Name: __________________________
Elements of a Short Story
 POINT OF VIEW – Point of view, or POV, is defined as the angle from which the story is
being told.
1. Innocent Eye - The story is told through the eyes of a child (his/her judgment being
different from that of an adult).
2. Stream of Consciousness - The story is told so that the reader feels as if they
are inside the head of one character and knows all their thoughts and reactions.
3. First Person – A point of view is in use when a character narrates the story
with I-me-my-mine in his or her speech. The advantage of this point of view is that
you get to hear the thoughts of the narrator and see the world depicted in the story
through his or her eyes. However, remember that no narrator, like no human
being, has complete self-knowledge or, for that matter, complete knowledge of anything. Therefore, the reader's
role is to go beyond what the narrator says.
 For example, Harper Lee's To Kill a Mockingbird is told from the point of view of Scout, a
young child. She doesn't grasp the complex racial and socioeconomic relations of her town —
but the reader does, because Scout gives information that the reader can interpret. Also, Scout's
innocence reminds the reader of a simple, "it's-not-fair" attitude that contrasts with the
rationalizations of other characters.
4. Second-person – A point of view, in which the author uses you and your, is rare; authors seldom speak
directly to the reader. When you encounter this point of view, pay attention. Why? The author has made a
daring choice, probably with a specific purpose in mind. Most times, second-person point of view draws the
reader into the story, almost making the reader a participant in the action.
 Jay McInerney's best-selling Bright Lights, Big City was written in second person to make the
experiences and tribulations of the unnamed main character more personal and intimate for the
reader.
5. Omniscient – The author can narrate the story using the omniscient point of view. Like a god, he/she can
move from character to character, event to event, having free access to the thoughts, feelings and motivations of
his characters and he introduces information where and when he/she chooses. The author tells the story in third
person (using pronouns they, she, he, it, etc). There are two main types of omniscient point of view:
a) Omniscient Objective – Basically, omniscient point of view means that the story is told from an allseeing God-like, omnipotent viewpoint. It appears as though an invisible camera is following the
characters, going anywhere, and recording only what is seen and heard. You would use third person
pronouns in the writing, but you can choose to dip into the head of any of the characters and reveal
things that have occurred in the past or will happen in the future; but, there is no comment on the
characters or their thoughts. No interpretations are offered. The reader is placed in the position of
spectator without the author there to explain. The reader has to interpret events on his own.
b) Omniscient Limited – Limited omniscient basically means that while you have a God-like
perspective of the story, you limit yourself to being in one character’s head at a time and to what the
author allows him/her to tell us. We can see the thoughts and feelings of characters if the author chooses
to reveal them to us. It allows an author to switch narrators as many times as necessary, even within a
scene.
 SETTING – The time and location in which a story
takes place is called the setting. For some stories the
setting is very important, while for others it is not. There
are several aspects of a story's setting to consider when
examining how setting contributes to a story (some, or
all, may be present in a story):
a). Time:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Clock time: this can be used to provide
suspense or create certain moods or feelings.
Calendar time: the day, month, year, or
more generally a day of the week or time of the month may provide an understanding of what
takes place in a piece of literature.
Seasonal time: the seasons or a span of time associated with a particular activity may be
important. Seasons have a certain symbolism associated with them—winter could mean death
and spring could signal rebirth, for example.
Historical time: this can establish a psychological or sociological understanding of behaviors
and attitudes.
b). Physical Environment:
I.
Place – The physical location or geographical location (Where is the action of the story taking
place?)
c). Non-Physical Environment:
I.
Social Conditions – What is the daily life of the characters like? Does the story contain local
color or Regionalism—writing that focuses on the dress, mannerisms, or customs of a particular
place—or vernacular—the speech patterns or word choices of the area. Other characteristics to
explore are religion, social and economic standing, and education.
II.
Mood or Atmosphere – What feeling is created at the beginning of the story? Is it bright and
cheerful or dark and frightening?
 PLOT – The plot is how the author arranges events to develop his basic idea. It is the sequence of events in
a story or play. The plot is a planned, logical series of events having a beginning, middle, and end. The
short story usually has one plot so it can be read in one sitting. There are usually five essential parts of plot:
1) Introduction – The beginning of the story where the characters and the setting is revealed.
