Jane Meyer
Ancient World
Finch
12 November 2009
Art Institute of Chicago
I. India
Figure 5
Figure 3
Figure 4
India’s central cultural glue centers around its religion and the
society religion imposes or upholds. In Hinduism, which developed
after the Aryan invasion around 1500 B.C.E, Brahman, or the
“Essence of the universe,” manifests itself in three different gods:
Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva (Figure 1), the
destroyer (Benton 262). Much of this early art depicted these gods
along with Vishnu’s early forms called avatars (262). Vishnu and his
consort Lakshmi’s son, Ganesha (Figure 2), is fond of sweets and
wears a snake tied around his middle; his rat vehicle tripped on a
snake and his sweets fell out of his stomach (262). Buddhism rose in
reaction to the increasing corruption of the Brahman class. Buddha,
who lived between 563 and 483 B.C.E, discovered that human greed and
connection to impermanent, material things cause suffering. Although Buddha
upheld reincarnation, he did not support the caste system. Under Ashoka’s rule
(during the Mauryan period- r. 269-232 B.C.E), India underwent mass
conversions to Buddhism. Art now took the form of Buddha, seated, deep in
mediation. However, after the fall of Ashoka and the Mauyran Empire,
Hinduism experienced a renaissance. In the Gupta period (4th- 6th century
C.E), the monasteries tried to fight this come back by developing thirty-two
physical characteristics of Buddha, making his form increasingly iconic. The
seated Buddha in Figure 3 has three of these laksanas. One, the ushnishna, or
cranial protuberance; two, the urna or round mark on the center of the
forehead to “symbolize the power to illuminate the world; three, the elongated
ears (269). Although these measures helped Buddhism spread and take hold in
other parts of the East and North, lack of connection between the
monasteries and the everyday people and royal patronage contributed to
Hinduism’s dominance. Yet Buddhism still influenced ancient art
greatly. Figure shows a Buddha in Pakistan. Notice the Greek-like robes,
left over influence from Alexander the Great’s invasion, and the
mustache which marks the piece as Pakistani.
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 1
II. Greece
Ancient Greeks developed unprecedented styles such as the blackfigure style of ceramics and idealism of sculpture. During the
Orientalizing Period (700-600 B.C.E),
Figure 1
the Greek city states established trade
Figure 1
links and made contact with Egyptain
and Persian civilizations (Benton 66).
During this period, arts produced
oinochoes (wine jugs) and olps (66).
In the Archaic period, the ancient
Greeks experimented with black
figure styles, as shown in Figures 1
and 2. In this style, “black glaze
[covers] a natural orange clay
background…details are created by
scraping through the black glaze to
reveal the orange clay underneath (67). As the classical period commenced, the Greeks devoted a
great deal of time and effort to sculpture and architecture. The Athenian city state under Perikles
built edifices on the acropolis such as the Parthenon. In sculpture, such famous artists as
Polykleitos and Praxiteles focused on ideal human forms. Figure 3 parallels the Spear-bearer
(ca. 440 B.CE) and the written rules of Polykleitos which base measurements off of the size of
the head (98). The subject of Figure 3 links the artwork of
Athens to the war culture of Sparta. Although Sparta produced
Figure 4
little art compared to Athens, their dedication to building a war
society led to victory in the Peloponnesian War. Like Figure 4,
the female form arose later in the classical and throughout the
Hellenistic period. Although the woman in Figure 4 is not nude
like Aphrodite of Knidos (ca. 350-200 B.C.E), the realistic
depictions of the falling robe is similar to that in Praxiteles’
masterpiece.
Figure 3
Figure 4
III. Egypt
The Pyramids and tombs of the Ancient Egyptians remain one of the
greatest wonders of the modern world. Developing slowly from around
5000 B.C.E, the Ancient Egyptian culture gained a political center
around 3100 B.C.E when Narmer united upper and lower parts of the
Nile. Although the pyramids of Gaza serve largely as a symbol of the
entire culture today, the Egyptians also developed sophisticated
language, architecture, and sculpture. The hieroglyphics has roots before
3000 B.C.E, and grace a great deal of the Egyptian artwork. As present
in Figure 1 and 2, the hieroglyphs “not only [read] symbolically but
phonetically as well” (Benton 19). The sculpture King Menkaure and
Queen (ca. 2490-2472) as well as the Figure depicted in the tomb reliefs
embody the “composite view of the human body” and allow the eye to fill
in what is missing (26). The language and artistic tradition remain largely
Figure 1
unchanged throughout the 3000 years of the Ancient Egypt civilization,
all mediums united under the common theme of a stable religion.
