Western Civilization I Final Exam Review Guide
Fall 2013
Historiography
Positivist historians argue that one must collect tremendous amounts of data and only use that data to
make historical interpretations.
New Historians argue that one should focus historical analysis on the lives of everyday people more than
on important figures.
Postmodernist scholars argue that all literary sources are flawed because of the biases of their authors.
First Civilizations:
Most historians argue that the first civilization arose in Mesopotamia.
Historians commonly argue that Western Civilization began in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
The ancient term for southern Mesopotamia was Sumeria while the ancient term for northern
Mesopotamia was Akkadia.
A city-state is a city and its surrounding territory that acts like an independent country. The Sumerians
lived in city-states, as did the ancient Greeks.
A defining characteristic of Sumerian religious beliefs is that the Sumerians generally had a negative
view of their gods and the afterlife. This probably resulted from the unpredictability of life along the
Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The main purpose of ritual was to propitiate the gods. Moral behavior was
not an important component of their religious beliefs.
Priests were the first leaders of Sumerian city-states because of their role as intermediaries between
humans and gods. Eventually, military strongmen called lugals pushed their way into power but still had
a cooperative relationship with the priests.
The world’s first writing system is called cuneiform. It was used in Mesopotamia for 3,000 years.
The first empire in Western history was created by Sargon of Akkad.
The Epic of Gilgamesh was the West's first great epic poem. The Epic of Gilgamesh: 1) Describes the
adventures of a great Sumerian king who discovers that true immortality derives from one’s
accomplishments in life; 2) Includes the story of a Noah-like figure who endures a great flood and a snake
who steals the secret to immortality; 3) Was written in cuneiform.
Traditionally, ancient Egyptian history begins with the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt by
Narmer/Menes.
Ancient Egyptians: 1) Built great pyramids during the Old Kingdom; 2) Buried pharaohs in the Valley of
the Kings during the Middle and New Kingdom; 3) Created the longest enduring civilization of the
ancient Near East.
Ancient Egyptians generally had a positive view of their gods and the afterlife. This probably resulted
from the predictable nature of the Nile River.
The practice of mummification is explained via the myth of Osiris, the ancient Egyptian god of the dead.
His wife Isis' resurrection of Osiris in the myth influenced the development of the Cult of Isis, one of the
ancient world's most popular mystery cults.
Important artifacts in ancient Egypt’s historical record include: 1) the Stele of Narmer (earliest king list);
2) the Rosetta Stone (helped us translate hieroglyphics); and 3) the Book of Dead (in tombs; helped the
dead reach the afterlife).
The ancient Egyptian pharaoh Ramses II: 1) Fought the Hittites to a standstill at the Battle of Kadesh in
1274 C.E.; 2) may have been the pharaoh in power during the time of the Hebrew Exodus; 3) Built the
great cliff temples of Abu Simbel near the boundary between Nubia and Egypt.
the impact of the Battle of Kadesh (1274 B.C.E.) on ancient Near Eastern history is that it weakened the
Egyptians and Hittites, allowing smaller kingdoms, such as Israel and Phoenicia, to thrive for a time.
The ancient Egyptian structure most often described as the epitome of ancient Egyptian architecture is
the Temple of Hatshepsut.
The discovery of King Tutankhamen’s tomb is one of the most important finds in the history of Egyptian
archaeology because King Tut’s tomb remained undisturbed until it was discovered in the early 20th
century.
Ancient Egyptian history ended when Octavian Caesar took control of Egypt in 31 B.C.E. following his
defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium.
Languages that have their linguistic origin in Arabia are called Semitic languages.
Languages that have their linguistic origin in the Caucasus region north of the Black Sea are called IndoEuropean languages.
The Code of Hammurabi: 1) Was developed during the period when the Amorites, or Old Babylonians,
dominated Mesopotamia; 2) Includes 272 laws covering many aspects of civil and criminal law; 3) many
of its laws seem modern in their attempt to protect the general welfare of the people; 4) treats people
differently based on their social class.
