Chapter
10
Intelligence
DEFINING INTELLIGENCE
Exactly
what makes up
intelligence is a matter of
debate
David Wechsler’s Definition
 Act
purposefully
 Think rationally
 Deal effectively with the
environment
EARLY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
 Charles Spearman
Ain’t
nuthin
but a G
thang.


 L.


7
Different
abilities!
Believed intelligence is general –
“G-Factor”
People who are bright in one
area are usually bright in other
areas as well
L. Thurstone
Believed that intelligence is
made up of seven distinct,
independent abilities: Spatial
ability, perceptual speed,
numerical ability, verbal
meaning, memory, word fluency,
reasoning
Thurstone did not believe in a GFactor, but researchers who
scored well in one of the seven
areas tended to score well on
others.
Early Theories of Intelligence:
R. B. Cattell  Identified two clusters of
mental abilities



Crystallized intelligence
includes abilities such as
reasoning and verbal skills
Fluid intelligence includes
skills such as spatial and
visual imagery, rote
memory, and the ability to
notice visual details
While education can
increase crystallized
intelligence, it was not
thought to have any effect
on fluid intelligence
Contemporary Theories of Intelligence:
Howard Gardner


Howard Gardner’s theory of
multiple intelligences
Explains savant syndrome
 Logical-
mathematical
 Linguistic
 Spatial
 Musical
 Bodily-
kinesthetic
 Interpersonal
 Intrapersonal
 Naturalistic
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE:
HOWARD GARDNER
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE:
ROBERT STERNBERG
 Triarchic
theory of
intelligence claims there are
three types of intelligence
(prototype of 3 grad school
applicants)



Analytical intelligence includes
the ability to learn how to do
things, solve problems, and
acquire new knowledge (Alice)
Creative intelligence includes the
ability adjust to new tasks,
generate novel ideas, use new
concepts, and respond well in
new situations (Barbara)
Practical intelligence includes
the ability to select contexts in
which you can excel and solve
practical problems (Celia)
Creativity
 Defined
Convicted murderer Phil
Spector was seen as a
creative genius in his
heyday. Creativity and evil,
however, often go hand in
hand (as does large hair).
as the ability to
produce novel and socially
valued ideas or objects
 Creativity and Intelligence –
Early studies suggested that
there was little relationship
between the two, however,
later research indicates
otherwise: creative individuals
tend to have higher IQs AND
creative individuals are
perceived as being more
intelligent as well.
 IQ of at least 120 required to be
creative, but it doesn’t mean
you will be!
 Creativity
Creativity

Tests –
Open-ended questions; scoring is based
upon the number and originality of a
person’s answers
Torrance Test – Individuals create and
explain a picture, its origins, and
consequences from incomplete images
 Mednick’s Remote Association Test (RAT) –
given three words – you come up with a
fourth word that the other three can be
combined with e.g. hand, lone, win (answer
= some)

 Sternberg’s
creativity
Components of
Expertise
 Imaginative thinking skills
 A venturesome personality
 Intrinsic motivation
 A creative environment

Contemporary Theories of
Intelligence  Daniel Goleman


Proposed theory of
emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence has
five components
 Knowing
one’s own
emotions
 Managing one’s own
emotions
 Using emotions to motivate
oneself
 Recognizing the emotions
of other people
 Managing relationships
 Does
emotional
intelligence go too far?
Comparing Contemporary Theories
Gardner’s Multiple
Intelligences
Sternberg’s Triarchic
Intelligences
Logical-Mathematical
Linguistic
Analytical
Spatial
Musical
Body-Kinesthetic
Creative
Interpersonal
Practical
Intrapersonal
Goleman’s Emotional
Intelligence
Recognizing emotions in
others and managing
relationships
Knowing, managing, and
motivating yourself with
emotions
Can Intelligence Be
Neurologically Measured?



Lord Byron was not only
emo, beautiful and
brilliant, but his brain was
massive to boot!