According to Benton, “much of the Egyptian life appears to have been
oriented toward preparing for the hereafter” (21). In order to ensure the
preservation of the ka, or fundamental essence of a person, the deceased
body was embalmed and bound, and large pyramids constructed to allow
the divine monarch entrance to the world of the gods. The Egyptians,
during the Old Kingdom, built massive pyramids which have roots in the mastabas of the
Mesopotamian culture. Composed of millions of sandstone and limestone blocks, the Pyramids
of Gaza reflected the unification of all classes of people, not only
slaves, in preparing for the afterlife. All Figures 1-4 have connections
to the polytheistic religion. Figures 3 and 4 served as covers for the
mummies inside the tombs of the New Kingdom (1552-1069 B.C.E).
The ornate decorations and extensive use of gold attracted many grave
robbers. Figures 1 and 2 are blocks of tomb walls. Figure 2 in
particular reflect fundamental artistic elements. Like Ti Watching a
Hippopotamus Hunt (ca. 2500-2400 B.C.E), the artist uses relative
sizes to indicate social superiority and inferiority. The relief also
depicts the human figure in a profile view in an impossible position.
These values continued unchanged
through to the New Kingdom (see
Figure 2
Nobleman Hunting in the Marshes ca.
1400 B.C.E), only briefly interrupted by
Akhenaten.
Figure 3
IV. Rome
Figure 1
Figure 2
Although the Romans conquered the Greeks, the Greek culture not
only preserved by served as the foundation for Roman art,
architecture, and religion. Indeed, the Romans often copied bronze
Greek sculptures in marble. Praxiteles’ Aphrodite of Knidos shown
on page 97 in Benton is actually a Roman copy, the Greek original
having been destroyed. Figure 1 shows the bust of the Roman god of
war, Mars. The Romans renamed the Greek gods (Ares→Mars).
Figure 1 also embodies the Roman transition from the Greek idealism
to realism. Although the sculpture Augustus of Primaporta (ca. 20
B.C.E) has more idealized features, they remain uniquely Augustus’’,
indicating the Roman emphasis on individuality. In Figure 2, the
Portrait Bust of a Woman (ca. 140-150 C.E), the drapery of the
clothing parallels the clothing in Greek sculptures (such as the Three
Seated goddesses on the east pediment at the Parthenon). Roman also
developed sophisticated paintings at such cities as Pompeii.
According to Benton, painting consisted of four different styles. The
First Style, or “masonry style,” started around the 2nd century and is
characterized by wall decorations that “imitated the appearance of
colored marble slabs” (Benton 158). During the Second Style, or
“illusionistic style” between 80 B.C.E and 20 B.C.E, architectural
structures were colored and copied into paint (159). The Third Style,
“ornamented” style, the emphasis shifted to capturing decorative
detail (160). The freer, and sketch-like qualities of the Four style,
which began around 62 C.E. was cut off by the eruption of Mount
Vesuvius in 79 C.E (160). Ironically, although the eruption destroyed
the city, it preserved their painting styles. Figure 4, a portion of a
mosaic floor, also represents the highly decorative and ornate style of
the Romans.
