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OCR
A LEVEL
GEOGRAPHY
FOR A LEVEL
INCLUDES AS LEVEL
Michael Raw
David Barker
Helen Harris
Andy Palmer
Peter Stiff
1
Confidently navigate the new OCR A Level specification with print and digital resources that
support your planning, teaching and assessment needs; brought to you by the leading
Geography publisher alongside Geography Review magazine and expert-led, inspirational
CPD events.
We are working in collaboration with OCR to produce the following print and digital
resources that support the teaching and learning of the new A Level Geography specification:
Contents
OCR A Level Geography Student’s Book
9781471858703
May 2016
£35.99
OCR A Level Geography Student eTextbook
9781471859076
June 2016
From £9 + VAT per student for 1 year's access
To request Inspection Copies, eInspection Copies or free, no obligation 30-day Student
eTextbook trials, visit www.hoddereducation.co.uk/Geography/ALevel/OCR
Introduction
Part 1 Physical systems
Also available:
OCR A Level Geography Dynamic Learning
Dynamic Learning is an innovative online subscription service that enriches your teaching and
simplifies your planning, providing lesson planning tools, readymade presentations,
differentiated worksheets, exam support, self-marking tests, geographical resources and
eTextbook elements that all work together to create the ultimate classroom and homework
resource.
Prices from: £360 + VAT for access until December 2018
Publishing: Spring 2016
OCR A Level Geography Student Guides
Reinforce students’ geographical understanding throughout their course; clear topic summaries
with sample questions and answers help students improve their exam technique and achieve
their best.
Price: £9.99
Publishing from: August 2016
Essential Maths Skills for AS/A Level Geography
Don't let your students miss out on easy marks; help them improve their skills and feel confident
about the maths they need for A Level Geography with this essential guide.
Price: £9.99
Publishing: September 2016
Geography Review magazine
Geography Review magazine helps students learn more, gaining deeper subject knowledge and
the skills to study independently so they get the grade they’re really looking for. It broadens
students’ understanding of topical issues around the globe, providing them with extra facts and
case studies to enhance their exam responses.
Institutional price: £38 • Student price: £15 • 4 issues per year
Philip Allan CPD Training
Ensure that you are fully prepared for the upcoming changes by attending one of our The Exciting
New OCR A Level Geography Specification courses.
Highly-regarded trainers Andy Palmer and Peter Stiff will provide a useful insight into the 2016
OCR A Level specification to help you make an informed choice about which specification to
choose.
To find out more and request Inspection Copies, eInspection Copies and free, no obligation
Dynamic Learning trials, visit www.hoddereducation.co.uk/Geography/ALevel/OCR
Chapter 1: Coastal landscapes
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
How can coastal landscapes be viewed as systems?
How are coastal landforms developed?
How do coastal landforms evolve over time as climate changes?
How does human activity cause change within coastal landscape systems?
Practice questions
Chapter 2: Glaciated landscapes
2.1 How can glaciated landscapes be viewed as systems?
2.2 How are glacial landforms developed?
2.3 How do glacial landforms evolve over time as climate changes?
2.4How does human activity cause change within glaciated and periglacial landscape systems?
Practice questions
Chapter 3: Dryland landscapes
3.1How can dryland landscapes be viewed as systems?
3.2How are landforms of mid and low latitude deserts developed?
3.3How do dryland landforms evolve over time as climate changes?
3.4How does human activity cause change within dryland landscape systems?
Practice questions
Chapter 4: Earth’s life support systems
4.1How important are water and carbon to life on earth?
4.2How do the water and carbon cycles operate in contrasting locations?
4.3How much change occurs over time in the water and carbon cycles?
4.4To what extent are the water and carbon cycles linked?
Practice questions
Part 2 Human Interactions
Chapter 5: Changing spaces; making places
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
What’s in a place?
How do we understand place?
How does economic change influence patterns of social inequality in places?
Who are the players that influence economic change in places?
How are places created through place-making processes?
Practice questions
6.1 What are the contemporary patterns of international trade?
6.2 Why has trade become increasingly complex?
6.3 What are the issues associated with unequal flows of international trade?
Practice questions
Chapter 7: Global migration
7.1What are the contemporary patterns of global migration?
7.2Why has migration become increasingly complex?
7.3What are the issues associated with unequal flows of global migration?
Practice questions
Chapter 8: Human rights
8.1What is meant by human rights?
8.2What are the variations in women’s rights?
8.3What are the strategies for global governance of human rights?
8.4To what extent has intervention in human rights contributed to development?
Practice questions
Chapter 9: Power and borders
9.1What is meant by sovereignty and territorial integrity?
9.2What are the contemporary challenges to sovereign state authority?
9.3What is the role of global governance in conflict?
