CHAPTER 2
The Journey Begins –
Childhood
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CHAPTER SUMMARY
Perspectives on Child
Development
The Biological Perspective on
Child Development
Nature Versus Nurture: An Old Debate
A Newer Approach
Evaluation
Applying It To Yourself
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Chapter Summary Cont’d
The Psychodynamic Perspective
On Child Development
Development Of Personality
The Structure Of Personality
Personality Dynamics
Modifications
Evaluation
Applying It To Yourself
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Chapter Summary Cont’d
The Social-Cognitive
Perspective on Child Development
Social Learning Theories
Recent Additions: Cognitions & Behavior
Evaluation
Applying It To Yourself
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Chapter Summary Cont’d
The Humanistic Perspective On
Child Development
The Phenomenal Self
Human Freedom
Self-Actualization
Evaluation
Applying It To Yourself
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Perspectives on
Child Development
Development is defined as the relatively enduring changes
in people’s capacities and behavior as they grow older
because of biological growth processes and people’s
interaction with their environment, including their social
environment.
Many psychologists believe that a healthy childhood creates
resiliency and therefore a more fulfilling adulthood.
Different viewpoints (perspectives) on child
development offer explanations of how and why
development occurs.
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The Biological
Perspective on
Child Development
Nature Versus Nurture: An Old Debate
Genes (the biochemical units by which characteristics are
inherited) are the foundation for heredity (transmission of
traits from parents to offspring) and also of the biological
perspective.
Some psychologists argue that almost all of our personal
characteristics are inherited or genetic.
Other psychologists argue that the environment and
learning provide the greatest influences on us.
This controversy is called the nature-nurture debate.
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Nature Versus Nurture: An Old
Debate Cont’d
Psychologists supporting the biological perspective also
subscribe to the notion that evolution and adaptation
play a major role in determining our characteristics.
Scientists often utilize identical twins (who possess
identical genetic profiles) as participants in research
designed to tease out whether nature or nurture is more
important
Important questions and
ethical issues regarding the
biological perspective persist.
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A Newer Approach
The nature-nurture debate is the debate over what is
more important or influential – biology or environment.
A newer approach is to view development as the
combination of or complex interaction of both factors.
Thus, identical twins might be similar on some traits (the
influence of genes) and dissimilar on other traits (the
consequence of being in different environments on
different occasions).
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Evaluation
The biological perspective is controversial:
People do not want to believe that they are driven
by some force (nature) they cannot control.
Ethicists fear stigmatization of people with
certain, so-called genetic “defects”.
Some scientists fear the general public will ascribe
to heredity more personal qualities than
those really under genetic control.
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Applying It To Yourself
Do not solely blame your family genes for the
causes of your behaviors or personality.
Most people in the same family also share the same
environment.
You might want to examine your family
tree with an eye toward discovering
common family traits.
While you might not be able to sort out the cause
for the traits, the exercise can be an interesting
journey of self-discovery and self-revelation.
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The Psychodynamic
Perspective On
Child Development
Introduction
Psychodynamic theory consists of a group of related
theories that view personality and behavior in terms of the
dynamics (or interactions) of driving forces of development
(and of personality) such as desires, anxieties, conflicts,
and defenses.
The founder of this perspective was Sigmund Freud who
posited that many of the causes of our behavior were
inaccessible to us (i.e. hidden in the unconscious).
The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to help
people gain insight and mastery into unconscious
processes.
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Development of Personality
Freud postulated that children pass through several
stages of personality development.
When a person becomes emotionally fixed at one stage
and symbolically continues to act out wishes that
were overly inhibited or indulged, Freud called this a fixation.
The first stage is the oral stage during which the mouth
becomes the primary means of gratification for the child.
The second stage is the anal stage, when the child’s
major source of physical pleasure becomes the
releasing or retaining of feces.
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Development of Personality Cont’d
The phallic stage is the third stage and is the period in which
the child experiences sensual pleasure through handling his or
her genitals.
The child also experiences a conflict or struggle with the
parent of the opposite sex, because that parent attracts the
attention and affection of the other parent.
In girls this struggle is called
the Electra complex.
