barges will require powered vessels.
-
8.9
Lack of Materials for Construction and Repair of Port Facilities
Local timber is generally not available for piling or wharf superstrucDuring 1)orld
Uorld War
War II
II port
port development
development in
In the
the Persian
Persian Gulf,
Gulf, timber
timber for
for
tures.
TN 5—258, Pile Construction, describes a
piling
piling was imported from India.
number of species of trees in that area which make excellent piling.
Salvaged materials, such as structural steel or telephone poles, can be used
During demolition and debris removal, the normal
for expedient piling.
tendency is to cut such members Into short, easily handled pieces. If general
salvaging
cargo pier
pier reconstruction
reconstruction is
Is required,
required, aa premiUm
premiumihóutd
hould be placed
placed on
on salvaging
Since timing of the operations makes fabrication of
large pieces intact.
materials must either be scavenged or imported.
piling unrealistic
,
8-4
CHAPTER 9 — FACTORS AFFEtTING
AFFEtTINGENCINEER
ENCINEER
Wfl Vt)RCE
iRCE
Wfl
9.1
Introduction
Working conditions
corditiors in
ir the desert cait
call he
be extremely harsh. High bolar
solar
radiation, temperature,
temperature, lack
lack of
of water
water supply1,
8uppiy, and
and sand
sand storms
storms all
all contribute
contribute
to the difficult environment. This chapter describes how the environment
envirormert
affects personnel
personnel ard
and equipment,
equipment, and
and how
how thQ
che impacts
impactscan
canbebeinir1mized.
minimized. GenGer—
erally, all movements
movemelts should
should be
be as
as deliberate
deliberate and
and unhurried
unhurried as
as possible;
pos1b1e; this
this
reduces the body's heat production and use of energy
erergy and
aid water.
waters
9.2
Health and
aid Operational
Opecatioial Effectiveness
Effect
of Heat
Heat oo Efficiency
Efficiency
Effect of
9.2.1
Desert is characterized by high solar radiation
radiatEoi and temperature.
temperature0
Solar
beats down
dowr on
or desert
desert regions
regions with
with great
great •intenslty.
irtensity.
The air temperature in
ii the summer can range
raIge up to 131°F (559C).
Without precautionary
precautiqiary measmeaa—
ures, the heat not
iot only
oily viii
will reduce the efficiency
efficieicy of workers, but also will
create
create health problems.
radiation
radiation
reduction in
In the efficiency of workers caused by high da,time temThe ceductioi
peratures cart
peratures
can be
be considerable.
considerable.
Therefore, one
ore needs to consider letting
1ettirg personnel work at night
right to take advantage of the cooler temperatures.
However,
However,
the problem with this
this is
is that
that workers
workers must
must sleep
sleep in
in excessive
excessivedaytirue
daytime temperatemperatures.
High solar radiation
radiatior and
ard temperature may cause heat cramps and heat
exhaustion.
exhaustioi.
The following
followiig preventive measures should be taken:
Water
Water and
aid salt
salt intake
intake by
by individuals
indiv1dials must
must be
be adequate.
adequate.
However
However,
excess intake
thtake of salt should be avoided since it may cause thcreased
increased thirst
aid iicpacitati.ng
and
incpacitating nausea.
nausea. Unless
Unless workers
workers are
are sweatthg
sweating coatiiüoitsly
continuously or
or
ieed saline fluids or salt tablets.
tublets.
repeatedly, they do not need
Exta salt in
food and
ard on the table, coupled with sound
sourd training,
trairing, will meet most requirements.
ments.
When water
water supplies
supplies are
are resrricted.,.sait
resticted.,.sa1t i,n
In xcessof
xcessof thtnoruially
thtiorrna11y
tnfrwation on
on
preaeIt in
present
in food
food should
should riot
not be taken.
Consilt TB MED 507
Consult
507 for
for infrmation
salt tablets.
salt
tablets.
1.
it
2.
Whenever practical, work should be performed in the shade
shade or ii
in the
the
early morning, evening,
everirg, or night.
If shade over
over aa work
work ares
are is
is not
not possible,
possible,
some sort
some
sort of
of shady
shady shelter
sheltershould
shouldbebeprovided
provided
ut it th jc1 se.
the jo1 se.
labor
3.
3.
When it is very hot, the men should
should be reduced.
aid strenuous
work iiin sh1cs, and
strenuous
4.
Clothing
5.
Dress as the
the natives
natives du.
do.
6.
6.
The
The body, especially the head, should
should not
iot be
be untiecessarily
untiecessarily exposed
exposed to
to
eiough to permit ventihitton
veitLLition of the body.
must be loose enough
Weirlight
light colored
colored clotiing.
clotithg.
Wear
the
the sun.
sur.
9—1
It is well understood that a sudden onset of hot weather impairs ability
Howis easily done in cool environments. Howof personnel to perform work that Is
ever, one can get acclimated if the heat wave lasts several days. Nevertheless, it should be pointed out
Out that the ability to perform as much work as
possible in the heat must be attained by progressively increasing the daily
workload.
workload. Strenuous exertion on first exposure may result in disability that
Therefore, gradual workload
will impair performance for several days.*
increases
increases are
are suggested
suggested so
so that
that fresh
fresh troops
troops perform
perform lighter
lighter work
work for
for aa short
short
time
time before
before being
being assigned
assigned heavier
heavier workloads.
workloads. Personnel can become acclimated
intermittent work
work periods
periods of
of 22 to
to 44 hours
hours daily
daily for
for 44 to
to 77 days.**
days.**
with short1,
short, intermittent
Drinking water must not be re8tricted
restricted during this time since inadequate water
and salt replacement can delay acclimatization. Nevertheless, salt intakes
should
not be
be excessive1,
excessive, as
earlier. A suggested schedule of work durshould not
as noted earlier.
ing acclimatizing
acclimatizing period
period is
is given
given in
in Table
Table 9.1.
9.1.
9.2.2
Protective Equipment
impaired by proIn desert regions, the night vision of personnel may be Impaired
longed exposure of the eyes to Intense
intense sunlight and reflected light from the
These problems
ted by
by taking
taking the following steps:
problems can
can be
be correc
corrected
steps:
earth.
1.
Providing caps or
or hats
hats with
with wide
wide brims
brims or
or bills
bills to
to shade
shade the
th eyes.
eyes.
Prohibiting personnel
personnel from
fromworking
workingininthe
thedirect
direct
sunlig.t.'Iiout
iiout
Prohibiting
sunhIg'.t
having their heads covered and eyes shaded.
2.
3.
Providing sunglasses to all personnel and requiring that they wear
them when they are
are outside
outside in
in the
the daytime.
daytime. If sunglasses
sunglasses are
are not
not available1,
available,
under extreme conditions personnel can take a piece of cardboard or paper and
Cut
cut small
saiallslits
slits or
or holes
holes in
in it
it that
that will
will align
align with
with each eye. The paper or
cardboard can be kept In place with rubber bands, tape, or wire positioning a
hole or slit directly in front of each eye. This will reduce the amount of
light entering the pupil of the eye,
eye) but will still provide limited vision.
Any metallic object1,
object, such
such as
as aa tool
tool or
or equipment,
equipment, will
will become
become too
too hot
hot for
for
handling if left in the sun. Therefore,
Therefore) workers need gloves for protection
against burns. To prevent tools from becoming too hot, they must be stored in
the shade whenever possible. Soft, "spongy"
°spongy" handle covers would also make
tools
tools easier
easier to
to use
use In
in the
the heat.
heat.
In addition to the problems caused by intense sunlight, dust or sand
storm will also cause considerable difficulty for workers. All personnel will
need goggles,
goggles1, chapsticks,
chapsticks, and
and skin
skin and
and eye
eye ointments.
ointments. Sometimes it is better
need
to just stop working than to try to keep going when there are bad dust storms.
* D. E. Bass, "Thermoregulatory and Circulatory Adjustments during AclimatiAcliiatization to Heat in
Temperature:
in Man,"
Man," in
in James
James P.
P. Hardy,
Hardy, ed.,
ed, Temperature:
Its
ment and
and Control
Control in
in Science
Science and
and Industry,
Industry,Vol
Vol3,3,part
part3,3,Biology
Biologyaid
ad Mdi—
cine
cine (Van Nostrand Reinhold
Reinhold Company,
Company, 1963),
1963), pp
299—305.
pp 299—305.
—
- **Ibjd.
**Ibid
9—2
9.2.3
9.2.3
Water
Intake
Requirements
Intak Requirements
Table 9.2 may be used as
as aa guide
guide to
to estimate
the drinki,. water requirerequireestimate the
ments for per:('anel
per:('nnel exposed to heat.*
drivLi,.
Occasionally1,drinking
Occasionally
drinkingwater
water must
must be
be restricted.
restricted.
The restricted drinking
water supply will reduce operational effectiveness and increase health
hazards. Therefore,
Therefore the
the number
number of
of working
working hours
hours should
should be
be reduced,
reduced, the
the work
work
should be made less strenuous, and the men should not be allowed to work in
the sun.
the
sun.
Never reduce the amount of drinking water as a "hardening" measure
or
or "toughening
"toughening" process for personnel.
personnel. This is a dangerous practice ——
only
only produces
produces dehydration.
dehydration. When water is in short supply, significant water
economy can be achieved only be reducing physical activity or limiting it to
early morning or night hours when there
there is
is less
less heat
heat and
and workers
workers do
do not
not sweat
sweat
as much.
as
Any attempt at water economy by restricting water intake must be
paid for in
in reduced
reduced work
work capability,
capability reduced
reduced efficiency, and
and increased
increased risk
risk of
of
heat innjury.
it
It is common
common for
for •chemical
chemical diarrhea
diarrhea" to
to be
be caused
caused just
just by
by changing
changing
sources of water supply.
supply,
Often, even treated water contains certain laxatives
to which one must become acclimated.
If one is forced to constantly drink
water from
from different
different sources,
sources, onets
one's systerr
system does not have an
an opportunity
opportunity tt
adjust
adjust to
to the
the new
new supply. This
This problem
problem will
will be
be more
more common
common with
with freshwater
freshwater
sources which have been treated with an ERDLater rather than a desalination
unit; ERDLater—type devices are not designed to remove from water substances
which act as laxatives.
Local water may also contain relatively high levels
It may also have h.gh pH
ppn).
of magnesium sulfate or sodium sulfate (500 ppm).
Therefore,
local
water
supplies
must
be
avoided unless qualities
(above 9).
personnel have tested
tested and
and approved
approved the
the water.
water. In addition, the unit commander
must
must try
try to
to keep
keep changes
changes in
in sources
sources of
of water
water supply
supply to
to aa minimum.
minimum.
9.2.4
Sanitation
Considerations
Many species of flies are annoyances in all countries of SWA. Many other
the
types of insects —— such as mosquitoes and fleas —— are also found in the
How—
region.
Insecticides provided by the Quartermaster Corps may be used. However it
ever,
it probably
probably will
will be
be more
more effective
effective to
to use screens in the
the work
work areas
areas to
to
Deodorants hair spray, and cologne should not
stop the flies and mosquitoes. Deodorant,
be
be used since they will attract insects.
9.2.5
Use of
Local Labor
of Local
Labcr Fc'rce
Fc'rce
Every effort should be made to use native personnel whenever practical
Every
since they
they know
know the
the country,
country in
in many
many instances
instances have considerable
considerable practical
practical
knowledge of construction problems in the Immediate
immediate area, and furnish a ready
It should
should be
be cautioned,
cautioned, however,
however that
that
labor force which can be called upon.
native
native laborers
laborers are
are more
more efficient
efficient when
when working
working with
with familiar
familiar muaterials
iuaterials and
and
For instance,
tools.
instances local or native workmen are far more experienced
experielced in
Local laborers should not be forced to use modrn
masonry than in carpentry.
tools unless the training can be done easily.