2) Inciting Moment – The incident without which there would be no story. The inciting moment sets the
remainder of the story in motion beginning with the second act, the rising action.
3) Rising Action – This is where the events in the story become complicated and the conflict in the story is
revealed (events between the introduction and climax).
4) Climax – This is the highest point of interest and
the turning point of the story. The reader wonders
what will happen next; will the conflict be resolved
or not?
 It is helpful to consider climax as a threefold phenomenon: 1) the main character receives
new information 2) accepts this information
(realizes it but does not necessarily agree with it) 3)
acts on this information (makes a choice that will
determine whether or not he/she gains his
objective).
5) Falling action – The events and complications begin to resolve themselves. The reader knows what has
happened next and if the conflict was resolved or not (events between climax and denouement).
6) Resolution (Dénouement) – This is the final outcome or untangling of events in the story.
 CHARACTERIZATION – The method used by a writer to develop a character
which includes (1) showing the character's appearance, (2) displaying the
character's actions, (3) revealing the character's thoughts, (4) letting the character
speak, and (5) getting the reactions of others.
a) Antagonist and Protagonist – Short stories use few characters. One character is
clearly central to the story with all major events having some importance to this
character—he/she is the PROTAGONIST. The opposition to the main character is
called the ANTAGONIST. Characters are convincing if they are consistent,
motivated, and life-like (resemble real people).
 Foil – A character who contrasts with another character (usually the protagonist) in order to highlight
various features of the main character's personality: to throw the character of the protagonist into sharper
focus. A foil usually has some important characteristics in common with the other character, such as,
frequently, superficial traits or personal history. [A superhero’s sidekick would be an example.]
b) Types of characters:
1) Round or Dynamic – Characters that are complex and undergo development, sometimes sufficiently
to surprise the reader. Significant changes might include changes in insight or understanding, changes
in commitment, or changes in values.
2) Flat or Static – Characters that are two-dimensional in that they are relatively uncomplicated and do
not change throughout the course of a work. Unlike Round or Dynamic, they DO NOT undergo
significant changes, remaining basically unchanged (in understanding, commitment, values) throughout
the story.
c) Archetype – An image, character, symbol, plot, or other literary device that appears frequently enough in
myths, folktales, and other literary works so it has become an important part of culture.
1) Archetypal Characters – The Hero, The Young Man from the Provinces, The Initiates, Mentors,
Father-Son Conflict, Hunting Group of Companions, Loyal Retainers, Gentle Giant, Devil Figure, Evil
Figure with the Ultimately Good Heart, The Scapegoat, The Outcast, The Creature of Nightmare, The
Earthmother, The Temptress, The Platonic Ideal, The Unfaithful Wife, and The Damsel in Distress
2) Archetypal Plot – Nature vs. Mechanicistic World, The Battle Between Good and Evil, The
Unhealable Wound, The Initiation, The Fall, Death and Rebirth, The Ritual, and The Task
3) Archetypal Imagery – The Garden, Light vs. Darkness, Water, Mountains, Wilderness or Forest,
The Desert, The City, Fire, and Ice
 CONFLICT -- Conflict is essential to plot because without conflict there is no plot. It is the opposition of
forces which ties one incident to another and makes the plot move. Conflict is not merely limited to an
argument; rather, it is any form of opposition or problems the main character must face. Within a short story
there may be only one central struggle, or there may be one dominant struggle with many minor ones.
There are two types of conflict:
1) External – A struggle with a force outside one's self.
2) Internal – A struggle within one's self—a person must make some
decision, overcome pain, quiet their temper, resist an urge, etc.
There are four kinds of conflict:
1) Man vs. Man (physical) – The leading character struggles with his
physical strength against other men, forces of nature, or animals.
2) Man vs. Circumstances (classical) – Commonly known as Man vs.
Nature, the leading character struggles against fate, or the circumstances of
life facing him/her.
3) Man vs. Society (social) – The leading character struggles against ideas,
practices, or customs of other people.
4) Man vs. Himself/Herself (psychological) – The leading character
struggles with himself/herself; with his/her own soul, ideas of right or
wrong, physical limitations, choices, etc.
 THEME – The theme in a piece of fiction is its controlling idea, central insight, or underlying meaning of a
literary work. It is the author's underlying meaning or main idea that he is trying to convey. The theme may
be the author's thoughts about a topic or view of human nature. Theme differs from the subject or topic of a
literary work in that it involves a statement or opinion about the topic. Not every literary work has a theme.
