The Scientific Revolution and
Enlightenment
CHAPTER 17 – PART 2
Agenda
 Recap
 Notes on Chapter 17
 Car Project
• Homework- Quiz on Chp 17 and Spirits due 11/20.
What were the CAUSES?
 The Renaissance promoted a new way of thinking
 Exploration and expansion of trade
 The Reformation led to a questioning of religious
beliefs and the important of God
 Continuing study of ancient authorities
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Greece
Rome
India
China
Scientific Revolution - Astronomy
 Aristotle’s Theory
 The Greek Philosopher Aristotle
believed in the “Geocentric”
theory
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That we lived in a finite, spherical
universe with the Earth at the
center
Earth was stationary in the
middle and the Moon and the
Sun orbited Earth.
He justified the Earth being
stationary because he believed
that the stars were static and did
not move.
Ideas upheld by church and was
accepted authority for European
intellectuals
Scientific Revolution - Astronomy
 Copernicus
 Created his own “Heliocentric”
theory
 The Earth revolves around the
Sun, which is really the center
of the solar system
 Found Geocentric theory
inaccurate, but did not want to
be ridiculed for weaknesses
 Copernicus was concerned
that the publication of “On the
Revolutions of Heavenly
Bodies” would create trouble
for him
 It was not published until
1543, when he was near death
Copernicus’ Universe
Comparison of Beliefs
The Geocentric Theory
The Heliocentric Theory
Scientific Revolution - Astronomy
 Galileo Galilei
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An Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer,
and philosopher who played a major role in the
Scientific Revolution.
His achievements include:
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Improvements to the telescope
Building the first telescope used for astronomy
Scanning the heavens beginning in 1609
In 1610, Galileo published an account of his
telescopic observations of the moons of Jupiter,
using this observation to argue in favor of the
sun-centered, Copernican theory of the universe.
Scientific Revolution - Astronomy
 Galileo and the Catholic Church
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In 1616, Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino personally handed Galileo an
admonition enjoining him neither to advocate nor teach Copernican
astronomy
In October of 1632, Galileo was ordered to appear before the Holy Office
in Rome.
Following a papal trial he was found suspect of heresy.
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Galileo was forced to take back his support of Copernicus to save his life
Galileo was placed under house arrest and his movements restricted by
the Pope.
From 1634 onward he was under house arrest at his country house at
outside of Florence.
Scientific Revolution - Astronomy
 Johannes Kepler
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A mathematics teacher who continued the
work of Copernicus on Planetary Motion
Was assistant to astronomer Tycho Brahe
Achievements:
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fundamental work in the field of optics
invented an improved version of the refracting
telescope
helped to legitimize the telescopic discoveries
of his contemporary Galileo Galilei
Scientific Revolution - Astronomy
 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
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Kepler's three laws of planetary motion
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The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the
Sun at a focus.
A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out
equal areas during equal intervals of time.
The square of the orbital period of a planet is
directly proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit.
The Scientific Revolution-Anatomy
 Andreas Vesalius
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An anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most
influential books on anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the
Workings of the Human Body).
The founder of modern human anatomy
Accomplishments:
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carried out dissection as the primary teaching tool, handling the
actual work himself while his students clustered around the table.
believed the skeletal system to be the framework of the human body
Vesalius’ most impressive contribution to the study of the muscular
system may be the incredible illustrations in his text
Vesalius defined a nerve as the mode of transmitting sensation and
motion. He believed that nerves do not originate from the heart,
as was the Aristotelian belief, but that nerves stemmed from the
brain.
The Scientific Revolution - Anatomy
 William Harvey
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English physician who was the first to
describe correctly and in exact detail the
systemic circulation and properties of blood
being pumped around the body by the heart.
He argued for the idea that blood was
pumped around the body by the heart before
returning to the heart and being recirculated in a closed system.
The Scientific Revolution
Science (and Math)
ISAAC NEWTON
FRANCIS BACON
RENE DESCARTES
ANTONY VAN LEEOWENHOEK
ROBERT HOOKE
The Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)
 Isaac Newton
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English natural philosopher, physicist,
mathematician, and astronomer.
Generally regarded as the most original and
influential theorist in the history of science.
Considered by many to be the most
important figure in human history.
The Scientific Revolution Science (and
Math)
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Newton’s Achievements
Newton’s Laws of Motion
 Became the founding principle of mechanics and enlightened
the masses about the relationships between force and motion.
 His observation led him to the discovery of the gravitational
force. It was Newton who showed that the gravitational force
extends across the Earth.
 Newton worked in the field of optics.
 His work led to the discovery that a prism can decompose white
light into a spectrum of colors.
 Newton invented the generalized binomial theorem and started
working on the development of a mathematical theory, which went
on to become Calculus.
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The Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)
 Francis Bacon
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An English philosopher, statesman, scientist,
lawyer, jurist, and author.
Influential through his works, especially as
philosophical advocate of the scientific
revolution
His works established and popularized an
inductive methodology for scientific inquiry,
often called the Baconian method or simply,
the scientific method.
The Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)
 Bacon’s Scientific Method
 Technique for investigating phenomena, acquiring new
knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.
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To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on
gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject
to specific principles of reasoning.
The Scientific Method
Identify problem
 Form hypothesis
 Perform experiments to test hypothesis
 Record results
 Analyze results, form conclusion
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The Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)
 Rene Descartes
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“I never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be
such".
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Descartes started his line of reasoning by doubting everything,
so as to assess the world from a fresh perspective, clear of any
preconceived notions.