Brain size seems to be
modestly correlated with
intelligence, but this is not
always the case.
Specific brain areas such as
frontal and parietal lobes
seem to be important regions
The varying sizes of brain
structure could result from
nature and/or nurture
Perceptual speed tends to
indicate intelligence
Neurological speed also tends
to indicate intelligence
INTELLIGENCE TESTS:
BINET AND SIMON
First test of intelligence,
developed to identify
children who might have
difficulty in school
 Binet developed the concept
of mental age in children
 Mental Age = age at which
you perform intellectually may or may not correspond
with chronological age
 Goal was to use intelligence
tests to improve children’s
educational experience – not
limit their opportunities with
harmful labels.

INTELLIGENCE TESTS:
STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE



Lewis M. Terman’s adaptation of the BinetSimon scale
Terman’s goal was to measure “inherited
intelligence” for purpose of eugenics
The test was used on immigrants and army
recruits



Results interpreted as justifying superiority of
Anglo-Saxon people
Used to justify limits set on immigrants from
southern and eastern Europe - 1924
Stanford-Binet measures four kinds of mental
abilities




Verbal reasoning
Abstract/visual reasoning
Quantitative reasoning
Short-term memory
INTELLIGENCE TESTS:
STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE


Terman’s work served as the basis for William
Stern of Germany to develop the concept of
IQ, or Intelligence Quotient
IQ = Mental Age/Chronological Age x 100
 Most common IQ score?
 Problem of IQ calculation beyond
adulthood solved through comparison
with norms for every age group
 Sample Problems:
 Mental Age = 8, Chronological age =
6, IQ = ?
 IQ = 150, Chronological age = 4.
Mental age = ?
EUGENICS MOVEMENT:
POLITICIZED “SCIENCE”
INTELLIGENCE TESTS:
WESCHLER SCALES
 The
Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale (WAIS) is the most
commonly used test of
intelligence for adults
 WAIS is divided into to 11 parts
that focus on verbal abilities
and on performance skills
 Also a version for children,
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children (WISC)
INTELLIGENCE TESTS:
WESCHLER SCALES
APTITUDE VS. ACHIEVEMENT?
 Achievement
tests measure what you have
already learned
 Aptitude tests measure your potential to learn.


There is a positive correlation between aptitude tests
results and intelligence tests.
e.g. correlation between SAT and IQ?
PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION
 All
good intelligence must be all three of the
following:



Standardized
Reliable
Valid
 Standardization
- uniform rules for administering,
taking and scoring the test based on comparing
performance to that of a pretested group.



Norms – performance benchmarks established
during test development used to establish
“average” performance.
Representative Sample – group used to establish
norms that adequately reflects the demographics
of those who will be taking the test.
Standardization Sample – the group that
determined the norms
PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION
 In
a standardized intelligence test, scores should be
distributed in a bell-shaped curve, or normal curve.
 Most individuals taking intelligence tests should
score a 100, with the majority falling between 85115.
 Due to the Flynn Effect, intelligence tests must be
periodically restandardized to keep norms valid.
PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION
 Reliability
- Ability of a test to provide
consistent and stable scores



Test-retest reliability – a method of measuring
reliability where the same individual is given the
test on two different occasions and scores are
compared. Similarity in scores indicates good
test-retest reliability
Split-half reliability – method of measuring
reliability where the individual takes one test that
is divided in half. Performance on each half is
compared for similarity.
Alternate-form reliability – two different but
similar forms of the test are given on separate
occasions and scores are compared for
similarity.
PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION
 Validity
- Ability of a test to measure what it
purports to measure
Content validity – tests ability to cover the
complete range of material (content) it is
supposed to measure
 Predictive validity – how well a test score
predicts an individual’s performance in the
future

 Correlation
between SAT scores and first-year
grades in college? +.5 – not great!
 Correlation between GRE and grad school
grades? +.4 – even worse!
Scoring the IQ Test
 Raw
Score - number of questions
answered correctly; doesn’t tell much
about performance
 Standard Score - score that tells you how
you did compared to other test takers – a
much better read of performance
 Percentile
Score - what percentage of
test takers you scored better than
 What does it mean to score in the 85th
percentile?
INTELLIGENCE:
STABILITY OR CHANGE?
 Intellectual
ability does not seem to
stabilize until age 7, but by age 4
performance on intelligence tests seems
to predict future performance
 Ian Deary study seems to establish that
intelligence does remain relatively stable
over time.