The Phoenicians: 1) Established their kingdom in Lebanon, but were politically insignificant; 2) Made
their wealth from commerce and were most known for a purple dye they manufactured; 3) Established
important colonies along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, particularly in the Western Mediterranean
basin.
The English alphabet derives in great part from the alphabet of the Phoenicians.
Jews relive their history in their holidays. Judaism: 1) Began with Abraham, the patriarch, or first
prophet, of Judaism; 2) Sees Moses as its most important prophet; 3) The Torah is the most sacred part
of the Hebrew Bible and was kept in the holiest of the holies of the Temple of Jerusalem.
During the history of the ancient Kingdom of Israel: 1) King David defeated the Philistines, united the
Twelve Hebrew tribes under his strong rule, and made Jerusalem Israel's capital; 2) King Solomon, the
son of King David, ruled during Israel's wealthiest period and built the First Temple of Jerusalem.
The holiest sites in Jerusalem are: 1) The Western, or Wailing, Wall (for Jews); 2) The Church of the Holy
Sepulcher (for Christians); and 3) The Dome of the Rock (for Muslims, though it is also holy to Christians
and Jews).
Ancient Greece:
The first major civilization in what’s now Greece was Minoan Civilization, which was located on the
island of Crete south of mainland Greece.
The Palace at Knossos: 1) Was located on the island of Crete; 2) Is a mazelike palace of approximately
1500 rooms; 3) Shows evidence of complex plumbing systems; 4) Its ruins and artifacts indicate that its
inhabitants may have been members of a bull cult.
The Mycenaeans: 1) Lived in settlements focused around hilltop fortresses called citadels; 2) Replaced
the Minoans as the dominant group in ancient Greece; 3) Were a very warlike people, as indicated by
Mycenaean burial sites, which is supported by evidence in the Iliad and the Odyssey.
The sources that comprise our greatest literary evidence of Mycenaean Civilization are the legendary
blind Greek poet Homer's epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey.
The ancient Greek concept of arete means excellence. It applied to all areas of life.
The ancient Greek concept of kleos aphthiiton means undying glory.
The Greek epic poem the Iliad traces the moral development of Achilles.
Characteristics of Athens' direct democracy include: 1) A Council of 500 set the agenda for the Athenian
assembly; 2) Most important government officials and jury members were chosen by lottery; 3)
Occasionally, Athenians voted to exile an Athenian citizen for 10 years; 4)All citizens could vote on all
issues in the Athenian assembly; 5) People were paid for government jobs.
Early Greek sculpture and temple styles derive from Egypt.
Most Classical Greek statues were made of bronze because of its ability to hold details, its lightness, and
its durability. Most ancient Greek statues we have today are Roman marble copies of bronze Greek
originals.
Thales, the “father” of Western philosophy, argued that water is the primordial element in the universe.
The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates is most famous for arguing that repeated and relentless
questioning was the chief tool one should use to get an opponent to discover the inaccuracies of his or her
arguments. We learn about him from Plato's Dialogues.
Plato argues in his book the Republic that the best type of government is one led by philosopher-kings.
In Plato’s Allegory of the Cave, the author argues that one must rely on reason to determine the forms,
or essence, of things in the universe.
Our greatest source of information about the government of ancient Athens is Aristotle's Athenaion
Politeia.
Ancient Rome:
The legend of the founding of Rome is recounted in the famous epic poem written by Virgil called the
Aeneid. Romulus and Remus, descendants of Aeneis, founded the city of Rome.
Important episodes in Roman history include: 1) After its founding in 753 B.C.E., Rome was ruled by
Etruscan kings; 2) The Roman Republic lasted from 509 - 31 B.C.E.; 3) Rome was plagued by violence and
civil wars from 133 to 31 B.C.E.; 4) The Roman empire began with the reign of Augustus and lasted from
31 B.C.E. to 476 C.E. when the last Roman emperor in the west was removed from power and not
replaced.