He is key in the use of empiricism (experimentation to answer
questions).
Descartes' influence in mathematics is also apparent
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The Cartesian coordinate system allowing geometric shapes to
be expressed in algebraic equations.
He is also known as the father of analytical geometry.
The Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)
 Antony van Leeuwenhoek
 Dutch scientist, 1600s
 Used interest in developing magnifying
lens to invent microscope
 First to describe appearance of bacteria,
red blood cells, yeast, other
microorganisms
The Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)
•Robert Hooke
 English physician,
inventor
 Used early microscope to
describe appearance of
plants at microscopic level
 Credited with creating the
term cell
What was the SIGNIFICANCE?
 The science of the late Renaissance was significant
in establishing a base for modern science.
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“The renaissance enabled a scientific revolution which let scholars
look at the world in a different light.
Religion, superstition, and fear were replaced by reason and
knowledge”.
 This period saw a fundamental transformation in
scientific ideas across physics, astronomy, and
biology, and in the more widely held picture of the
universe.
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Brilliant minds started to question all manners of things and it was
this questioning that led to the scientific revolution, which in turn
formed the foundations of all modern sciences.
What were the EFFECTS?
 It led to an increased use of reason an observation to
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explain nature
It created greater sense of need for instruments such
as microscopes
It emphasized the scientific method
It promoted the expansion of knowledge by not
accepting things on face value or faith
It increased the belief in progress and the power of
reason
It led to a new view of the universe as a well-ordered
system
The Enlightenment
WHAT EXCITING CONCLUSION DID
PHILOSOPHERS REACH?
REASON COULD BE USED TO SOLVE ALL
HUMAN PROBLEMS.
ENLIGHTENMENT
 Thomas Hobbes
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All humans were naturally selfish and wicked, therefore governments
must keep order.
People should hand over their rights to a strong ruler. This was what
Hobbes called a social contract.
Strong ruler should have total power
(an absolute monarchy).
This powerful government with
awesome power is what he called
a leviathan (sea monster),
therefore he titled his book
Leviathan (1651).
ENLIGHTENMENT
 John Locke
 People were reasonable (though still
selfish) and had the natural rights
to life, liberty, and property.
 Purpose of government is to protect
these natural rights.
 Government power comes from the
consent of the people (foundation
for democracy).
ENLIGHTENMENT
 Baron de Montesquieu
 Proposed the “separation of powers”
 Executive,
legislative, and judicial
branches of government
 Kept individuals or groups from
abusing power
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Proposed “checks and balances”
 Allowed
each branch to check against
the power of the other two
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Published The Spirit of the Laws
 Published
1748
 Showed admiration of Great Britain’s
government (thought it was the best!)
ENLIGHTENMENT
 Voltaire
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Real name was Francois-Marie Arouet.
Wrote more than 70 books of political essays, philosophy,
drama.
Used satire against his enemies,
especially the clergy.
Imprisoned twice for his beliefs,
which were:
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Tolerance
Reason
Freedom of religious belief
Freedom of speech
“I do not agree with a word you say
but will defend to the death your right
to say it.”
and
ENLIGHTENMENT
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau
 Passionately committed to
individual freedom.
 Believed man was born free and
good but easily corrupted.
 Believed the only good
government was the “general
will” or direct democracy.
 Government
should work for
common good, not just the
wealthy few
 Despised inequality in society
• Views inspired revolutionaries in
years to come
ENLIGHTENMENT
 Mary Wollstonecraft
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Demanded equal rights for women and
pushed against traditional views about
women
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Women and men should be educated
equally
Women should enter professions
traditionally dominated by men like
medicine and politics
Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of
Woman, which advocated equal
education for women
ENLIGHTENMENT
 Adam Smith
 Scottish economist, used reason
to analyze economic systems
 The Wealth of Nations advanced
free market enterprise
 Strong believer in laissez-faire
economics, no government
regulation
 Believed economy would be
stronger if market forces of supply
and demand were allowed to work
freely
Enlightened Monarchs
 The new political ideas affected the leadership of some
18th century European monarchs.
 The ideals of tolerance, justice, and the improvement of
people’s lifestyle became guidelines for these rulers
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Joseph II of Austria
Frederick II of Prussia
(We discussed in Chapter 15!)
 They still ruled absolutely, but they internalized the
Enlightenment philosophy and made attempts to tolerate
diversity, increased opportunity for serfs, and take on the
responsibilities that required their rule.
The Enlightenment Spreads
 Baroque Musicians
 Antonio Vivaldi
Most famous work Le quattro stagioni (The Four Seasons)
 Wrote operas, sonatas, and chamber music
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Johann Sebastian Bach
Most famous work: Jesu Joy of Man’s Desiring
 Wrote cantatas, chorales, organ works, lute and chamber music
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George Frederick Handel
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Most famous work: Messiah oratorio, traditionally performed during the
Christmas season, include “Hallelujah Chorus”
Wrote operas, oratorios, cantatas, numerous arias,
and chamber music
The Enlightenment Spreads
 Classical Musicians
 Joseph Haydn
Known as “Father of the Symphony” and “Father of the String
Quartet”
 Wrote symphonies, numerous concertos for
various instruments, and operas
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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Most famous works: Toy Symphony and Flute concerto No. 2 in D
Major, K 314
 Wrote operas, symphonies, concertos, piano music, chamber music,
and music for masses
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Ludwig von Beethoven
Most famous works: his 5th and 9th symphonies
 Wrote symphonies, operas, piano and choral music
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