All 10.5-11.5 year-olds in Scotland tested in 1932
Follow up on the survivors done as recently as 2004
indicates intelligence tests remained consistent
Extremes of Intelligence: Giftedness
 Definition
 top
3% of IQ scores, typically
over 132
 Superior IQ combined with
ability in academics,
creativity, and leadership
 Giftedness is often in specific
areas
 “Globally” gifted people are
rare
 Some gifted children feel
isolated and lonely, but most
are well adjusted
 Specialized
Study?
Programs of
EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE: MENTAL
RETARDATION (INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY)
 Definition




IQ < 70; lowest 3% of IQ scores
not a result of accident
onset before age 18
substantial limitations in functioning
 Causes
– drug abuse during pregnancy, genetic disorders
such as Down Syndrome, lack of fetal nutrition
 Levels




Mild - 90% of cases
Moderate - 6% of cases
Severe - 3% of cases
Profound - 1% of cases
 Some
people with retardation show savant performance
on particular skills
EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE: MENTAL
RETARDATION (INTELLECTUAL DISBAILITY)
Education and the Law
 All
children are entitled to an education that
is…
 FREE
 PUBLIC
 APPROPRIATE
 Mainstreaming
 keeping
special needs kids in regular ed classes for
whatever subject areas/activities they can handle
 Inclusion
 rather
than taking special needs kids out of regular
ed classes for support, bring support personnel into
regular ed classes so kids can stay with their peers.
 Leveling
 separating
children by ability into different classes
Criticisms of IQ Tests
 Test
content and scores
 Critics
argue that IQ test measure a narrow set of
skills
 Some feel that the tests merely measure test
taking ability
 Tests may discriminate against minorities
 Use
of intelligence tests
 Could
 IQ
result in permanent labeling
and success
 Relationship
does exist, but may be the result of a
self-fulfilling prophecy
 Case
of Gladys Burr?
WHAT DETERMINES INTELLIGENCE?
NATURE
 Biological

IQ scores of child more closely correlated with
biological mother than adoptive mother.
 Identical

similarities in Adoption Studies
Twins reared apart
after identical twins reared together, identical twins
reared apart have the highest correlation of IQ
scores.
 Tryon’s
Rats nature…AND NURTURE…
Correlation of IQ Scores of
Family Members
WHAT DETERMINES INTELLIGENCE?
NURTURE
 Isolated
or Deprived
Environments

individuals living in culturally or
physically impoverished environments
have lower IQ scores
 Adoption
Studies and
Improved Environment



children demonstrated elevated IQ
scores after being moved from
crowded orphanage to distributing
them into less crowded adult wards
H.M. Skeels orphanange study
Capron and Duyme’s adoption study
high vs. low SES
WHAT DETERMINES
INTELLIGENCE?:
FAMILY SIZE AND STRUCTURE
 Belmont


Zajonc and Markus (1975)
Intellectual Climate – numerical calculation of the level of
intellect in a household, based on the number of family
members and their ages. Example Calculation – adults =
30, teens = 15, children = 5, and newborns = 0:
2

2


and Marolla (1973)
adults:
30+30=60/2=intellectual climate of 30
adults and a newborn:
30+30+0=60/3=intellectual climate of 20
Intellectual climate goes down most when there are
many children born in rapid succession.
Heredity vs. Environment:
Which is More Important?
 There
is general agreement that both heredity
and environment affect IQ scores
 Debate centers around the relative
contribution of nature (heredity) and nurture
(environment) to the development of
intelligence
DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE:
SEX
 Early

Research (1970s)
males excel at math/spatial skill while females excel at verbal
 Hyde

and Linn’s Meta-analysis (1988)
intellectual differences between males and females are so small
that they are not statistically significant.
 Today’s




Conclusions
Overall, men and women do not differ significantly in general
intelligence
Women show slight advantage in verbal and mathematical
computation skills while men show an advantage in spatial ability
Men are more likely to fall in the extremes of intelligence range
There is no explanation for why these minimal differences exist – are
they cultural or inborn?
DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE:
CULTURE
 Culture


Difference in academic
performance between
American and Asian students
are found from first grade
through high school in
mathematics and reading
May be related to a
difference in cultural attitudes
toward ability and effort
 Stability

of Intelligence
IQ stays relatively steady over
course of life