The term Republic comes from the Latin term Res Publica, which means "a public thing." This indicates
that the Romans believed that the government should be controlled by the people.
Developments of the Roman Republic include: 1) The Council of the Plebeians became the most
important common people’s assembly; 2) The office of tribune was created to act as a protector of the
people; 3) The system worked as long as people adhered to the mos maiorem, or “way of the
ancestors.”; 4) Plebeians gained access to high offices, such as consul, the most important official in
Rome.
Rome gained control of the Western Mediterranean region via its defeat of Carthage in the Punic wars,
which occurred from 269 to 146 B.C.E.
The figure who won the civil war among the members of the Roman Republic’s First Triumvirate was
Julius Caesar.
Augustus, Rome's first emperor: 1) defeated Marc Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31
B.C.E. and took over Egypt; 2) skillfully maneuvered over several years to concentrate military and
political powers in his own hands; 3) Called himself princeps ("first citizen") and ruled as if he was
working within the framework of the old Roman Republican political system; 4) Set precedents during
his 45-year reign that ushered in a period of relative peace and prosperity in the Roman empire that
lasted for about 200 years from 27 B.C.E. to 180 C.E.
The Roman Empire reached its greatest size in 117 C.E. during the reign of Trajan.
The two emperors whose reigns in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries C.E. temporarily stalled the fall of
the Roman Empire were Diocletian and Constantine.
The Roman emperor Diocletian’s greatest influence on Roman history was setting the precedent of
dividing the Roman Empire in two parts ruled by different emperors. The eastern half of the Roman
Empire would continue for another 1,000 years after the last Roman emperor in the west was removed
from power and not removed. This Greek-influenced empire, particularly from about 800 onward, is
described by historians as the Byzantine Empire. It fell in 1453 when the Ottoman Turks, led by Mehmet
II, conquered Constantinople.
The Roman emperor Constantine: 1) Made Christianity legal within the Roman Empire through the Edict
of Milan (313 C.E.); 2) Promoted Christianity by ordering the construction of great Christian churches on
sites associated with Jesus; 3) Funded Christian activities, while he de-funded pagan activities; 4)
Oversaw the First Council of Nicaea (325 C.E.), which decided basic Roman Catholic doctrines, such as
the idea that Jesus is both divine and human; 5) Moved the capital to Constantinople, which was nearer
the richer eastern half of the empire. This city became the capital of what we call the Byzantine Empire.
The main argument in Sir Edward Gibbon’s History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776 to
1788) was The Roman Empire fell because of a loss in civic virtue caused by the rise of Christianity.
The Pax Romana refers to a period of relative peace and prosperity in the Roman Empire that lasted
from 27 B.C.E. to 180 C.E. and began as a result of precedents set during the long reign of Augustus as
Rome's first emperor (31 B.C.E. to 14 C.E.).
Octavian Caesar convinced Romans to declare war on Cleopatra because he knew that this would, in
essence, be a declaration of war against Marc Antony.
Rise of Christianity:
The Roman emperor Constantine helped shape Roman Catholic by presiding over the First Council of
Nicaea (325 C.E.).
The Roman Catholic Church modeled its hierarchy after that of the Roman Empire.
The Doctrine of Petrine Succession argued that the Bishop of Rome was the successor to the Apostle
Peter and, therefore, should be head of the Roman Catholic Church.
Middle Ages:
The Eastern Roman Empire continued for another 1,000 years after the last Roman Empire in the west
was removed from power and not replaced. For a time, the empire flourished. Eventually it began losing
territory. It ended when its capital, Constantinople, was conquered by the Ottoman Turks under the
leadership of Mehmet II in 1453. The Turks used huge cannons to conquer the city.