* TB—MED—507, Occupational and
*
and Environmental
Environmental Health
Health (Headquarters,
(Headquarters Department
Department
TB—MED—507,
of the
the Army,
Army Navy
1980).
of
Navy and
and Air
Air Force,
Force, .Tuly
July 1980).
9—3
Table 9.1
Schedules of Work, If Necessiry, During Acclimatizing Perio
table is
(This table
is based
ba8ed on
on TB—MEI)—5U1,
TB—MEI)—5Ul, Occupational
Occupational and
and Environcta1
Environta1
(This
Health Headquarters [Departments
[Departnientsof
ofthe
theArmy,
Army,Navy,
Navy,and
andAir
AirFor.e,
For.e
July 1980].)
Moderate Conditions, WBGT or WD
Less Than 800*
Severe Conditions, WBGT or Wi)
Greater Than 800
flours of
Hours
of Work**
Work**
Morning
Afternoon
First
day
Second day
Third day
Fourth day
Fifth day
1
1
1—1/2
1—1/2
2
22
Hours of Work**
AfteLnon
Morning
Morning
Aftenon
First day
Second day
Third day
Fourth day
Fifth doy
Sixth day
3
3
Regular
Rgiilar duty
1
1
1—1/2
1-1/2
2
22
2—1/2
2—1/2
3
3
Regular
Regular dy
y
*800 wet—bulb—globe—temperature (WBGT)
(WBCT) or WD index, is approximately
equivalent to a dry bulb (DB) temperature of 850
85° In a jungle or 105° in
= 0.85
enviroiunent (WO
(WO =
desert enviroiuneit
0.85 WB + 0.15 DB).
DB).
**Reconended
**Recoended for
Som&
formen
menininfair
fairor
orworse
worse physical
physical condition;
condition; with some
very fit
very
fit individuals
individuals should
should do
do double
double this
this schedule
schedule and
and be
be able
able to
to perfi
perfi ..
regular duty on third or fourth day.
Table 9.2
Water Requiiremerts
Water
Requirements
b
Quarts per
Quarts
per Man
Man per
per ba
for Drinking Purposes (
Guide for Planning Only)
WBGT or WD Indext
tndex*
Activity
.
.
Light
Moderate
Heavy
Illustrative
Less than
DutIes
Desk work
Route
Route march
march
Forced marches;
stevedoring; entrenching; or route
route
marches with heavy
loads or in CBR
protective clothing.
800
5
Greater than
Greater
th
than
t.han D9
D9
66
7
9
9
13
*800 wet—bulb—globe-eniperature
wet—bulb—globe—temperature (WBGT) or WD index Is approximately eq.ILva1ut
eq.lLva1ut
to
to aa dry
terriperarure of
of 85°
85° In
In aa jungle
dry bulb
bulb terDperarure
jungle or
or 1050
1050 in
in a
a desert
desert env1roirfIL
env1roirtIL
(W'D
= 0.85 WB + 0.15 D8).
(w'D =
9-4
laborera may create problems because
becauae of the language
Dealing with local laborers
barrier and the customs of natives.
The following approaches are suggested.
Buggested.
U
of native
native labor
labor leaders
leaders ie
is the
the most
most satisfactory
satisfactoryoethod
oethodof
ofdeal-dealing with native labor.
1.
2.
Discussions with local authorities should always precede any use of
native labor.
3.
Existing rules and local customs should be carefully observed.
Perbian Gulf Command during World War II indicated
The experience of the Persian
that American Engineer units got the best available labor without upsetting
the local wage scales by issuing ration coupons.* To make efficient use of
the local
local workers,
workers, foremen
foremen were
were drawn
drawn from
from the
the workers
workers and
and given
given proper
proper traintraining.
Supervisors on—site then directed foremen, who in turn directed the
laborers.
Proper security must be provided in the storage areas to keep local
residetts from stealing construction materials.
residents
9.3
9.3.1
Construction and Engineering Equipment Maintenance
and Operations
Naintnanc F'acilitis
Oprationa
F'acilities and
Maintenance
Working areas must be on bare ground or concrete, if possible; sand must
be swept from the location. The repair area must not be established beside a
If there is a patch of fine)
road.
fine, loose sand, the work space should be
located so that it will not be dusted by every breeze.
When machinery must be opened up for servicing, workers should try to get
The whole working area must be kept cleared
a canvas lean—to or a half tent.
If water is available, workers could dampen the sand, or better
of dust.
still, sprinkle it with used engine oil and cover it with rock to bind it
Tools must b kept clean at all times. When there are bad sand or dust
down.
storms,
storms, work
work should
should be
be stopped.
stopped.
Parking spaces should be arranged so that vehicles can leave without hay—
ing to circle around others.
other8. Although it is not practical to have equipment
so widely
widely separated
separated that
that there
there isno
isno danger
danger frqm
frqm dust,
dust,care
cares.houd
s.houdbebetaken
takentoo
park the machines so that turning and travel are done outside the area and on
the side away from prevailing winds.
9.3.2
Operations
Refueling Operations
Fuei and
Fuel
and Refueling
A serious problem that has occurred in Saudi Arabia and other desert
A
The
areas is clogging of fuel lines due to sand and dust in the fuel tank.
fuel filters usually
ueually prevent sand and dust from getting into the carburetor,
but the fuel pump, fuel lines, or tank screens can become clogged. The problem results from careless refueling operations and refueling during sand or
solutions are
are suggested:
suggested:
dust
dust storms.
storms. The following solutions
*
T. H. Vail Motter, The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia (Washington, Office of the
the Chief
Chief of
oTilitary
MilitaryHistory,
History, 1952),
1952), pp 103.
103.
9—s
The first,
first, most obvious1
obvious, solution is to avoid refueling
refueling during
during storms
storms
if possible.
1.
2.
Before the fuel tank cap is taken off1 care should be taken to make
sure that sand or dust which might enter the tank has been removed.
3.
If
If it is necessary to refuel during
during aa storm1
storm, then
then certain
certain precautions
precautions
should be taken:
a.
If a funnel is to
to be
be used1
used, then it should be a filtered funnel and
should fit tightly into the fuel tank opening. If
If possible,
possible, the
the funnel
funnel should
should
screw on the opening or fit the tank opening snugly.
If necessary, solder a
small vent pipe down the inside of the funnel to allow air to escape while
pouring the fuel.
b.
If
If aa "screw—on"
"screw—on" funnel
funnel is
is not
not available,
available1 then
then aa rag
rag should
should be
be wrapped
wrapped
around the funnel
funnel base
base and
and fuel
fuel tank
tank opening
opening to
to prevent
prevent sand/dust
sand/dust entry.
entry.
c.
c.
The "rag wrep
wrap procedure may be used with hose/nozzle filling
approaches also.
approacheG
-
d. Be sure to wipe the tank clean fr several inches around the opening
before taking off the filler cap. Remember, a few grains of sharp,
9harp, cutting
sand can completely ruin a diesel fuel engine or pump.
e.
Fuel filters must
muBt be cleaned more frequently.
The high diurnal temperature is another problem for fueling operations in
In
hot desert region.
region. If fuel tanks are filled to the brim at night, they will
overflow at mid—day. Therefore, fuel tanks must be filled to theIr correct
capacity.
capacity.
9.3.3
9.3.3
Lubrication
Lubricant
be the
Lubricant must
must be
temperature, and
and must
must be
be
the correct viscosity for the temperature,
kept to the absolute minimum on exposed or semi—exposed moving parts.
Lub.
Lube
fittings must be checked frequently. If they are missing,
missing1 sand will enter the
housing and cause bearing failure.
failure. Teflon bearings require Constant
constant inspection
tion to ensure that
that the
the coating
coating is
is not
not being'
being renoved.
removed.
Lightweight
Lightweight
oils are not suitable In
in hot climates.
Their use
Their
use can
can rethice
reduce
engine life; therefore,
therefore1 oil of the proper weight must be used. Engine oil
must
be changed
must be
changed more
more often
often than
than in
In temperate
temperate climates,
climates, and
and oil
oil filters
filters have
have to
to
be
be replaced
replaced more
more frequently
frequently than
than usual.
usual.
9.3.4
Air Filters
Air
Improper servicing —— such as cleaning an air filter by beatingit to
remove dust particles —— can damage the element. In addition, filters are
sometimes installed slightly
alightly ajar, and punctured elements are occasionally put
back on the engine because there is no replacement fiLter.
improper
Other iiproper
maintenance includes servicing air filters at incorrect intervals.
If
sand/dust leaks through damaged elements, the engine's life span will be cut
cut
significantly.
will
9—6
Air cleaners of every type must be inspected at least daily, or more frequently if operating conditions require.
Use compressed air for cleaning.
A
redundant air filtering
filtering system
8y8te with
with two
two elements
elements in
in series
series may
may be
be used.
used. A
proper quantity of replacement elements must be provided.
9.3.5
Engine Overheating
All types of engines are apt to overheat to some degree. This
Thi8 will haphap—
pen more frequently
frequently in
in the
the high—temperature
high—temperature desert
desert region1,
region, and
and will
will lead
lead to
to
excessive wear and ultimately to leaking oil seals in the power packs. The
following solutions are suggested:
1.
Be aware of which vehicle types tend to overheat often, and ensure
that they are maintained with extra care.
2.
Check oil level frequently.
3.
Check seals frequently to make sure they are not leaking and that oil
consumption is not higher than. normal.
4.
Radiators and air—flow areas around engines must
muat be kept clean and
free
free of
of debris
debris and
and other
other obstructions.
ob8tructiona.
Water—cooled engines
engine8 should be fitted with condensors to avoid waste
5.
steam through the overflow pipe.
as 8team
6.
Cooling hoses must
'ust be kept tight.
7.
Operators should not remove hood side panels from engine compartments
while the engine is running because this will cause
cau8e turbulence, leading to
ineffective cooling.
9.3.6
Battery Maintenance
Batteries do not hold their charge efficiently in intense heat.
minimize the
the prdbleins,
pr6bleins, the
the following
following solutions
solutionsare
are.8uggested:
suggested:
To
Change the battery's specific gravity to adjust to desert environenviron—
1.
ment; adjust the battery's electrolyte to 1.200 to 1.225 specific gravity or
sent;
obtain sulfuric acid, electrolyte FSN 904—9372 with a specific gravity of
1.2085
1.2085 to 1.2185.
It may also be necessary
necessary to
to adjust
adjust the
the battery's
battery's specific
specific gravity
gravity to
to
compensate for cold nights (see TM 9—6140—100—12).
2.
Batteries 'ust
must be kept full, but not overfilled, and a reserve of
3.
distilled water should be carried.
Air vents must
'ust be kept clean or vapors may build up pressures and
4.
cause the battery to explode.
5.
Voltage regulators should be set as low as practical.
voltage
9—7
6.
Dry battery supplies must be increased to offset high attrition rates
caused by heat exposure.
9.3.7
Tire Pressures
Tire
High diurnal temperatures may cause problems for tires.
For instance, if
tires are inflated to the correct pressure during the cool night, they may
burst during the heat of the day.
Therefore, one must try to find the proper
air pressure when the equipment is operating at efficient working temperature
and
and maintain
maintain it.
it. Service of these items during heat of the day will result in
under—pressures and overheating of tires.
9.3.8
Critical Fuel
and Equipment
Ternperczture8
Temperatures
Gasolines deteriorate largely through formation of gum, which causes
filter clogging and lowering of octane number. Although
Although the
the initial
initial gum
gum concontent and
and the
the rate
rate of
of gum
gum formation
formationdiffer
differwidely,
widely,the
theeffect
effectofof
varying
varying
teixi—
temperature on this rate is quite similar for all gasolines. The rate approximately quadruples for each 20°F (11°C) rise in temperature.