In boys this struggle is
called the Oedipal complex.
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Development of Personality Cont’d
The successful resolution of these conflicts leads to the
fourth stage – the latency stage.
The latency stage is the stage during which the child’s
interests turn away from sensuality and the child’s urges lie
dormant.
The final phase is the genital stage, where the
person begins the onset of puberty, true sexual
maturation, and adult sexual activity.
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The Structure of Personality
Freud suggested that the personality is composed of
three different structures which interact with one another.
ID – that part of the personality that is the
unconscious reservoir of psychic energy and
the source of later development.
EGO – the direct outgrowth of the ID and which
functions as a manager of personality, thereby
enabling the individual to cope with the conflicting
demands of the ID, SUPEREGO, and society.
SUPEREGO – the part of personality which has
been shaped by the moral standards of society
as transmitted by the parents.
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The Structure of Personality Cont’d
Each structure operates according to a
different principle:
ID – pleasure principle
EGO – reality principle
SUPEREGO – principle of
perfection
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Personality Dynamics
The term personality dynamics means the different forces
within the psyche.
The ID, EGO, and SUPEREGO are often in conflict with one
another.
When the EGO thinks the impulses of the ID will get out of
control and duly experiences anxiety, Freud called the
outcome neurotic anxiety.
When the individual’s SUPEREGO senses guilt and the
person experiences anxiety, Freud termed this moral
anxiety.
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Personality Dynamics Con’t
We deal with these forms of anxiety, which are quite
different from ordinary anxiety, by means of defense
mechanisms.
Defense mechanisms are unconscious reactions that
automatically reduce the level of anxiety, allowing the
individual to better cope with the situation at hand.
The most important defense mechanism is repression,the
blocking of unacceptable desires or memories from
awareness.
Repression is often indicated by slips
of the tongue.
Repressed thoughts also
show up symbolically
in dreams.
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Evaluation
Freud’s many students and followers offered
modifications to his theory, for example, decreasing
the importance of sexuality.
Psychoanalysis or the psychodynamic perspective is
criticized for being vague and untestable.
Many of the concepts from psychoanalysis were derived
from Freud’s private practice and thus may not hold
for “normal” people.
Freud, however, clearly turned our interest toward
personal thoughts, feelings, motives, and wishes.
Freud helped remove some of the stigma attached to
abnormal behavior by hypothesizing that they stem
from the same developmental processes as normal
behaviors.
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Applying It To Yourself
You may feel conflicted sometimes about what you want.
This phenomenon is perfectly “normal”, according to Freud.
Such conflict may be unconscious and can cause you to act in
two totally opposite ways, e.g. loving and hating the same
person.
Many of the ways that you cope with such situations derive
from your childhood and how your parents raised you.
You should now understand that it is sometimes “normal” to
experience multiple problems and anxieties at the same
time.
Optimal adjustment, at least
according to this perspective,
comes from living in the world
as it is rather than wishing the
world were some Duffy/Atwater
other way.
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The Social-Cognitive
Perspective on
Child Development
The social-cognitive perspective includes behavioral and
social learning theories.
Both theories hold certain concepts as important;
definitions are given below:
Cognition has to do with the interpretation
of information and involves processes
such as selective attention, information
gathering, memory, and motivation.
Learning is a relatively permanent change
in behavior.
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Behavioral Theory
Behavioral theory is a learning theory. Learning
theory provides a systematic statement of learning
principles. The leading theorist was B. F. Skinner.
Behaviorism is an objective science that studies
external (or measurable) behaviors.
One of the major concepts of this theory is
reinforcement, which is the addition of something
that increases the likelihood of a behavior.
Thus, positive child behaviors, such as making one’s
bed, should be closely followed by something that will
increase the likelihood of the bed-making again,
perhaps reading the child’s favorite book to him or her.
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Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory is another well-known learning
theory. The leading theorist is Albert Bandura.
The crux of social learning theory is that much
learning occurs by observation.
Researchers have studied the conditions under
which observational learning occurs and under
which circumstances it will be performed.
Theorists have paid special attention to the
learning of aggression by children from
media sources.