9.4How effective is global governance of sovereignty and territorial integrity?
Practice questions
Chapter 13: Future of food
13.1 What is food security and why is it of global significance?
13.2 What are the causes of inequality in global food security?
13.3 What are the threats to global food security?
13.4How do food production and security issues impact people and the physical environment?
13.5 Is there hope for the future of food?
Practice questions
Contents
Chapter 6: Trade in the contemporary world
Chapter 14: Hazardous Earth
14.1 What is the evidence for continental drift and plate tectonics?
14.2 What are the main hazards generated by volcanic activity?
14.3 What are the main hazards generated by seismic activity?
14.4 What are the implications of living in tectonically active locations?
14.5What measures are available to help people cope with living in tectonically active locations?
Practice questions
Part 4 Investigative geography
Chapter 15: Geographical skills
Chapter 16: Independent investigation
Glossary
Index
Part 3 Geographical debates
Chapter 10: Climate change
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
How and why has climate changed in the geological past?
How and why has the era of industrialisation affected global climate?
Why is there a debate over climate change?
In what ways can humans respond to climate change?
Can an international response to climate change ever work?
Practice questions
Chapter 11: Disease dilemmas
11.1What are the global patterns of disease and can factors be identified that determine these?
11.2 Is there a link between disease and levels of economic development?
11.3 How effectively are communicable and non-communicable diseases dealt with?
11.4 How far can disease be predicted and mitigated against?
11.5 Can diseases ever be fully eradicated?
Practice questions
Chapter 12: Exploring oceans
Contents
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
iv
What are the main characteristics of oceans?
What are the opportunities and threats arising from the use of ocean resources?
How and in what ways do human activities pollute oceans?
How is climate change impacting the ocean system?
How have socio-economic and political factors influenced the use of the oceans?
Practice questions
v
Features in the book:
Key terms are defined in the glossary, equipping students with the
high-level geographical vocabulary they need to use and understand
Agricultural crops and forest trees also store large
amounts of carbon available for human use as food,
timber, paper and so on.
The water and carbon cycles
Earth’s life support systems
4.1 How important are water
and carbon to life on Earth?
Key ideas from
the specification
are introduced
for each topic to
focus students’
learning
Key idea
➜ Water and carbon support life on Earth and
move between the land, the oceans and the
atmosphere
The importance of water in
supporting life on the planet
Chapter 4 Earth’s life support systems
Clear
explanations
of the content
and concepts
guide you and
your students
through
the 2016
specification
Scientists believe that water is the key to understanding
the evolution of life on Earth as it provides a
medium that allows organic molecules to mix and
form more complex structures. The ubiquity of
liquid water on Earth is due to the distance of the
Earth from the Sun: it lies in the so-called ‘Goldilocks
zone’, which is ‘just right’ for water to exist in its
liquid form.
The importance of liquid water to life can be
appreciated when we compare Earth with our nearest
planetary neighbour, Mars. Although water ice exists
on Mars, there is new evidence of very small amounts
of liquid water flowing on the Martian surface.
Scientists think this liquid water increases the chance
of finding life forms on the planet.
Water helps to create benign thermal conditions
on Earth. For example, oceans, which occupy 71 per
cent of the Earth’s surface, moderate temperatures by
absorbing heat, storing it and releasing it slowly. Water
also moderates the environment in other ways. Clouds
made up of tiny water droplets and ice crystals reflect
around a fifth of incoming solar radiation and lower
surface temperatures. At the same time water vapour,
a potent greenhouse gas, absorbs long-wave radiation
from the Earth helping to maintain average global
temperatures almost 15 °C higher than they would be
otherwise.
The uses of water for flora, fauna
and people
Water makes up to 65–95 per cent of all living organisms
and is crucial to their growth, reproduction and other
metabolic functions. Plants, which manufacture their
own food, need water for photosynthesis, respiration
and transpiration. Photosynthesis takes place in the
leaves of plants combining CO2, sunlight and water to
make glucose and starches. Respiration in plants and
animals converts glucose to energy through its reaction
with oxygen, releasing water and CO2 in the process.
Plants also require water to maintain their rigidity
(plants wilt when they run out of water) and to
transport mineral nutrients from the soil. In people
and animals water is the medium used for all chemical
reactions in the body including the circulation of oxygen
and nutrients. Transpiration of water from leaf surfaces
cools plants by evaporation. Sweating is a similar cooling
process in humans. In fur-covered mammals, reptiles and
birds, evaporative cooling is achieved by panting.
Water is also an essential resource for economic
activity. It is used to generate electricity, irrigate crops,
provide recreational facilities and satisfy public demand
(drinking water, sewage disposal), as well as in a huge
range of industries including food manufacturing,
brewing, paper making and steel making.