The Iconoclastic Controversy (8th and 9th centuries C.E.) refers to the dispute over whether religious
images should be used as the focus of religious worship in the Byzantine world. Eventually, the Empress
Irene settled the dispute and icons were allowed to be used in worship. This conflicted with religious
doctrine in the Roman Catholic world.
In 1054, the Eastern Orthodox Church was established as a result of the Great Schism (not to be
confused with a later Great Schism in the Roman Catholic world). The Eastern Orthodox Church doesn't
see the pope as the head of the Christian Church. Another main issue was that the Eastern Orthodox
Church disagreed with the Roman Catholic Church's alteration of the Nicene Creed to include the idea
that the Holy Spirit descends from both the Father and the Son. Also, the Eastern Orthodox Church sees
icons as important to worship. Eastern Orthodox priests can also marry.
During the reign of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I: 1) He reconquered much of the former Western
Roman Empire; 2) He put down a major revolt and executed about 50,000 rebels; 3) He ordered the
construction of the Hagia Sophia, the greatest Christian Church through much of the Middle Ages; 4) He
ordered the compilation of a great legal code based on Roman law and precedents that greatly influenced
future European legal codes.
The period in Western history known as Late Antiquity lasted from 300 to 650 C.E.
Medieval culture developed out of the blending of the Roman legacy, Germanic culture, and Roman
Catholic beliefs. This occurred gradually beginning from about 300 to 650 C.E. (Late Antiquity). The
Middle Ages is commonly defined as lasting from 300 to 1500 C.E.
In Muhammad and Charlemagne, historian Henri Pirenne argues that Roman civilization really ended
with the expansion of Islam in the 8th century C.E.
Roman culture continued to flourish in Spain and Italy for about two centuries after the "fall" of the
Roman Empire in the West in 476 C.E.
The Germanic tradition of Trial by Ordeal: 1) Was a Frankish tradition used during the Early Middle Ages
to determine the guilt or innocence of the accused; 2) Was used when questioning and other methods
of finding the truth failed; 3) Was founded on the belief that God would heal or save those who suffered
the ordeal; 4) Contrary to popular belief, saw limited use.
the Merovingian leader Clovis is considered the founder of the French Christian nation. Clovis is the
origin of the French royal name Louis; 3) He was a Frankish king.
Charlemagne (r. 768 - 814 C.E.): 1) Created the greatest empire of the Early Middle Ages (300 to 1000
C.E.). It was celled the Carolingian Empire; 2) Used extreme violence to prevent the spread of Roman
Catholic Christianity within his empire; 3) Was named Holy Roman Emperor in 800 C.E. by the pope as a
reward for restoring the pope to power; 4) Promoted major intellectual and artistic developments
during the Carolingian Renaissance.
The general territorial boundaries of France and Germany originated with the division of the Carolingian
Empire in the 9th century C.E.
The Romans conquered southern Great Britain in 43 C.E. and controlled it until 410 C.E.
Groups that settled in England after 410 C.E. included Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Vikings. The Angles and
Saxons defeated the Britons in c. 500 C.E.
The legend of King Arthur is rooted in a variety of medieval sources. It reached its modern form in Sir
Thomas Mallory’s Le Morte d’Arthur (1485 C.E.).
The Norman leader William II conquered England in 1066 (the Norman Conquest) and centralized royal
power (castles, Domesday Book). King Henry II established a single royal law code for all of England
called the Common Law. King John was forced to sign the Magna Carta in 1215, which granted certain
rights to nobles, such as the right to approve taxation, and laid the foundation for Britain's unwritten
constitution.
Parliament was originally an advisory council to English King William II. By 1300, Parliament developed
two houses, the House of Lords and House of Commons. The House of Commons became a regular and
permanent feature of Parliament during the reign of Edward II (1312 - 1377). It, however, did not
become supreme in the British government until the Glorious Revolution (1688).