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Recent Additions to Cognition and Behavior
Most behavioral and social learning theorists today
recognize the important role cognitions (our
interpretations) play in our behavior and personality.
They also recognize reciprocal determinism or the notion
that there is a mutual interaction among factors that
affect our learning, cognition, and behaviors.
An example is that of a child who watches violence
and whose parents explain that violence is not
acceptable. The child, then, is less likely to
actually commit violence.
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Recent Additions to Cognition
and Behavior Cont’d
Another recent addition to these theories is the notion
of self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capacity to organize
and execute the courses of action required to produce
given attainments.
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Recent Additions to Cognition
and Behavior Cont’d
A student who studies hard for an exam so as to
improve her changes of receiving a high grade is
demonstrating self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is an extremely
important concept in the field
of personal growth and
development.
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Evaluation
One criticism of these theories is that they appear
to oversimplify human behavior.
Another criticism is that behaviorism in particular
eschews the idea of human freedom while on the
other hand projects an image of humans as robotic.
One of the main contributions of these theories is
to advance the science of psychology and to
promote the use of scientific methods to establish
principles of behavior.
Behaviorists, in particular, have developed
many useful treatments for a variety of
disorders that plague human beings.
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Applying It To Yourself
These theories suggest that many of your behaviors and
personality traits have been acquired by means of
interacting with significant others, like parents.
However, past experiences and learning can be undone so
that we can acquire new behaviors and better traits and
thus achieve personal change and growth.
Additionally, “abnormal” patterns can be replaced by
more adaptive and optimal patterns.
Because of constant interaction with our
environments personal change and growth
is an ongoing process.
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The Humanistic Perspective
On Child Development
Humanistic theories are known as the third force in
psychology, with psychoanalysis and behaviorism
considered the other two predominant schools of thought.
The two leading humanistic theorists are Carl Rogers
and Abraham Maslow.
Humanistic psychology consists of a group of
related theories and therapies that emphasize
the values of human freedom and the uniqueness
of individuals.
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The Phenomenal Self
The phenomenal self is the self-concept and is part and
parcel of our organismic actualizing tendency or the
biological tendency to develop and fulfill ourselves.
When we were children, few of our significant others
provided us with true unconditional positive regard or
unconditional positive acceptance.
The result is a self which we do not trust, which
is not self-directed, and which is not fully
functioning (actualizing).
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The Phenomenal Self Cont’d
Rogers said that children thrive in supportive and
accepting environments. Unfortunately, this is not
the environment in which children frequently find
themselves.
Rogers developed person-centered therapy rather
than therapist-centered therapy to provide the
supportive, warm, and accepting environment that
many of us were deprived of in childhood.
Person-centered therapy is discussed in
the chapter on getting help.
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Self-Actualization
Self actualization is the process of fulfilling our inborn
potential.
Humanistic theorists assume that this tendency is inborn
or naturally occurring.
As long as our basic needs (food, water, etc.) are met,
we become more aware of our need for fulfillment.
Maslow’s pyramid theory of human needs will
be discussed in the chapter on motivation and
emotion.
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Evaluation
The primary criticism of humanistic theories is that
they are unscientific.
Another criticism is that the concept of self-actualization
is very “Western”, individualized, and not useable in
other cultures. As such, the theorists spend little time
discussing the inter-relatedness of people.
On the other hand, the
humanists have heightened
psychologists’ awareness
of the importance of
acceptance, love,
personal growth,
and human autonomy.
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Applying It To Yourself
This theory should inspire you to perceive yourself in
terms of your positive strengths and potential rather
than in terms of your shortcomings.
Problems and conflicts are not necessary nor inevitable.
Optimal adjustment can be
achieved through personal
growth and by taking
reasonable risks.
Self-actualization is an ongoing process and
as such is only imperfectly realized for most
of us.
Perfection is not necessary for happiness.
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Conclusion
Child development is the prelude to later development.
There are differing perspectives on child development,
each with its own contributions and criticisms.
No one perspective is better than another.
In fact, given human uniquenesses, perhaps
a combination of ideas from the various
perspectives will one day offer a better
conceptualization of human growth
and development.
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