Btorage temperatures
A map can be prepared from effective gasoline storage
weighted so that they represent —— in gum—degradation effect —— the whole
series of cycling temperatures during a field storage
etorage season
Beason for nsoline
'soline in
55—gal (208—L) drums at various places on the map.
Figure 9.1 is such a map;
effecUve gasoline
coverted to
to storage
storage life.
life.
effective
gasoline storage
storage telperature8
temperatures have
have b.een coverted
of
For a typical gasoline
gasoline with
with inhibitors
inhibitors added,
added, 55 mg
mg of
of gum
gum per
per 100
100 nil
ml of
gasoline might form in 12 months at 100°F (38°C) gasoline temperature. Since
this is
is enough
enough gum
gum to
to cause
cause rejection
rejection (if
(if some
some gum
gum were
were already
already present),
present), 12
12
this
months becomes the storage life for this particular gasoline.
Figure 9.1 (computed from data for the six hottest months) shows compari—
tive gasoline storage life at various points in SWA,
SWA assuTning
assuming that the gasoline would be acceptable for 12 months at 100°F (38°C). It should be
emphasized that other gasolines with other inhibitors might differ in basic
gum—forming rates,
rates but
but that
that proportionality
proportionality between
between rates
rates at
at various
various places
places on
•the
the map
map will
will be
be the
the same
sa'e for
for almost
almost all
all gasolines.
gasolineB.
example, if
if aa sensitive
sensitive gasoline
gasoline were
were acceptable
acceptal,le
for
only4 4monthsFor example,
for
-only
months- at
at
100°F (38°C), storage times for this gasoline could be obtained from the
the map
map
by dividing the plotted storage time by three.
Conversely, predictions for a
gasoline stable for 2 years at 100°F (38°C) could
could be
be obtained
obtained by
by multiplying
multiplying
by two
two the
the time
time shown.
shown.
by
temperatures
Some equipment may fail when it operates above a critical temperature,
but may be completely effective when the temperature drops to acceptable levels.
For such equipment, a map showing frequency of occurrence of critical
temperatures
temperatures becomes
becomes an
an indicator
indicator of
of the
the probability
probability of
of equipment
equipment difficulty.
difficulty.
examples the rough terrain fork lift truck is designed for temperatures
For example,
below 110°F (43°C) and becomes less
les8 effective above that temperature.
Figure
Figure 9.2
9.2 shows
shows where
where temperatures
temperatures above
above 110°F
110°F (43°C)
(43°C) are common
commor in
ir
wherethe
theequipment
equipmentmentioned
mentioned above
above may
may give
give difficulty.
difficulty.
and, thErefore,
thefore, where
Although the map is based on percentage of total hours above 110°F (43°C)
q_ 8
July
(and
(and
—t
—: c::::
,
I
c4
i
'4( )L'I'I I \VESl' AS!
GASOLINE STORAGE
LIFE
Months
Less than
______
Ej
k.T:TT1
3
6
L...:.:j
______
I
I
.
—
3
6
12
12
-
24
24
-
48
Greater than
I
•
46
A GASOlINE WITH STORAGE LIFE
OF
Figure 9.1.
I? MONTHS_ATC$F
GasolIne
Gasoline storage life based on a gasoline with storage
life of 12 months at 100°F.
(Reprinted
(Reprinted from
from SW
SW •Asia:
Asia:
Environment and Its Relationship to Military Activities
[Quartermaster Research and Engineering Center, July 1959].)
9—9
—
L.i
-
1
4
FJ
'•1 C..'
:
-
A
A
A
1.
I'
0
•
j
__
/
si ftiiii-:.cr
si
'd \SL
I II\SI
\
PROBABILITY
PAOBABILTY
OF
PROBABIUTY OF
EQUIPMENT
LQUIPMENT
LQUIPMLNT DIFFICULTY
DIFFICULTY
Of
IPertent
JulyHours)
Haurst
Percent
PercentOt
Q July
July
Haurs
I
/I
1(1
/1\J
- Iri—- 'N\ \V
T
1
Over
20 PerCent
Percent
Over 20
Percent
1
I0
20
Percent
10
10-2oPercent
20 Percent
—
I1
\ /\
N
,) \ç //L)
:,/!'
I
I
R\t
4
R
\4,
\--------- I.—..- --i—
—
;/
——
.•:•:•:
••:•:•
:
:
.•
•
1
1
I
I
•_.-\
.
5
- 10
Percent
10Percent
Percent
5-10
-- 55 Percent
Percent
-5
Percent
-
.
.
0
- I Percent
Percent
0-lPercent
1_——''
1
.
j
(.
..
C
5
5.
.
0
_j
J
35
S
1
—-"-4--,
r)
-
.-••
--••
'
i\
\T';
\
\N
\
'*:•• I
'\
SS
-
C-'
the percentage of July hours during
This
during which
which the
the mobile
This map shows
shows the
bakery;
refrigerator,
25 Cu
cu ft.; and rough terrain fork lift truck
may be ineffective. These three items begin to fail at temperatures
about 11.0°F.
110°F.
of about
(Reprinted from
Probability of equipment difficulty.
Environment and Its Relationship to Military
SW Asia:
Activities
Activities [Quartermaster
[Quartermaster Research
Research and
and Engineering
Engineering Centers
Centers
July l959.)
9—10
I
.
I
Figure 9.2.
.
.
gives information
information about
about the
the number
number of
of days
days of
of occurrence),
occurrence), it
it may
may be
be assumed
assumed
that
that such
such temperatures
temperatures will
will not
not last
last more
more than
than 44 to
to 66 hours
hours on
on any
any given
given day.
day.
9.3.9
Vehicle Operation
Trucks
Trucks may
may have
have difficulty
difficulty moving
moving on
on certain
certain types
types of
of desert
desert roads.
roads.
following possible solutions are provided:
The
In sandy areas, operate with standard tires at lower pressure. The
tire pressure will depend on the loading, the sand conditions, and the desired
tire life.
1.
2.
All transportation equipment should have low—pressure single tires.
Dual tires should never be used because they tend to break up the bearing surtires.*
face and embed themselves much more than do single tirea.*
3.
A pair of cleated canvas tracks can be easily rolled up and carried
In excessively
excessively fine
fine and
and deep
deep sand,
sand,
for each light piece of motor equipment.
In
these tracks under the wheels will usually permit passage; this might not othoth—
erwi8e be possible.*
erwise
4.
Lengths of chain link fence can frequently be used as semipermanent
roads in construction areas. This material can be salvaged and used again on
another job. The only maintenance required for such tread roads is lifting
the mesh when it begins
begins to
to become
become covered
covered ith
ith sand,
sand, and
and turning
turning it
it over
over
periodically as it bows from the passage of traffic.
When passing through sandy areas, each vehicle should remain in the
5.
tracksof the vehicle ahead. Any attempt to form new tracks or to swing out
of line will generally result
re9ult in a stuck truck and a delay to free it.*
Frequent stops should not be necessary,
neces8ary, but each vehicle should be
6.
inspected at every stop to make sure it is not overheating and to see whether
the tires are over— or under—inflated. Tires with loweredpressures, and particularly tires designed for higher pressureB, generate considerable heat as
they grind through deep sand; thus, the pressures will increase and may have
to be lowered during stops. The same precaution applies if the convoy has
been traveling at fairly high speed over smooth, hard ground where desert temperatures heat the tires enough that internal pressures-become dangerous..
Tires and cooling systems should be inspected at every stop. Personnel should
lubricate their vehicles regularly during travel and promptly repair all minor
breakdowns.
9.3.10
ment
Operation of Earthmoving
Equipment in High Temperature
Eartvnoving Equipment
Temperature De8ert
De8ert EnvironEnviron-
following discussion
discussion furnishes
furnishes information
information and
and guidance
guidance to
to personnel
personnel
The following
The
responsible for using and supervising the operation of engineer construction
characteristics, capabilities,
capabilities,
equipment, primarily
primarily earthmoving
earthooving types.
types. The characteristics1
and application of equipment for typical construction tasks are discussed, and
guides or estimating the output of various
variou8 items of equipment are, provided.
*
Tropical
Engineering (U.S. Navy Civil Engineer Corps, Bureau of Yards and
Docks, Department of the Navy, 1950—51), p 72.
9—11
9—li
In addition, maintenance considerations and equipment modifications which
improve
improve operation
operation in
in aa desert
desert environment
environment are
are discussed.
discussed.
Factors which must be considered in desert operation8
Factor8
operations are soils, high
temperatureB and solar radiation, and increased maintenance and preparation of
temperatures
equipment for the high—temperature environment.
Desert Boils are similar to those
thoBe found
found throughout
throughout the
the world. However,
in
the desert they are found in a more geographically defined area. These
in the
boulderB and poorly sotted
sorted medium angular gravel;
soils include zones of large boulders
sand and
and gravel
gravel with
with some
some larger
larger stone;
stone; Bilty,
silty, stoney,
stoney, and
and sandy
sandy desert;
desert; and
and
sand
Aeolian (windblown) deposits which may include evaporite salts. Thus, operational constraints
constraints resulting
resulting from
from any
any peculiarities
peculiarities associated
associated with
with unique
unique
tional
soil conditions
conditions in
in aa desert
desert environment
environment are
are minimal.
minimal. High temperature factors
soil
relating to
to the
the equipment
equipment and
and its
its operation
operation are
are thub
thub the
the primary
primary features
features to
to
relating
be considered.
High temperature affects both the equipment and the operator and must be
considered when operating in the desert. Some equipment considerations
consideration8 are
associated with
with the
the engine/transmission
engine/transmission cooling
cooling system,
Bystem, low
low 'radiant
'radiant energy
energy
associated
absorbing paints,
paints, increased
increased or
or improved
improved engine
engine air
air filtering
filtering systems,
systems, fuel
fuel
absorbing
contamination due to windblown debris, increased undercarriage wear due to
sandy soils, and the need for enclosures or environmentally controlled cabs
Bandy
for operating personnel.
Major equipment manufacturers
manufacturers presently
presently incorporate
incorporate high
high temperature
temperature
design capability into the cooling systems
BystemB of their equipment so that the
equipment can be used worldwide without serious
Berious degradation of performance due
to high temperature.
However, if the existing cooling system is inadequate,
it
it can
can be
be modified
modified through
through approved
approved modification
modification work
work orders.
orders.
The use of light color
color paints
paints which
which absorb
absorb less
less radiant
radiant energy
energy than
than dark
dark
paints reduces surface metal temperatures. This contributes to a greater
paint8
efficiency in
efficiency
in heat
heat transfer,
transfer, which
which results
results in
in lower
lowertemperatures
temperaturesin'fluid
influid
reservoirs exposed to direct solar energy. In addition, the lower metal teminterfaces such
such as
as operation,
operation, service,
service,
peratures provide
provide for
for 8afer
safer ian-inachine
man—machine interfaces
and maintenance in exposed areas.
8ystems, tracks, and fuel
fuel.handling
Increased maintenance in air filtering systems,
handling
systems usually results from operation in the desert environment.
This is due
to blowing sand, which rapidly chokes air filters, causes rapid track wear,
and contaminates fuel handling systems and equipment.
Provisions to reduce operator fatigue due to high temperatures are es8en—
essential in the desert environment.
Canopies to prevent direct exposure to the
sun and environmentally controlled cabs can be provided to protect the operator from the solar energy and blowing sand.
Preparation of the equipment for operation in the desert environment is
essential. The
The cooling
cooling systems
systems should
should be
be clean
clean and
and functional;
functional; equipment
equipment sursurfaces should be free of dirt and grease, and painted with a light color to
to
improve heat
heat transfer
transfer from
from heat
heat sinks
sinks to
to the
the enviroucnent.
environment.