The Holy Roman Empire formally began in 962 C.E. with the reign of Otto I, the first true Holy Roman
Emperor. Modern Germany was the core of the empire. Frederick II (1194 to 1250 C.E.) was arguably the
most powerful Holy Roman emperor. The central government of the Holy Roman Empire grew much
weaker as a result of the Thirty Years’ War (1618 to 1648 C.E.). The empire ended with the abdication of
Francis II in 1806 C.E.
Major groups that attacked Europe during the Dark Ages (c. 800 to 1000 C.E.) included Muslims,
Vikings, and Magyars (the ancestors of the Hungarians).
A Viking group called the Rus moved into what's now Russia in c. 1000 C.E. They came to dominate the
Slavs there (this is the origin of the word slave). Viking and Slav culture blended to form the culture of
the Russian people. Through much of the last few centuries of medieval history, the Mongols dominated
Russia (1200s to 1400s C.E.).
Possibly the most significant development of the Hundred Years’ War (1337 to 1433 C.E.) was that it
marked the first effective use of gunpowder weaponry in a European war.
The first monks lived isolated lives devoted to god in places such as deserts. Eventually they lived in
communities that followed a regula ("rulebook" for monks). The most popular regula was called the Rule
of St. Benedict.
The main goal of Europeans during the Crusades (c. 1100 to 1400) was to regain control of Jerusalem for
Christians There were four major crusades during this period. Christians regained Jerusalem from 1098 to
1198. The Seljuk leader Saladin re-conquered the city for Muslims in 1197.
At first, medieval universities didn't own buildings. Rather, they were corporations of students and
teachers who collectively bargained to get lower rents, prices for food, etc.
The Reconquista refers to the period from 722 to 1492 C.E. when the Spanish gradually expelled
Muslims from Spain.
Spain during the 16th century C.E. controlled a vast empire that included much of the Americas. Its
empire was arguably the most powerful in Europe. Spanish rulers were very religious and worked hard
to spread Roman Catholicism to Protestant and non-Christian areas. King Philip II was Spain’s most
powerful absolute monarch. By the end of the century, Spain was the wealthiest country in Europe,
mainly because of imports from its imperial possessions, such as gold and silver.
The Counter-Reformation did not reverse the spread of Protestantism in Europe because its reforms
came too late. The spread of Protestantism, however, probably slowed down somewhat because of it.
The Thirty Years’ War involved many European countries and severely weakened the region that now
constitutes Germany for almost two centuries.
Renaissance:
Dante Allighieri’s Divine Comedy follows Dante’s fictional journey from hell, through purgatory to
heaven.
In The Prince, written by Niccolo Machiavelli, the author argues that rulers should use whatever means
necessary to gain and maintain power. It must be understood in the context of its times. The
Renaissance was a very violent time in Italian history. Like Germany, Italy was divided into city-states
and independent territories.
Petrarch, the father of Renaissance humanism, sought to find and study all Greek and Roman classics
hidden in various locations throughout Europe. One of his main reasons for doing this was to use Roman
classics to learn and teach perfect Latin.
The Western concept of individualism first became fully developed during the Renaissance (the idea of
humanism).
The statement “Christian humanists saw the spark of the divine in human beings” indicates the Christian
humanist belief that: 1) Humans were the children of God; 2) Humans had freewill: 3) Humans were
capable of great things.
Developments of the Renaissance in art included: 1) Linear perspective drawing techniques; 2) The
realistic drawing of human anatomy; 3) The use of oil paints to add realistic details to skin, clothing,
reflections, etc.
Protestant Reformation:
The Protestant Reformation began in 1517 when Martin Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses Against
the Sale of Indulgences on the door of the University of Wittenberg Chapel.
The emphasis of Calvinism is on the doctrine of predestination, which argues that God chooses those
who will go to heaven (the Elect) before they are even born.
Essay Questions:
1. List and explain six of the cultural characteristics of Western Civilization as defined in class.
2. Explain how the Western Roman Empire evolved into the nation-states of medieval Europe.