A major theme is an idea the author returns to time and again. It becomes one of the most important ideas in
the story. Minor themes are ideas that may appear from time to time.
Some simple examples of common themes from literature, TV, and film are:
- Things are not always as they appear to be.
- Love is blind.
- Believe in yourself.
- People are afraid of change.
- Don't judge a book by its cover.
Four ways in which an author can express themes are as follows:
1) Themes are expressed and emphasized by the way the author makes us
feel. By sharing feelings of the main character you also share the ideas that
go through his mind.
2) Themes are presented in thoughts and conversations. Authors put words in their character’s mouths only for
good reasons. One of these is to develop a story’s themes. The things a person says are much on their mind.
Look for thoughts that are repeated throughout the story.
3) Themes are suggested through the characters. The main character usually illustrates the most important
theme of the story. A good way to get at this theme is to ask yourself the question, what does the main character
learn in the course of the story?
4) The actions or events in the story are used to suggest theme. People naturally express ideas and feelings
through their actions. One thing authors think about is what an action will "say". In other words, how will the
action express an idea or theme?
The title of the short story usually points to what the writer is saying and he may use various figures of speech
to emphasize his theme, such as: symbol, allusion, simile, metaphor, hyperbole, or irony.
Other Literary Elements:
 ALLUSION – A reference to, or representation of, a place, event, literary work, myth, or work of art, either
directly or by implication.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE – Whenever you describe something by comparing it with something else,
you are using figurative language. Any language that goes beyond the literal meaning of words in order to
furnish new effects or fresh insights into an idea or a subject. The most common figures of speech are
simile, metaphor, and alliteration.
a) Simile – A figure of speech which involves a direct comparison between two unlike things, usually
with the words like or as. Example: The muscles on his brawny arms are strong as iron bands.
b) Metaphor – A figure of speech which involves an implied comparison between two relatively unlike
things using a form of be. The comparison is not announced by like or as. Example: The road was a
ribbon of moonlight.
c) Hyperbole – An exaggerated statement used to heighten effect. It is not used to mislead the reader,
but to emphasize a point. Example: She’s said so on several million occasions
 FORESHADOWING – An author’s use of hints or clues to suggest events that will occur later in the story.
Not all foreshadowing is obvious. Frequently, future events are merely hinted at through dialogue,
description, or the attitudes and reactions of the characters.
Foreshadowing frequently serves two purposes. It builds suspense by raising questions that encourage
the reader to go on and find out more about the event that is being foreshadowed. Foreshadowing is also
a means of making a narrative more believable by partially preparing the reader for events which are to
follow.
 IMAGERY – Language that appeals to the senses. Descriptions of people or objects stated in terms of our
senses.
 IRONY – A situation, literary technique, or rhetorical device, in which there is an inconsistency, clash, or
unintended connection with truth, that goes far beyond the most simple and clear meaning of words or
actions.
a). Verbal Irony – The contrast between what is said and what is actually meant.
b). Irony of Situation – This refers to a happening that is the opposite of what is expected or intended.
c). Dramatic Irony – This occurs when the audience or reader knows more than the characters know.
 JUXTAPOSITION – A placement of two words, descriptions, or concepts literally or figuratively next to
each other.
 MOOD – The climate of feeling in a literary work. The choice of setting, objects, details, images, and
words all contribute towards creating a specific mood. For example, an author may create a mood of
mystery around a character or setting but may treat that character or setting in an ironic, serious, or
humorous tone.
 SYMBOLISM – A person, place or object which has a meaning in itself but suggests other meanings as
well. Things, characters and actions can be symbols. Anything that suggests a meaning beyond the obvious.
Some symbols are conventional, generally meaning the same thing to all readers. Colors, numbers, and
names represent something with a deeper meaning. Authors do not do things by mistake; choices are
made to allow the reader to understand what a symbol stands for or to simply interpret its meaning.
Example: bright sunshine symbolizes goodness; water is a symbolic cleanser; a snake is symbolic of
evil.
 TONE – The author’s attitude, stated or implied, toward a subject. Some possible attitudes are pessimism,
optimism, earnestness, seriousness, bitterness, humorous, and joyful. An author’s tone can be revealed
through choice of words and details.