In addition, the
increased service and maintenance increase the logistic requirements for
repair parts, maintenance personnel, and facilities.
9—12
CHAPTER 10 — INDIGENOUS CONSTRUCTION flATERIALS
10.1
Introduction
Introduction
Both vertical and horizontal structures In
in specific regions can be constructed with materials available in the region or the adoption of feasible
imported construction
construction materials.
materials. Certain factors will determine the type of
structure to
structure
to be
be built
built as
as veil
well as
a the
the material
material to be used.
Among these factors
are climate, labor force, availability of construction equipment, and feasible
local and adopted construction materials.
The following paragraphs
paragraphs describe
describe
construction materials that can be used in the Middle East, their general
properties and characteristics, and their applicability to different construcAdvantage8 and disadvantages of each constructed method are
tion methods.
methods. Advantages
tion
discussed.
10.2
10.2
10.2.1
Construction Materials and Applicability to Construction Methods
Earth
The use of earth for building construction results partly from the scarcity of wood and other construction materials, from the ease of such construcSome kinds
tion, and from its insulation values against both heat and cold.
of mud make stronger structures than others,
otherB, and some construction techniques
apply
apply better
better to
to some
some kinds
kinds of
of mud.
mud. The type of construction method is determined by the type of soil available. There are five main construction methods
for earth building:
adbobe, rammed earth, pressed blocks, wattle and daub,
To select the
and cob. Adobe and rammed earth are the most practical.
appropriate construction method, the soil must be generally classified into
Organic soils are the least
gravels, sands, silts, clays and organic soils.
suitable for earth construction, and the ideal will be a combination of two
However, in very dry
types of soils, i.e., sandy clays or clayey sands.
Some testing on the strength of
regions, clays will work best, if available.
from about
about 300
300 to
to 600
600 psi
psi
earth material has been done. The values range from
(2069 to 4137 KPa) In
in compression to 60 psi (414 KPa) In
in tension.
To compensate for the low structural strength of the earth material,
The min—imuin
mintmwn thickness
thicknessof
of et.eri.or
et.eri.or load—
load—
walls are built dense and thick.
bearing walls of single—story buildings Is
is usually one—tenth of the height;
interior nonload—bearing partition walls are made three—quarters of the thickWeighing various facness adopted for the exterior wall of similar heights.
discussed here,
here, it
it is
is judged
judged
tors, including theoretical factors that are not discussed
normal wall
wall about
about10
10ftft(3(3in)
m) high and 12 in. (305 mm) thick
thick should
should
that aa normal
have no greater free length than 30 ft (9 m) without some form of buttressing,
The following tabulation indiby cross walls, engaged piers, or pilasters.
in wall
cates more generally what would appear to be reasonable limitations In
length for single—story walls 9 to 12 ft (2.7 to 3.6) high and 12 in. (305 mm)
thick, where there may be window or door openings through the wall:
10—1
Condition of Single—Story Wall 9 to 12 ft High
from Top of Footing, and 12 in. Thick
Maximum Length of Wall
Between Supporting Cross
Walls)
Walls,
ft
Wall without openings
30
Wall with an opening
opening or
or openings
openings of
of any
any size
size
not extending more than 4 ft 6 in. either
way from the center
center of
of the
the length
length of
of the
the
wall between
between 8upportiflg
8upporting cross
cross walls
24
Wall with
with att
an opening
near one
one end
end
Wall
opening or
or openings near
only, and not extending beyond the center of
the length noted above
21
Wall with any other grouping of openings, or a
single opening up to 12 t
h wide
wide
18
For walls
wall8 14 in. (356 mm)
nm) thick and from 9 ft, 6 in. (2.9 m) to 14 ft (4.2 m)
be increased
increased by one—sixth;
high, all the lengths
lengthe and distances tabulated may be
high)
fot
walls
walls
16
16
in.
in.
(406
(406
mm)
mm)
thick
thick
and
and
from
fron
10
10
to
to
16
16
ft
ft
(3
(3
to
to 4.8
4.8 m)
m) high,
high, they
they
for
may be increased by one—third; and for walls 18 in. (457 mm) thick and from 10
18 ft
ft (3
(3 to
to 5.4
5.4ni)
m) high,
high, they may be increased
increased by
by one—half.
one—half. For •tto—story
to 18
walls,
walls, all
all the
the heights
heights may
may be
be increased
increased by
by66ft
ft(1.8
(18 m)
m) without
without affecting
affecting the
the
lengths as given for single—story walls.
The most
moBt practical construction
conatructioi methods,
methods) as previously
previoualy mentioned, are
adobe blocks and rammed earth.
These blocks are made by placing wet mud in forms.
Adobe blocks:
The forms are removed a short time after the blocks are made and then allowed
The blocks are held together in
In the wall with a
to dry for about 1 month.
are
mortar that can be the same mud used for making the block. The advantages are
that unskilled labor can be used, and construction is fast after prefabricat—
ing the blocks. The disadvantages are that 20 to 30 days are needed to cure
the blocks, it can only be used in limited regions (rain <30 in. [762 cnml per
year).
year).
1.
byram—
Rammed earth: With this
2.
this method,
method, continuous
cóntinuouè walls
walls arebüilt
areiit by'ram—
When a short secining moist soil into position between heavy wooden forms.
tion of wall is finished, the forms are moved upwards or sideways, and the
process is repeated until the walls are completed. Ramming of the soil may be
done with light hand or pneumatic tampers; soil should be rammed until it
Disadvantages of this method are that it is difficult
becomes dense
dense and
and firm.
firm. Disadvantages
becomes
to do, forms require some skill to build, and It
it requires the most careful
selection of the soil type.
10.2.2
Soil Ceimnt
This type of construction material is very useful and economical where
sandy silt and silty
silty sand
sand are
are available.
available. With the addition of about 10 perper—
cent
cett of cement by weight, these soils will have proper stabilization to insure
a strong and lasting surface for pavement construction. Another requirement
10—2
for soil cement is
is that
that 55
55 percent
percent or
or wore
wore of
of the
the soil
soil should
should pass the No. 4
sieve; the maximum aggregate size should be 3 in.
(76
mm).
in. (76 mm). The amount of
water that
iould be added will depend directly on the moisture—density curve,
reflecting the optimum moisture for maximum density.
Soil should be pulverized to permit an intimate mixture of soil and cement.
(Eighty
(Eighty percent
percent should
should
pass a No. 4 sIeve
s1evc exclusive of gravel retained on No. 4, i.e., 80 percent of
55 percent.)
If clay soil is found, the clay must first be stabilized with
lime to get a proper blending.
10.2.3
Wood
In the more arid regions,
regions, the
the topsoil
topsoil has
has been
been void
void of
of nutrients
nutrients for
for
thousands of years, making it almost impossible to develop forest areas.
area8.
In
the Middle East, Iran, Iraq, the mountains of Lebanon, Asia Minor, and Israel
possess most of this natural resource.
10.2.4
Concrte Ma.onry
Masonry
Concrete
Concrete hi.
blocks
ocksare
aremade
madewith
withaggregates
aggregates such
such as
as coral
coral cinders,
cinders, expanded
expanded
shale, sand, gravel,
gravel, clay,
clay, slag,
slag, and
and others.
others.. They can.be
can be made in different
different
Sizes
sizes and shapes, and they can be solid or hollow units.
The normal size unit
for a load—bearing concrete block is
i8 an 8— by 8— by 16—in.
(203— by 203— by
hollow block, which can weigh from 25 to 50 lb (23 kg), depending on
406—mm) hollow
406—mni)
the aggregate u8ed
used in making the block. Block machines are
are used
used in
in fabricafabrication by tamping relatively
relatively dry
dry concrete
concrete into
into the
the mold;
mold; the
the mold
mold is
is stripped
stripped
off imnediately.
immediately.
In this way, blocks can be made rapidly, using only one
mold.
If
[f aa hand
hand method
method is
is used,
used, aa more
more fluid
fluid concrete
concrete is
is placed
placed into
into aa 8et
set of
of
molds and stripped after the concrete is
i8 hardened.
However, this method
method
requires many molds. The blocks are held together with mortar.
A recommended
mortar, proportioned on a volume basis, for exterior walls subjected to severe
exposure is one part of portland cement, two parts of hydrated lime, and six
parts of sand.
10.2.5
1.0.2.5
R.iforced Gypsum
From literature available on this material,
From
material, the
the optimum
optimum mix
mix tested
tested had
had aa
of 1:2.
water—to—gypsum ritio
ratio of
1:2.
Reinforcing gypsum with burlap (jute), glass
wool mats, galvanized stretched wire mesh, or reeds will improve the proper
ties
ties and
and strength
strength of
of plain
plain gypsum.
gypsum. The thickness .of.gypsum cover mustbe at
least
least 3/4
3/4 in.
in. (19
(19 mm).
mm).
I.
1.
Burlap:
a.
One or wo layers.
b.
Soak In
in water for a few hours.
2.
Glass Wool:
a.
One or two layers (loose).
b.
Mats
Mats overiapped.
overlapped.
10—3
3.
Galvanized Stretched Wire Mesh:
a.
One or two layers.
b.
Straightened
Straightened in
in the
the mold.
mold.
c.
c
Openings
Openings1—1/2
1—1/2 in.
in. (38
(38 im).
mm).
4.
Reeds:
Reeds:
a.
One layer.
b.
b.
Spaced 314
c.
c.
Reed
Reed on
on the
the span
span direction.
direction.
10.2.6
in.
itt.
(19 mm).
Ththbl Construction
Rubble construction is a method in
it which rubble, such as stone, concrete
fragments, broken bricks, and/or other suitable materials, are used wjth
with portland cement mortar to form a building
land
building material.
material. This
Thi8 type of construction is
practical when wood,
wood masonry
masonry units,
units, and
and concrete—making
concrete—making faciltttes
facilities are
are not
not
available.
available.
It can be applied
applied when
when the
the materials
materials mentioned
mentioned above
above are
are available
available
extraction from
from an
an excavation,
excavation, the
the effects
effects of
of demolition,
demolition or
due to extraction
or when
when
buildings are abandoned
abandoned because
because of
of advanced
advanced deterloration.
dterioration.
Stones bricks,
Stones,
bricks,
and/or other hard and durable materials can be laid in courses by using a
and retaining
retaining
cement mortar to build foundations,
foundations, walls,
walls, bridge
bridge abutments,
abutments and
walls.
A variety of sizes is necessary to avoid using large amounts of mortar.
The largest rubble should be placed at the bottom of courses;
of
courses; the top of
each course should
should be
be covered
covered with
with aa thin
thin layer
layer of
of mortar
mortar to
to provide
provide aa smooth,
smooth
stable,
stable, level
level surface.
surface. The spaces between adjoining materials should be as
as practicable,
pract1cable and
small as
and the
the spaces
spaces should
should be
be filled
filled with mortar and smaller
stones.
stones. The
The durability
durability and
and strength
strength of
of the
the construction
construction depends
depends oa
on the
the
materials
materials used
mortar joining
joining them.
them.
used and the quality of the mortar
10.2.7
Brick
The following characteristics of brick masonry are significant.
1.
I.
Heat—insulating properties. Solid brick masonry walls provide very
little insulation
Insulation against
agathst heat and cold.
A cavity wall or brick wall backed
with hollow clay tile has much better insulating value.
2.
Sound—insulating properties. .Since
Since brick
brick walls
walls are
are very
very massive,
massive,
they have good insulating properties.
In general,
general the
the heavier
heavier the
the wall,
wall, the
better
better its
its sound—insulating
sound—insulating value;
value; however,
however, aa wall
wall more
more than
than 12
12 in.
in. (305
(305 mm)
mm)
thick does
does not
not increase
increase souftd
sound insulation
insulation much more than a wall
wall between
between 10
10 and
and
12 in.