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 1
V. China
While religion and social structure might hold the Indian
civilizations together, the Chinese social glue arises from
Figure 2
a highly centralized and organized bureaucracy
supported by philosophy. Comprised of many dynasties,
the history of ancient China reflects an unprecedented
level of cultural sophistication. During the Shang, Zhou,
and Qin dynasties, artists experimented with bronzes and other metals as
part of a Neolithic age in China (Figues 1, 2). During these periods the Chinese also started a
tradition of ceramics with small handbuilt figures (Figures 3 and 4). The
Zhou, conflicted with a weak political structure and the Qin, troubled
by a rigid and demanding bureaucracy headed by the Legalists, gave
Figure 4
way to the artistic Golden Age of the Han (202 B.C.E -220 C.E). The
Han’s artwork was characterized by many clay figurines that would
reside in the tombs of the nobility (Figures 5 and 6). The political
turmoil after the fall of the Han contributed to the rise of Buddhism in
China. Throughout the Sui and Tang dynasties, sculptures of Buddha
were constructed along with many monasteries (Figure 12). Under
Empress Wu of the Tang dynasty, Royal patronage reached a height.
However, the Confucians resurged under Neo-confucian which
combines Buddhism and Toaism into a single school of thought,
declaring the importance of finding individual morality. By the late
Tang period, under Emperor Wuzong, the distain for Buddhism
translated into open persecution. Many monestaries and Buddha figures
were destroyed, hence the lack of Buddhas at the Institute of Art. Yet the Tang and the Song had
their own cultural achievements, largely fueled by the resurgence of Confucianism. The
produced famous poets such as Li Bai and Du Fu and also produced pottery (Figure 10).
However, it was during the Song period that reached its height; Song pottery is often
characterized by various green glazes (Figure 7), reached its height. Neo-Confucianism paintings
of landscapes (Figure 9) continued into the Ming period, highlighting
vital elements of Taoism.
Figure 3
Figure 5
Figure 1
Alhtough the Chinese had a national pottery market, until the Ming and later dynasties, the
Chinese did not focus production on exportation. However, as contacts with the west increased,
Chinese pottery became more decorative, hoping to attract the western eye. Figure 11 is such a
piece, adorned with the eight immortals of Taoist mythology.
Figure 10
Figure 7
Figure 9
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 1
VI. Japanese
Although Japan’s geographic location largely isolated the island from
the western influences, in the ancient time period, Japan participated
in an elaborate cultural exchange with mainland China and Korea.
Most significantly, Buddhism, traveling along the Silk Road from
India, to China, and finally to Japan, fused with Shinto in creating a
uniquely Japanese religion. Around the 5th and 6th century, a wave of
immigrants bought a complex writing
Figure 3
system, medicine, poetry, and Buddhism to
Japan. Originating in India, Buddhism
identified greed and humans relations to
impermanent things as the originator or
human suffering. Similar to the Indian iconic
Figure 2
Buddha, Japan’s Shakayamuni and lesser
deities (including the Bosatsu in Figure 1) is
often depicted in a cross-legged position.
Figure 1 and the Shaka Triad (Ashuka period)
embody this international connection and the
“awareness of the Chinese sculptural tradition
from the pre-Tang period, including the focus Figure 1
of attention on the large head and hands” (323).
Figure 4
Yet the Japanese often used wood, a scare
resource, in their artwork rather than stone or
clay (Figure 4). The other influential faith,
Shinto, remains in active practice today as
well. According to Benton, Shinto “developed from a kind of nature
worship into a state religion of patriotic appreciation of Japanese land”
(321). In other words, Shinto combines nature and ancestor worship
with ritualistic actions. Kami, or gods, originate from Izanagi and his
consort Izanami. Figure 2 shows the Shinto deity Hachiman whose cult
embraced many different philosophies of life, including Buddhism. The
flowing robes relate to the Roman and Greek clothing that was carried
along trade routes and by Alexander the Great to India. This Buddhalike figure shows the incorporation of Shinto and Buddhist beliefs into architecture and art.
Figure 3, a warrior who would protect a monastery, not only represents the rise of Buddhism in
Japanese culture, but the importance of warriors. In the later Heian period, regional warriors, the
samurai, gained more power over the actual rulers, and thus began the Kamakura period (11851333 C.E). During the period, Zen Buddhism, with its stress on self-discipline and inner strength,
increased in popularity.
Figure 2
VII. The Americas
The Americas developed in geographic
isolation of the eastern world containing the
Roman Empire and the Chinese dynasties.