12
in. (254
(254and
and305
305turn)
mm) thick.
thick.
Dividing the
the wall
wall Into
into two
two or
or more
more layers,
layers as
in the case of a cavity wall, will increase its resistance to sound transmission.
Brick walls
walls are
are poor
poor absorbers
absorbers of
of souftd
sound origination
origination within
within the
the walls
walls
and
and reflect
reflect much
much of
of it
it into
into the
the structure.
structure. Sounds caused by impact, as when
hamnier will travel a great distance along the wall.
the wall is struck with a hammer,
1.0—4
3.
Expansion and contraction. Brick masonry expands and contracts with
change. Walls up to 200 ft (60 in) long do not need expansion
temperature rhange.
Loer walls need an expansion joint for every 200 ft (60 m) of wall.
joints.
For
Much of the expansion and contraction is taken up in the wall itself.
this reason, the amount of movement that theoretically takes place does not
actually occur.
4.
Abrasion resistance. The resistance of brick to abrasion depends
largely on its compressive strength, which is related to the degree of burning.
Well—burned bricks have excellent wearing qualities.
100 to
to 150
150 lb/cu ft
5.
weight of
of brick
brick varies
varies from
from 100
Weight of brick. The weight
kg/m3) depending
(p) (2400 kg/rn3)
depending on
on the
the nature
nature of
of the
the materials
materials uBed
used in
in making
making the
the
bricks are
are heavier
heavier than
than under
under—
brick
brick and
and the
the degree
degree of
of burning.
burning. Well—burned bricks
burned bricks.
burned
10.2.8
Water
The quality of water needed for most expedient construction
The
con8truction work is not
bracki8h water has been used for mixing concrete in
critical. Seawater or brackish
many areas where potable water is hard to get; however, saline
ealine mixing water
tends to decrease strength.
Seawater with a maximum concentration of salts of
about 3.5 percent does not appreciably reduce the concrete strength, although
At higher salt concentrations, a
it
it may
may lead
lead to
to corrosion
corrosion of
of reinforcement.
reinforcement.
strength reduction ranging from 8 to 15 percent can be expected. This may be
corrected by
corrected
by using
using socnewhat
somewhat les8
1e88 mixing
mixing water
water and somewhat
8omeWhat more
more cement.
cement.
Burface efflores—
efflore8—
Saline mixing water in concrete tends to cause dampness and surface
cence in the hardened concrete and should not be used
uBed where surface finish is
important or
or where
where the
the mortar
mortar or
or concrete
concrete will
will be
be covered
covered with
with plaster.
plaster.
important
Saline water has a very adverse effect on the strength
Btrength of concrete made with
Organic impurities in water may retard setting end
and harhigh aluminum
alwninum cement.
dening of cement, except in artifically contaminated waters, where they do not
that water
water u8ed
used
usually occur to an
an objectionable
objectionable extent.
extent. It is improbable that
for curing
curing would
would attack
attack concrete
concrete if
if it
it were
were the
the type
typesuitable
suitablefor
fo use
use as
as mixmixing water. Staining or discoloration of the concrete should be the principal
curing water problem. Provisions should be made to retain and recycle all
Facilities for
water, when possible, at all steps of the concrete operation.
water storage at the site of the aggregate and/or concrete production must be
The mixing
mixing water
water storage
storage should
should also
also include
include provisions
provisions for
for water
water
provided. The
cooling
cooling to
to help
help the
the problem
problem of
of increased
Increased temperatures
temperatures in
in fresh
fresh and
and new
new conconcrete.
10.2.9
Aggregates
In Middle
Middle East
East deserts,
deserts, waterlain
waterlalo deposit8
deposits do
do occur,
occur, but
but they
they are
are often
often
In
More
subordinate to windlain deposits (e.g., dunes, drift sand, and mess).
bess). More
significantly, the climate produces
produce8 intense evaporation, and various salts
saltB are
In the areas of interest, the rocks are
deposited at and below the surface.
frequently
dolomites, which
frequently chalky limestones and doloinites,
which have
have undergone
undergone strong
strong upward
upward
The leaching water carries
carrie8
leaching because exaporatlon
exaporation exceeds rainfall.
dissolved minerals, which are deposited near the surface when evaporation
occurs, thus forming dur1crusts."
duricrust8." Crusts of calcium and calcium—magnesium
carbonates are called calcrete and dolocrete, respectively. Many poor limestone and dolomite deposits have been made usable because the duricrust that
10—5
forms from them is much denser and stronger
etronger and can be used
ueed as
aB aggregate.
general, a leached layer deficient in the substance forming the duricrust
exists below it; this layer is weaker and more porous than the unaltered
parent material.
In
The role of water in desert
deeert weathering is limited.
The products are
transported largely by wind and gravity; this tends to create poorly graded
deposits
deposits of widely different particle
particle size,
size, characterized
characterized either
either by
by coarse,
angular screes (debris heaps) or by aeolian (windblown) dunes, mostly of fine
sand and silt. The prevalence of limestones, which weather readily by soluBolu
tion after some mechanical disintegration, combined with the limited movement
aurface water, restricts
restricte the supply
eupply of alluvium.
of surface
Subsequently, clean,
well—graded alluvial sands and gravels are absent from many
many areas.
areas. The supereuper—
ficial deposits considered for use as aggregates in the areas of interest
intereet vary
vary
widely. Alluvial gravel and sand predominate in Kuwait, along the Oman shore
border of
of Qatar,
Qatar,
in the Gulf of Oman
Oman to
to Muscat,
Muscat, and
and also
also near
near the
the coiwnon
common border
United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Saudi Arabia. Coastal
Coaetal salt flats or "sabkha"
form most of the coastal areas of Saudi Arabia and the UAE. Inland in Saudi
Arabia, behind the sabkha, are extensive areas of mainly carbonate rocks with
widespread cover of caicrete/dolocrete
calcrete/dolocrete duricrust. Near Qatar1
Qatar, the soil
changes to aeolian sands.
The aeolian
aeolian sands
Bands form
form moat
moat •of
of the
the inland
inland areas of
the UAE
UAE and
and extend all the way to the coast
coaet from west of Abu Dhabi in the UAE
to
to the Strait of Hormuz.
Qatar and Bahrain are mostly carbonate rocks with. a
duricrust.
1.
Alluvial sands and gravels. Downward leaching generally occurà
occurê
within the limited areas of modern ailuviation,
alluviation, and is practically confined to
the mountains and their fringes, where periodic flooding may prevent the
building of sulphates
suiphates and
and chlorides.
chlorides. However, cementation by the less soluble
carbonates may still develop,
develops especially in coarse deposits not moved by
floods.
Active wadis (ravines through which a stream flows) within the mountains and limited parts of their alluvial fans where they emerge onto the
desert plains are thus the main sources of relatively clean, veil—graded
well—graded sands
and gravels.
The deposits are generally torrent—bedded and poorly 8orted,
sorted, so
a single pit may be a useful source of well—graded material. The deposits of
some active wadis are approaching exhaustion, and all are of limited extent.
Many of the older
older deposits
deposits tend
tend to
to be
be cemented
cemented with
with gypsum
gypsum and/or
and/or carbonate and
and contain
contain friable
friable particlesof
particlesof .these
.these materials,
materials,clays,'or
clays,or weathered
weathered
rock; thus,
their removal
removal and
and subsequent
subsequent crushing
crushing is
is aa very
very dusty
dusty operations
operation,
thus their
and the gravel must be washed before use. The gravel deposits of the Oman
Mountains are often rich in serpentinized olivine rocks that contain some
some
unaltered alivine. This source is usually a potential problem in concrete,
some decades,
decades the
mountains have
have given
given satissatisbut for some
the fresh
fresh gravels
gravels from
from these mountains
factory service in concrete and asphalt. The older gravel sheets and terraces
that occur in Kuwait are workable, if suitable techniques are used. The product will often have good mechanical properties, but will suffer from sulphate
contamination. These gravels are usually deficient as sources of fine aggregate because of their cementing by gypsum. Any natural or crushed rock fine8
fines
produced are usually heavily contaminated by gypsum.
Natural silica sands are
worked 4.n Kuwait and Qatar, but compared with carbonate sands, they are generally rare in the Gulf area. They usually occur between a layer of gypcrust
(calcium sulphate) and a basal gypcrete, the thickness of chemically acceptable sand
sand ranging
ranging from
from 33 to
to 20
20 ft
ft (0.9
(0.9 to
to 66 in).
m).
10—6
10—6
2.
Coa8tal sands.
8and8. The absence
Coastal
ab8ence of permanent rivers, a corresponding
corre8ponding lack
water—depo8ited silica
8ilica sands, and the poor gradings
grading8 of aeolian dunes depend
of water—deposited
greatly on beach and coastal
coa8tal sands
8and8 as sources of fine aggregate. These
depo8it8 are mainly carbonate sands, consisting of the worn debris of young
deposits
marine organisms.
organi8ms. Carbonate
Carbonate 8ands
sands are
are cotnposed
composed largely
largely or
or wholly
wholly of fragile
8hells or shell fragments
shells
fragment8 of calcium carbonate.
The particle shape can vary
from round to elliptical
elliptical to
to lense—shaped,
lense—shaped, depending
depending on the type of shell8
shells that
make up the sand.
Coral tends to make
make irregular,
irregular, blocky
blocky particles.
particle8. Some carbonate sands are very brittle and fragile. When the grains are smooth
8mooth and
rounded, the sands
sand8 may provide good workability in concrete but may also be
absorptive, have poor gradings,
grading8, and trap air, chlorides, and suiphates
Bulphate8 in
their porous, sometimes
8ometlme8 hollow, particles. Many of the older carbonate sands
may have experienced some
8ome recrystallization
recry8tallization of carbonate particles and fusion
fu8ion
proces8.
at contact points, thus making them very difficult to dig and process.
Coa8tal sands, being
Coastal
being more
more or
or les8
less sorted
sorted by
by wave
wave or
or current
current action,
tnay have
have
action, may
narrower (and often finer) gradings
grading8 than are preferred for asphalt
a8phalt or portland
cement concrete.
al8o contain some
8ome hollow sheila
shells that may have to be
They may also
screened off to avoid adverse
adver8e effects
effect8 on the strength or density
den8ity of concrete
or asphalt mixes.
mixe8. The proportion of hollow shells
8hells retained on a No. 8 sieve
should not exceed 3 percent by weight of the en-tire aggregate samples.
8amples.
The mixture design can partly compensate for the effects
effect8 of a poor grading or a high water demand. If this
thi8 compensation
compensation has
has been
been made
madesatisfac8atisac—
torily, the main difficulties in the use of beach sands as fine aggregate will
mo8t likely be related to unacceptable chloride and sulphate
most
aulphate levels, especially where pits have been worked to the water table and allowed to
t& develop
Into
into evaporating pans.
ca8e8, extensive washing
wa8hing of the chloride— or
In these cases,
sulphate—loaded sands
8ands with nonsaline water may be needed.
Coasts facing the
8orting.
prevailing wind may experience further sand—size sorting.
Behind the modern
beach, there may be wide zones in which the coastal sands are being redistributed and modified into true aeolian dunes.
Sand from these areas will tend
increa8ing distance from the coast
coa8t
to become finer and more rounded with increasing
potishing by the wind.
because of sorting and polishing
3.
sand8. Windblown deposits
Windblown (Aeolian) sands.
depo8it8 such
8uch as dunes, ripples
ripple8
and ridges, drifts,
drift8, sand
8and shadows, and screes will be a principal source of
fine aggregate. A true dune is a mound or hill of sand
8and that rises
ri8es to a single
8ingle
summit or peak.
Dunes may exist alone or be attached to one another In
in
chain8 whose coincides with that of the prevailing wind.
colonies or dune chains
Ripple8
8urface feature.
Dunes can exist independently of any other desert surface
Ripples
and ridges can occur in certain typea
of
sands
and
under
certain
wind
condi—
types
condition8.
tions.
Sand shadows and sand drifts that are caused
cau8ed by a fixed obstruction In
in
the path of a sand—driving wind form behind the obstruction.
ob8truction.
Angular screes
scree8
or debris heaps occur when the wind drives off the sand
8and leaving only a coarser
material behind. The products
product8 that are transported
tran8ported largely by wind and gravdepo8its of widely different particle size
ity tend to create poorly graded deposits
u8e in concrete because of their
and generally are viewed with disfavor for use
narrow, fine grading8
gradings with 8ilt
silt contents often of about 10 percent. However,
u8ed in the absence
ab8ence of more suitable
8uitable sources.
8Ources.
they can be used
4.
Dune8 have many, and varied forms —— so
Dunes.
Dunes
80 many,
in fact,
fact, that
many, in
cla88ification.
it is hard to define a universal classification.
The simplest
simplest forms
forms are
are cotn—
comcre8cent dune and the seif or longitudinal dune.
monly known as the barchan or crescent
They are all composed of the same
8ame type of material; their shapes
8hapes and sizes
Bize8 are
10—7
grading of
of the
the material
material coin—
comdetennined mostly by the prevailing winds. The grading
determined
posing a barchan dune is nearly homogeneous from the summit downwards to
This
within a height above the ground of about 5 percent of the summit.
Below
material is usually finer than would be desirable for use in concrete.
this material, on the windward side,
8ide, according to the nature of the surroundmay be a fringe of coarse grains and small pebbles that
ing country, there way
could
could be
be used
used in
in concrete.
concrete. This fringe is only superficial and will not
extend deeply into the dune. As the barchan dune moves with the direction of
the prevailing wind, it leaves behind this coarser marterial and forms a wake
of coarse material ridges that could be recovered for use. These ridges can
be located by progressing away from the dune and into the wind. For asphalt
or portland cement concrete, use only the sand
eand from the top of the windward
side
side of a
a barchan
barchan thtne.
dune. Avoid using the sand from the bottom of the ship face
The grain—size distribution in the self
seif
because it will usually be too fine.
varies markedly from that of the barchan dune; the coarser grains
graine tend to
dune varie8
Coarse—grained residues or platforms,
collect
collect at
at the
the foot
foot of
of the
the ship
ship face.
face.
built up and left behind by the passage of a long—continued succession of seif
dunes
dunes along
along the
the same
Bame path,
path, are
are also
also good
good sources
sources of
of coarser
coarser grained
grained material.
material.
Dunes can occur both near coastal areas and in the desert. Their location will generally determine their mineralogical composition and grading. In
In
coasta]. dunes,
duiaes,the
thegrading
gradinghas
hasbeen
beenpredetermined
predeterninedby
by the
the water's
Water's flow
flow condicondi—
coastal
supplied at any one place is usually very unfor-m
t,nfor- in
The material supplie4
tione.
tions.
grain size. Sea sand, which feeds dune growth, tends to be conspicuously free
of large
large grains.
grains. The finer grains
graits are deposited on the shore and left high
of
In desert dunes, the place of origin of the grains is usuallr
usually obviand dry.
depressiona where wind erosion is
ous, such as an escarpment or a series of depressions
taking place. These dunes tend to have le8s
less 8alt
salt contamination unless they
Dunes at the leeward edge of sabkhas
are downwind from sabkhas or salines.
The range of sand gradings available in
may
may be
be largely
largely composed
composed of
of gypsum.
gypsum.
dunes is presented in Chapter 7.
Ripples and ridges.
ridges. Pronounced rippling or waving of sand surfaces
5.
can occur in sands that have a range of grain size. As the wind carries off
the fine sand grains, the coarser grains collect and form periodic, crests.
easily moved,
moved, they protect the crest
Since these
these grains
grains are
are •not
not easily
crest and
and allow
allow it
it
to rise into a region of stronger wind than would otherwise be possible.
These ripples can be selectively processed to provide a sand suitable for use
in
in concrete;
concrete; however,
however, the
the process
process may
may be
be very
vary labor—intensive.
labor—intensive.
6.
9uitable sands and gravels are unobCrushed rock aggregates. Where suitable
tainable, crushed rock may be used for both coarse and fine aggregate. The
prevalence of limestone has been mentioned, and there may also be local
outcroppings of other rock types that may be suitable. Much of the coarse
outeroppings
aggregate used in the Gulf, however, has been obtained from the calcrete layer
or
or "pavement" as it
It is often called.
called. The calcrete
calerete pavement
pavement is
is either
either exposed
exposed
at the surface or reached by removing a cover of gypcrust or wind—blown sand.
For marty
many years,
years, especially
especially in
in Rahrain
Babrain and
and Qatar,
Qatar, calcrete
calcrete has
has been
been worked
worked by
by
prying up
up loose
loose blocks
blocks from
from the
the surface
surface for
for transport
transport to
to aa local
local crusher.
crusher.
prying
Typically, Gulf caicretes
calcretes are
are at
at least
least 33 ft
ft (0.9
(0.9 in)
m) thick
thick and
and somettmes
somettmes 16
16 ft
ft
(4.8 in)
m) or
or more;
more; therefore,
therefore, quarrying
quarrying by
by conventional
conventional drilling
drilling and
and blasting
blasting is
is
calcrete usually has no definite base, passing
aa possibility.
possibility. Because the caicrete
.gradually into the unhardened limestone below, the depth of working must be
carefully controlled to maintain product quality. Most calcretes
10—8
traditionally used in the area cannot be considered first class materials on
and mechanical
mechanical grounds,
grounds besides
purely physical and
besides their
their possible
possible chemical
chemical probproblems.
One 'ifficulty arises from the random and variable nature of the deposition and hardening process; this causes a lack of consistency in properties
such as aggregate crushing value and water absorption. Like other limestones,
limestonesb
Crushed rock sands have a poor
most caicretes
calcretes are very dusty when crushed.
particle shape and correspondingly adverse effect on concrete workability and
density; however,
howeverb their main
wain drawback,
drawbackb especially where they are derived from
calcretes,
is
that
contaminants
in the natural stone tend to become concencaicretes,
trated in the fine fraction during crushing. These crushed rock sands may
8uch as gypsum flour,
flourb
contain as much as 25 percent of total impurities such
chlorides, clays,
clays and
chlorides,
and silts. The dust creates a high—water demand in concrete
aggregates; there will be shrinkage and other problems associated with a
high—water/cecuent ratio
high—water/cement
ratio unless
unless the
the dust
dust is
is removed.
Special consideration must be given to how aggregate is obtained for proIn downward leaching areas,
areasb contamination by aggressive salts will
cessing.
not usually be serious. However,
Howeverb these areas tend to be localized and conContained within generally saline environments. Caicrete
Calcrete development
developwent can proceed
where more soluble substances are leached downward; then bodies of carbonatecarbonate—
cemented materials may impede the working of a gravel deposit and increase
cewented
presentb rocks decomposable by weathering, especially igneous
dust. When present,
rocks, may increase the proportion of unsound material in the aggregate,
Processing
ProcesBing techniques may have to be
whether crushed gravel or quarried rock.
Roweverb in downward
designed to reject this material; much dust may result. However,
leaching
better chance
chance of water being
leaching areas,
areasb there
there is
i aa better
being available
available for
for dust
dust
In upward leaching areas, selective working of both
suppression and washing.
In the Gulf
natural aggregates and quarried rock will usually
uBually be necessary.
nece8sary.
region, much quarried rock will be limestone or its associated caicrete
calcrete dun—
If there is a surface
surface layer
layer contacuinated
contaminated with
with chlorides
chlorides and
and sulfatea
sulfate8
crust.
Becau8e
(e.g., gypcrust),
this layer
layer will
will have
have to
to be
be stripped off and
gypcrust) this
and wasted.
wa8ted. Because
of the widespread presence of chemical contamination near the surface, quarried rock will often be preferred to the traditional hand—picked surface
stone, if the required physical properties are maintained to an adequate
-
depth.
Quarried caleretes,
caicretes, after removal of any contaminated surface layer,
layers will
also need selective processing to avoid inclusion of the clay pockets and cry—
The rock-should appear uniform
uniforw in harthiess
stals of gypsum or other salts.
Selection
can
normally
be
made
by
eye
with
a
little experience. A
and color.
useful technique presently used in Saudi Arabia prescreens the quarried
material on grizzly screens and rejects the material smaller than 2 to 3 in.
(51 to 76 mm) before transferring the oversized rock to the crusher. More
than one stage of scalping will improve the product. Multistage scalping
really
really helps
helps the
the situation
situation but
but can
can easily
easily produce
produce waste
waste that
that represents
represents 50
50
percent of the volume quarried. }Iand selection of rocks from a blown face is
an alternative to selection by scalping on a grizzly. Usual processing techmore suitable
suitable method
method for
for troops
troops would
would be
be
niques have
niques
have aa high
high energy
energy decuand.
demand. AA more
to use a bulldozer with a ripper to work only the upper surface of the rock,
Calcrete can usually be
after removal of any gypcrust or other overburden. Caicrete
ripped only in the open—jointed zone extending to about 3 ft (0.9 m) below the
If tracked vehicles are operated over the ripped surface and perif
rockhead.
forated loading shovels are used,
usedb most contaminants and inferior rock can be
left behind in the worked area. These methods have been used widely on
10—9
calcrete pavements
pavementB in
in Qatar
Qatar and
and Bahrain,
Bahrain, but
but they
they lay
lay waste
waste to
to wide
wide areas
areas and
and
caicrete
produce uncontrollable quantities of dust. Gypsum—cemented gravels may be
released from
from their
their matrix,
matrix, where
where there
there is
is gypcrust
gypcrust and
and not
not gypcrete,
gypcrete, by
by
released
extenoive working and processing.
travereing of an area by bulldozer
extensive
Repeated traversing
and ripper will sometimes release the gravels; the disaggregated product can
then be loaded on screens and the gypsum content reduced by rejection of the
undersized fraction.
fraction. The use of impact or cone crushers, followed by further
stages
stages of
of scalping
scalping and
and aa final
final washing
washing to
to remove
reDove dust
dust (if
(if water
water is
is available),
available),
should further reduce the sulphate contents.
7.
Aggregates for pavements. Properly graded materials for unbound
pavement construction are often not available from natural sources without
screening and recombining different—sized fractions. Crushing may also be
necesaary to increase or create a fine fraction.
necessary
Most of the desert surface
is covered by lag gravel, highly fractured caicrete,
calcrete, or aeolian sand, which
seldom yields significant material in the middle—sized ranges.
10.2.10
Concrete Reinforcement
There is no commercial production of reinforcing steel in the Middle
All reinforcing steel
Bteel Is
is imported, mostly from
froa Japan, and is usually
available in a wide range of sizes.
East.
10.2.11
Expedient Reinforcement
Any type of construction In
in specific regions may be made with materials
available in the region. In some parts of the Middle East, the conventional
steel reinforcing bar is one of the most scarce or unavailable construction
Some materials, not indigenous, may be available in remote areas
materials.
or as part of the mobilization materials of the military forces and can substitute for
for conventional
conventional reinforcing
reinforcing materials.
materi1s.
Some of these are military
wire rope, landing mat, landing mat tie bars, concertina wire, and high tensile steel barbed wire.
10.2.12
Portland Cement
Cement
Although there
production in
in the
the region,
region, most
most cement
cement
there Is
is some local cement production
will have to be imported. Many countries ship cement Into
into the region, and it
varies in quality.