Instead, these eclectic civilizations developed
their own vibrant religions and art work (and in
the Mayan and Aztec cultures, calendars and
Figure 1
mathematics the rivaled the ancient Babylonians). One of the
earlier civilizations was the ancient city of Teotihuacan which
rose to power after 300 B.C.E. The height of Teotihuacan’s
innovation comes in the form of tow large pyramids, the Pyramid of the sun and the Pyramid of
the Moon which centered around the Avenue of death. Actually made up of many ziggurats, the
Pyramids “suggest [the city’s role] as an astronomical and ritualistic center” (342). Figure 1, the
mask of an incense burner portraying the god of fire (ca. 450 C.E), embodies this rich religious
tradition and social hierarchy surrounding religion. Figure 2, a mural fragment carved around
600-750 C.E, represents the ritual of the renewal of the world. The Teotihuacan declined due to
an ecological disaster from pillaging surrounding land for lime.
The Mayan culture (250 B.C.E – 900 C.E) developed in the
Yucatan peninsula. Their complex ritual and time-keeping
system, based off of two calendars, one a 365 day calendar and
the other a 260 day ritualistic calendar, matched Teohuacan’s
precision. The extensive writing system not only recorded these
astronomical observations but also documented the genealogies of
rulers and the records of their victories. Figure 3 shows a profile
of a Mayan ruler made in the late classic Mayan period (650-800
C.E.). The Maya civilizations centered around many cities, one of
the most important being Tikal. As a great political center, Tikal
contains six giant temples in six miles. In addition, the Mayan
ruler held great religious significance, letting his own blood to
give sustenance to the spiritual world. According to the Mayan
legend of origin (the Popol Vuh), the gods created humans to
amuse them, finally succeeding
Figure 4
in their creation attempts on the third try. Made out of maize
and water, this narrative reveals the importance of agriculture
for sustaining the Mayan culture. The Wacan Chan, a great tree,
connected the three worlds. Like the Olmecs and the Aztecs,
the Mayans worshiped the Jaguar God. The ball game (carved
into stone in Figure 4) has long captured the interest of
historians. Although sometimes the players bet their worldly
Figure 3
possessions, sometimes their lives were at stake; if they lost, they would be sacrificed.
The Moche (200-700 C.E) arose out of the northern coast of Peru. Like the people of
Teotihuacán, the Moche built large huacas or “pyramids made of sun-dried bricks” (Benton 349).
Unfortunately, the Spanish dug into these pyramids and captured many gold pieces and melted
them down, thus contributing to the rarity of such artwork at the Institute of Art. The Moche
were skilled potters and sculptures, using molds and firing techniques with temperatures that
reached up to 800 degrees Celsius. Like the Romans and regional civilizations in India, the
Moche used a lost-wax technique. Around 800 C.E, the Moche fell, perhaps to an ecological
disaster caused by an earthquake and the Nino.
Calling their empire the Tawantinsuyu, the Mayans created a strong empire with an extensive
infrastructure that rivaled that of Romans. Highways and runners allowed information to
circulate quickly through the mountainous region. The Inca’s engineering is best shown through
Machu Picchu, a religious refuge built in the Andes without the benefit of carts of wheels. Inca
society, like that of India, consisted of highly stratified classes with the rulers on top and the
peasants on the bottom (priests and the aristocracy in between). The Inca rulers owned all of the
land in the empire. According to Benton, “their rule was absolute, and they retained their exalted
position after death” (352). Similar to the rulers in Egypt, the rulers served as intermediaries
between and the god and the people, and thus their death required great ritual (mummification in
both cultures). The Inca fell to the Spanish whose war tactics, guns, and disease soon decimated
local populations.
Figure 5
groups and the importance of hunting.
The Buffalo hunters in the Great Planes of North
American retained their nomadic culture. Tribes moved
about, following the great buffalo herds and using the
stampeding technique for mass slaughtering. This
tradition continued until the English and the American
government killed the Buffalo in order to subdue the
Native Americans into a position of dependence.
Indeed, Benton notes that between 1830 and 1870, “the
buffalo population in the West dropped from around 30
millions…to 8 million” (355). Figure 5, a painting on
hide created in 1870, shows the warrior culture of these