In general, there II1
iI1 be no
nO contól
contol aver
over what 1s
•Isre.eired
reèeied
and its quality.
If possible, sulfate—resistant and low—heat cements should
be used.
These are the predominant types imported. Unless bulk handling
capabilities are available locally, troop manpower will not be able to handle
and transport large quantities of cement with their equipment.
Bag handling
of
of cement
cement is
is very
very slow,
slow, labor—intensive,
labor—intensive, and
and not
not recommended
recommended except
except as
as aa last
last
resort.
If
storage, which
which is
is best
best accomplished
accomplished
If none exists locally, airtight storage,
by rubberized bulk bags, must be provided in all coastal areas.
Any prolonged
storage at the high temperatures of the region will cause the cement to
degrade.
10.2.13
Concrete
The general absence of good—quality aggregate, both fine and coarse,
which makes up 85 percent of the concrete, coupled with a lack of suitable
quantities of water for concreting operations will present a challenge to
10—10
temperatures and
and strong
strong prevailing
prevailing winds
winds associated
associated
troop construction. High temperatures
with the aria
ara will
will further
further compound
compound the
the problem.
problem. The engineer support associated with the size of the operation will probably not have the production
equipment needed to make anything more than occasional batches of concrete.
Once made, transportation of the concrete will be a problem due to limited
vehicular support and lack of suitable surfaces over which to transport it.
concrete production
production facilities
facilities are
are widely
widely scattered
5cattered
Adequate couimercial
commercial concrete
Eaet. In areas away from population centers, concrete
throughout the Middle East.
production will be restricted to the facilities available in the con8truction
construction
con5ist of small—volume mixers and thus greatly limit
support unit, which will consist
concrete production. Unless there is a large supply of local concrete trucks
or other methods of moving concrete, the vehicular support for the moving of
Generally, the
the engineer
engineer unit
unit
concrete can be expected to be very limited. Generally,
i5 restricted
re5tricted to using dump
will have no agitating delivery equipment and is
In most areas, the surfaces over which fully loaded concrete or dump
trucks.
trucks must travel
travel is
is less
less than
than satisfactory.
satisfactory. Partial loads may alleviate the
problem. Haul times for the concrete must be very short because of the high
problem.
temperatures, rapid evaporation of batch water,.galt
water,.salt concentrations in the
timee could be extended by the use of
These. times
aggregate, and lack of agitation.
chemical adraixtures.
Most concrete proportioning schemes are dictated by the locally available
Tht existing
existing technology
technology for
for developing
developing
materials,
materials, which
which are
are highly
highly variable.
variable. Tht
predetermined concrete
concrete mixture
mixture designs
designs is
is limited.
limited. The principal problem is
predetermined
that there is no quanttfiable
quantifiable base
base for
for chatiging
changing aggregate
aggregate factors
factors expressed
expressed as
as
a percent of the total aggregate as
ae the aggregate characteristics change.
Excessive fines, which have a higher water demand, and salt contents, which
require
require higher
higher cement
cement contents
contents to
to compensate
compensate for
for strength
strength loss,
loss, further
further comcomplicate
plicate the
the problem.
problem. The proportions shown in Table 7—4 can be used as beginning
suitable mixture.
mixture. Adjustments in the amount of
ning points for developing a suitable
ingredienta can be made,.usually to obtain a mixture that can be easily
ingredients
placed. The amount of water used in concrete should be kept to the least
amount needed to make the concrete workable. The use of chemical admixtures,
such as water reducing, retarding, and superplasticizing admixtures, are
available for reduced water requirements, improved consistency, and extended
However1 these adtnixtures
admixtures will
will all
all have
have to
to be
be brought
brought into
into the
the
working time. However,
area.
The very hot temperatures of the Middle East will affect the consistency
of the fresh concrete and make it very difficult to place. Most of the concrete will have been made with high water/cement ratios, high cement contents,
The concrete will receive little, if
and aggregates that promote bleeding.
ca5e of flatwork, it may even be spread
any, consolidation treatment. In the case
cecent,
by a road grader or dozer rather than conventional screeds. The cement,
at
aggregate, and mixing water can all be expected to be about 115°F (46°C) at
the time of batching; the final concrete temperature will be even higher.
This
This temperature
temperature is
is very
very undesirable
undesirable for
for many
many reasons.
reasons. Shaped storage should
be provided for both the cement and aggregate to reduce their initial temperaAs noted earlier,
earlier, the
the sprinkling
sprinkling of
of aggregate
aggregate stockpiles
stockpiles to
to cool
cool them
them
tures.
may create other problems. Some type of cooling should be applied to the mixIf
If possible,
possible, all
all
ing water through either a cooling plant or by adding ice.
nilxers should be painted white to help relieve the solar heat development
possible.
When mixed,
mixed, concrete
concrete temperatures
temperatures should
should be
be kept
kept as
a low as possible.
problem. When
10—11
Quality control of the concrete ingredients and the freshly mixed conin the
technical specialist
apecialistin
the
crete
crete can
can be
be expected
expected to
to be
be nonexistent.
nonexistent. The technical
for the concrete technology; without
engineer unit
unit is
responsible for
without special
special
is responsible
engineer
training in the materials and problems of this region1
region, he or she will not be
If
If any quality—
able to respond satisfactorily to problems as they occur.
control programs are begun, the control tests must be very simple and rapid.
testB do not fit these criteria.
Some of the established tests
There will be short finishing times due to the area's
area'a hot temperatures
in—
windscreens are
are aa necessity
necessity to
to prolong
prolong the
the ffinand strong winds. Shading and windecreens
The
qualThe
qualishing
period
and
to
reduce
evaporation
from
the
concrete
surface.
ishing period and to reduce evaporation from the concrete surface.
ity
ity of
of finishing
finishing will
will be
be marginal
marginal because
because the
the labor
labor can
can be
be considered
considered
unskilled. Although rapid production will be required, some curing will be
unskilled.
needed to avoid excessive and severe plaBtic and drying shrinkage cracking.
The general lack of water suggests that either curing compounds or curing memAny water
branes be
be used.
used. Either of the two would have to be brought in.
branes
suitable for mixing concrete can also be used to cure it. As noted above,
uindscreens and shades would also be a great help.
windscreens
10.2.14
Rolled
Rolled Conrpaoted
Compacted Concrets.
Concret•
This new construction
construction method
method will,
will apply
apply when
when rapid placement
placement of
of slabs
slabs on
on
grade, such
isis
desired
andand
also
when spegrade,
such as
as paving
paving for
forhighways
highwaysand
andairports,
airports,
desired
a1swhn
forms1 conventional payers) and skilled labor are
cialized equipment (slip forms,
generally associated
associated with
with desert
desert weather
weather conconprob1es generally
absent. Most of the problems
absent.
water demand, slump loss, and plastic shrinkcrete work — such as increased watur
construcage cracking —— are not
not severe
severe in
in rolled
rolled compacted
compacted concrete
concrete (RCC)
(RCC) construction, primarily because of low water requirements
requirenents and the method of transportation, placement, and compaction used. Basically, the method is a no—slump
concrete transported by a truck, spread by a front—end loader, and compacted
by a vibratory roller. The water content (pounds per cubic yard) for manufactured aggregates must be between 195 lb (88 kg) for 3/8—in. (10—ncn) maximum
size aggregates to 130 lb (59 kg) for 6—in. (152—mm) maximum size aggregate.
When natural aggregates are used, the water content may have to be adjusted.
The
The RCC
RCC must
must be
be placed
placed in
in layers
layers that
that are
are thin
thin enough
enough to
to allow
allow complete
complete comcompaction by the vibratory
vibratory roller.
roller. The optimum placement layers range from 8 to
Spreading is aided by consistent and symmetrical
12 in. (203 to 305 mm).
placing. Rubber—tired hauling equipment can operate on the freshly compacted
surface with
with no
no adverse
adverse effects
effects on
on the
the concrete.
cncrete. Hweier; provisions must be
in mud and dirt, which would
taken to keep the hauling equipment from tracking In
have an adverse effect on concrete quality. The minimum number of passes for
a given vibrating roller to achieve full consolidation depends mostly on the
concrete mix and layer thickness. Tests should be done before or during the
numberofofpasses.
passes. Generally, and to illusoperation to determine
determine the
the minimum
minimum number
trate production and
vibratory
and complementary
complementary equipment,
equipment, aa 6—ft—wide
6—ft—wide (1.8—in)
(1.8—s) vibratory
roller (of appropriate design) must make four passes at a speed of 2 miles per
At this rate and prohour in a 10—in. (254—mm) layer of no—slump concrete.
•A convenhour.
per hour.
file, the
the roller
roller can
can compact
compact more
more than
than 350
350 cu
cu yd
yd(266
(266in3)
m3) per
or one
one large
large
mixers or
tional batch plant
Rlant would
would require
require about
about four
four 4—cu
4—cu yd
yd (3
(3 in3)
m3) mixers
12 cu yd (9 m)
) mixer
mixer to
to match
match the
the compaction
compaction capabilities
capabilities of
of one
one large
large roller
roller
The required curing and protection
protectior of
on a continuous placement operation.
the RCC js
is generally consistent with the treatment needed for conventional
concrete.
10—12
10.3
Cement Production Facilities (From CEMBUREAU)
AFCANISTAN
City
Projected Capacities1,
Projected
Capacities,
Metric Tons
1. Pol—i—Khon.irj
Pol—i—Khon.iri
NA*
NA
NA
NA
2. Herat
3. Jabul—e—Seraj
3.
4. Kandahar
4.
Year
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
BAHAR I N
BAHARIN
111
IBOUTI
LU IBOUTI
EGYPT
5.
6.
7.
7.
8.
9.
9.
10.
El—Mex
Heiwan
Helwan
Tourah
Suez
Quattainia
Quattamia
El—Tabbin, Helvan
Relvan
800,000
5,000,000
1,600,000
1,000000
1,000,000
1,400,000
300,000
1982
1982
1982
1982
1981
1983
1983
75,000
30,000
40000
40,000
NA
NA
1980
1980
1980
NA
1,350,000
900,000
900,000
21,100,000
2,100,000
850,000
650,000
1,500,000
720,000
148,000
560,000
850,000
675,000
90)000
90,000
2,340,000
2,000,000
660,000
600,000
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
1980
1979
1979
1980
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
ETHIOPIA
Addis Ababa
Dire Dawa
Gurgussum, Massawa
Gurgussuin,
Maseawa
Aguiara
Asmara
11.
ii.
12.
13.
14.
IRAN
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
25.
26.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
*NA
Doroud
Shirez
Abyek
Behbehan
Isfahan
Kerman
Loshan
Rey
Mashhad
Soufian
Dauiavand
Damavand
Sheuial
Shemal
Tehran
Aryamehr, Isfahan
Kernianshah
Neka
Not available.
10—13
City
Projected
Projected Capacities
Capacities
Year
IRAN (Cont'd)
(Cont'd)
31. Kerman
32.
32. ilaniadan
ilamadan
33. Bandar Abbas
34. Chom
Ghom
700,000
600,000
600,000
1,000,000
600,000
1979
NA
NA
NA
IRAQ
35. Baghdad
36. Falluja I
37. Falluja It
II
38. Hindiyah Barrage
39. Kufa I
40. Kuf
It
40.
Kufaa II
41. Badoosh
42. Hammam Al—Alil
43. Samawah
44.Uru
44.'Urn Qasr
Qaer
45. Sarchinar, Sulaimaniyah
NA
NA
270,000
270,000
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
1980
800,000
800,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
1982
1982
1982
1982
1,800,000
1,200,000
1982
1980
1,425,000
1,425,000
1980
1,900,000
450,000
153,000
1980
1979
1980
1980
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
ISRAEL
46. Har—Tuv
47. Ramla
48. Haifa
JORDAN
49. Fuhais
50. Qasr—E1—Hall'abat
KUWAIT
51. Shuaiba
Shuaiba
51.
LEBANON
52. Chekka (fiery)
53. Chekka
Chekka (Private
(Private Port)
53.
54. Chekka
OMAN
NA
10—14
NA
Projected Capacitie8
City
Tear
PAKISTAN
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
Rawalpindi
Wah R.S. Lawalpindi
Rohri,
Sukkur
Rohri,
Gharibwal, Diatt.,
Diett., .Jhelum
Jhelum
Gharibwal,
Manghopir,
Manghopir Karachi
Karachi 26
I8kanderabad, Diett., Mianwali
[akanderabad,
Kianwali
Abottabad—DiBtrict Hattar
Shantinagar Karachi
Shantinagar,
Karachi 12
Dandot, Dietrict Jhelum
Iskanderabad Diatr.,
Iskanderabad,
Diatr., Mianwali
Mianwali
Hyderabad
450,000
270,000
540,000
280,000
255,000
255,000
660,000
660,000
180,000
58,000
15,000
15OO0
1,080,000
1080,000
P.D.R. YEMEN
NA
1980
1980
1980
1980
1980
1980
1980
1980
1980
1980
NA
QATAR
65. Doha
270,000
1980
SAUDI ARABIA
66.
66. Jeddah
Jeddah
67. Rabigh
68. Qassim
69. Hofuf
70. Ain—Dar
71. Riyadh
Rlyadh
72. Jizan
73. Yanbu
73.
Yanbu
600,000
1,350,000
1350O00
600,000
600000
1,350,000
1,900,000
1,300,000
1,400,000
350,000
350000
1982
NA
1981
1980
1981
1980
1983
1980
SOMOLIA
MA
NA
SUDAN
NA
NA
SYRIA
74. Adra—Daascus
Adra—Daascu8
550,000
82,000
450,000
450,000
202,000
110,000
110,000
412000
412,000
280,000
NA
Bourg IBlain
75. Bourg
IBlain
76. Muslimiyeh
77.
77. Sheik Said
78. llama
78.
Hama I
II
79. Hauia
80. Dunimar
81. Tartoua
Tartous
10—15
10—15
1980
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
1979
NA
Projected Capacities
Year
TURKEY
NA
NA
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
NA
NA
NA
NA
City
YEMEN,
ARAB REB.
82.
82. Bajil
Bajil
10.4
80,000
80,000
Concrete
Concrete Block
Block Plants
Plante Operating
Operating in
in Mid—East
Mid—East
Kuwait
National Industries
Industries Company
Company
National
P.O.
Box
P.O. Box 3358,
3358, Safat
Kuwait, Arabian Gulf
Abdulla A. Al—Ayoub & Bros.
B.0.
B.O. Box 155, Safat
Kuwait, Arabian Golf
Gulf
United Arab Emirates
Raknor Private Ltd.
P.O. Box 883
Khor Khuwair
Ras Al Khaimah, U.A.E.
Saudi Arabia
Dabbagh Establishment
Establishment
P.O. Box 2677
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Almoajil Cement Products Plant
P.O. Box
Box 53
53
P.O.
Dammam, Saudi
Damniam,
Saudi Arabia
Arabia
Al—Ghazi Trading & Importing Co.
Al—Chazi
P.O. Box 4105
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Arabia
10—16
1980
Sam Whan Corp. of Korea
P.O. Box
P.O.
Box 5743
5743
Riyadh,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Kong
P.O.
P.O.
'lung
'lung Construction
Construction Co.,
Ltd.
Co., Ltd.
Box
Box 1035
Dammam, Saudi
Saudt Arabia
Kuk Dong ConBtructton Co. Ltd.
P.O. Box 1752
Daminam, Saudi
Saudt Arabia
S.A.I.C. Ltd.
P.O. Box
P.O.
Box900
900
South Central Market
Market Street
Street
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Plant Sites: Jeddah 6 Rihadh
Rthadh
Tradco Vulcan/Arainco
Tradco
Vulcan/Aramco
P.O. Box 84
Dhahran Airport
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Dhahran && Abqal
Abqal
Plant Sites: Dhahran
10—17
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AFCS
BCY
BDL
DCPD
DI'
DP
GEP
GP
IBCF
ISB
ISB
LASH
LCY
LOC
LP
LI'
LWRU
MEP
MEPP
MTBF
NBC
OCONUS
OGD
OHD
RCC
RDF
RO/RO
ROWPU
SAE
SAE
SF
SWA
SWRU
TENV
TG
TO
TOE
TWDS
UGD
USE
USMC
WPU
Army Facility Component System
In—Bank Cubic Yards
Discharge Light
Beach Discharge
Light
Dicyclopentadlene
Dicyclopentadiene
Dipentene
Gas Engine Powered
General Purpose
rn—Bank Correction Factor
Intermediate
rnterediate Staging
Staging Ba8es
Bases
Lighter Aboard Ship
Loose Cubic Yards
Yards
Lines of Communication
Liquid Propane
Laundry Wastewater Reuse Unit
Mobile Electric Power
Mobile Electric Power Program
Mean Time Between Failures
Nuclear, Biological, Chemical
Outside Continental United States
On—the—Ground Distribution
Overhead Distribution
Rolled Compacted Concrete
Rapid Deployment Force
Porce
Roll On/Roll Off
Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit
Society of Automotive Engineers
Swell Factor
Southwest Asia
Shower Wastewater Reuse Unit
Totally Enclosed Non—Ventilated
Tacttcal Generators
Theater of Operations
Table of Organization and Equipment
Tactical Water Distribution Set
Underground Distribution
Underground Secondary Electrical
U.S. Marine Corps
Corps
Water Purification Unit
ABBREVIATIONS—i
INDEX
Page
Adobe Construction
6—17
Airfield Construction
7—23
For C—130
Traffic
C—i30 Traffic
Runway Bomb Damage Repair
7—23
7—28
7—12
Asphalt
Expedient
Aggregate
Bituminous Mixture8
Mixtures
Gradations and Uses of Aggregates
Brick
Brick
7—li
7—i2
7—i2
7—12
7i3
7—13
6—22
6—23
6—25
6—31
6—31
6—26
Asphalt Stabilized
Cement Stabilized
Sand—Lime
Lime Stabilized
37
3—7
Bunker
Bunker Construction
Construction
4—10
Cable
4—11
4—li
4—u
4—11
Electrical
Insulation Problems of
37
Camouflaging
Camouflaging
3—7
37
Tracks
Taxiways
Pipelines
37
37
Electrical Power Generation
Tall Towers and Antennae
Individual Buildings and Shelters
Open Material Storage Sites
SiteB
Fuel Storage
3—8
3—8
3—8
3—S
3—9
39
39
3—9
3—1
Bases
INDEX—I
INDEX— 1
INDEX (Cont'd)
INDEX
(Cont'd)
Page
6—10, 7—16
6—10.
Concrete
6—13, 6—16
Concrete Block
Horizontal Construction
Portland Cement Concrete
7—1
6—11, 7—17
4—18
Corrosion
CorroBion
4—18
Electrical System
1—1, 5—1
1—1,
51
Deserts
1—3
'Terrain
Climate
13
6—17
SyBtems
Earth Construction Systems
47
4—7
Electrical Di8tribution
Distribution
4—7
47
4—7
4—7
4-7
4—21
Underground Distribution
On—the—Ground Distribution
Overhead Distribution
Frequency Problem8
Problems
Environmental Factors
Factors
1—1, 3—11, 5—1, 6—2
Effects of Heat
Protective Equipment
Water Intake Requirements
Sanitation Considerations
Local Labor
1—3, 3—10, 5—9,
5-9, 5—26
9—2
5-9,
5'9, 5—25
525
5—13
9—3
Environmental Setting
5—1
Military
Implication
Military Iniplication
Water Habits of Indigenous Personnel
Excavation,
Excavation,
Explosive
5—1
5—6, 5—56
3—1
31
3—1
For Emplacements
For Tank
Tank Obstacles
Obstacles
For
3—2
INDEX—2
INDEX (Cont'd)
Page
Field Fortification
3—2
Foundation Pads
7—30
Generators, Tactical
4—2
Safety Switches
Ground
ing
Grounding
4—6
44
4...4
Grounding
4—21
Low Voltage Electrical Distribution Systems
High Voltage Electrical Distribution Systems
Habitability
4—28
4—28
6—1
Improving
Improving
Effect of Climate
Thermal Comfort
Cooling Buildings
Habitability of Prefabricated Temporary Buildings
Cooling Systems
Heating
6—1
6—2
6—2
6—2
6—4
6—4
6—6
6—8
6—9
3—11
Intruder Detection
Maintenance (Construction and Engineering Equipment)
Fueling and Refueling
Lubrication
Maintenance Facilities
Air Filters
Overheating
Engine overheating
attery
Battery
Tire Pressures
Fuel and Equipment Temperatures
Vehicle Operation
Equipment Operation in
In High Temperatures
INDEX—3
95
9—5
95
9—5
9—6
9—5
9—S
9—6
9—7
9—7
97
9—8
9—8
9—8
9—li
9—11
9—11
INDEX (Cont'd)
Page
Mines
3—2
3—2
3—10
3—10
3—10
3—10
lIsa
Use
Removal
Temperature Effect on
Detection
DetectIon
Placement in Shifting Sands
Mortar
6—15, 6—21
Sulphur
Cement
Lime
6—IS
6—15
6—15 7—17
6—15,
7—17
6—15
Panels, Cement—Asbestos
6—35
Port Construction
Construction
8—1
General
Channel Dredging
Training of Personnel
Personnel
POL Terminal Facilities
Container—Handling Facilities
Debris Removal
Through—Put Operations
Lack of Materials
8—1
8—i
8-1
8—1
82
8-2
8—3
8—3
8—4
8—4
8-4
Prefabricated Structural Systems
6—35
Road Construction
7—19
Over Loose Sand
Controlling Drifting Sand
Dust Control
Intermittent
Intermittent Stream
Stream Crossings
Crossings
7—19
7—20
7—22
7—20
Roof Water Ponds
6—9
Site Selection and Planning
2—1
INDX—4
INDfl—4
INDEX (Cont'd)
Page
7—2
Soils
79
Compaction
7—10
7—10
7—11
Types
Compaction Equipment
Compaction Construction Procedures
Stone Block
Block Constructlort
Construction
Stone
6—31
Sulphur Concrete Construction
6—27
Tents
6—36
6—36
6—41
6—41
General Purpose
TEMPER
Ground Anchors For
Transformers, Totally Enclosed Non—Ventilated (TENV)
49
4—9
Water Conservation
ConservatIon
5—6
Drinking Water
Mess Operations
Personal Hygiene
Shower Operations
Laundry Operations
Hospital Operations
Heat Casualty Treatment
Treatment
Graves Registration
Construction
ConstructIon
Potable '1ater
Potable
Water Production
Production
DrIlling
Well Drilling
Water Distribution
Water Storage
Aircraft Thrust Augmentation
Aircraft Cleaning
Vehicle and Equipment Cleaning
Vehicle Radiator Makeup Water
Electrical Grounding
Photo Processing
Fire FightIng
Pest Control
Decontaminating Personnel and Equipment
Equipment
Decontaminating
Wood Construction
Construction
59
5—11
5—li
5—13
5—14
5—19
5—24
5—25
5—26
5—28, 5—30, 5—34,
S—34, 5—35
5—37
5—38
5—40
5—41
5—46
5—47
5—50
5—51
5—51
5—51
5—52
5—53
5—54
s—54
5—55
5—55
6—31.-
INDEX—S
* U.S. GOVERNMENT
OFFICE,1991-296-617/40515
GOVERNMENTPRrNTING
PRNING OFFICE,1991-296-617/40515