The importance of carbon to life
on Earth
Carbon is a common chemical element. It is stored in
carbonate rocks such as limestone, sea floor sediments,
ocean water (as dissolved CO2), the atmosphere (as CO2
gas), and in the biosphere. Life as we know it is carbonbased: built on large molecules of carbon atoms such as
proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids.
Apart from its biological significance, carbon is used
as an economic resource. Fossil fuels such as coal, oil
and natural gas power the global economy. Oil is also
used as a raw material in the manufacture of products
ranging from plastics to paint and synthetic fabrics.
6
858703_04_OCR_Geog_A_level_06-09.indd 6
02/11/15 11:03 AM
At the global scale, water and carbon flow in closed
systems between the atmosphere, the oceans, land
and the biosphere. The cycling of individual water
molecules and carbon atoms occurs on time scales
varying from days to millions of years.
At its most basic, the global water cycle consists of
three main stores: the atmosphere, oceans and land. The
oceans are by far the biggest store and the atmosphere
is the smallest. Water moves between stores through the
processes of precipitation, evapotranspiration, run-off
and groundwater flow, see Figure 4.1.
ATMOSPHERE
3
3
13 × km 10
Precipitation (111)
Precipitation
Respiration
Decomposition
HUMAN
ACTIVITY
Photosynthesis
90
60
TERRESTRIAL BIOMASS 560
18 years
OCEANS
Surface: 700
25 years
Deep: 38,000 1250 years
120
SOIL 2,300
92
Oxidation
0.1
0.2
Weathering
Volcanic activity
2
SEA FLOOR
SEDIMENTS (6,000)
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
(60000,000–100000000)
(Fossil fuels 4130)
240–300 million years
Key
GT = 1 billion tonnes
Residence time = average length of time carbon remains in stores
Figure 4.2 The global carbon cycle: stores, flows and residence
times (GT/stores and flows year)
Evapotranspiration
(71)
Evaporation (425)
ATMOSPHERE 600
6 years
Physical systems
Chapter 4
LAND
3
3
36,000 × km 10
Key idea
➜ The water and carbon cycles are systems with
inputs, outputs and stores
OCEANS
3
3
1,370,000 × km 10
Run-off/groundwater flow (40)
Key
Figures are in thousands of cubic kilometres for storage,
and thousands of cubic kilometres/year for flows.
Figure 4.1 The global water cycle: stores and annual flows
The global carbon cycle is similar in comprising a series
of stores and flows. Long-term storage in sedimentary
rocks holds 99.9 per cent of all carbon on Earth. In
contrast, most of the carbon in circulation moves rapidly
between the atmosphere, the oceans, soil and the
biosphere. The main pathways between stores followed
by carbon in this cycle include photosynthesis,
respiration, oxidation (decomposition, combustion)
and weathering, see Figure 4.2.
The water and carbon cycles as open and
closed systems
Systems are groups of objects and the relationships that
bind the objects together. On a global scale the water
and carbon cycles are closed systems driven by the Sun’s
energy (which is external to the Earth). Only energy (and
not matter) cross the boundaries of the global water and
carbon cycles - hence we refer to these systems as ‘closed’.
At smaller scales (e.g. drainage basin or forest ecosystem),
materials as well as the Sun’s energy cross system
boundaries. These systems are therefore open systems.
858703_04_OCR_Geog_A_level_06-09.indd 7
The global water cycle
Reservoirs and stores
The global water cycle consists of a number of reservoirs
where water is stored for variable lengths of time (Table 4.1),
and the linkages or pathways between these reservoirs.
Table 4.1 Global reservoirs of water
Store
Oceans
Polar ice and glaciers
Groundwater (aquifers)
Size (km3 × 103) % of global water
1,370,000
29,000
9,500
97
2
0.7
Lakes
125
0.01
Soils
65
0.005
Atmosphere
13
0.001
Rivers
1.7
0.0001
Biosphere
0.6
0.00004
The oceans contain 97 per cent of all water on the
planet and dominate the global water cycle. Fresh
water comprises only a tiny proportion of water in
store and three-quarters is frozen in the ice caps of
Antarctica and Greenland. Meanwhile, water stored
below ground in permeable rocks amounts to just
one-fifth of all fresh water.
7
02/11/15 11:03 AM
Features in the book:
Inputs and outputs of water
According to USGS estimates, the global water cycle
budget circulates around 505,000 km3 of water a year as
inputs and outputs between the principal water stores.
●
●
●
Carbonate rocks, such as limestone and chalk, and
deep-ocean sediments are by far the biggest carbon
store. Most of the carbon that is not stored in rocks
and sediments is found in the oceans as dissolved CO2.
Carbon storage in the atmosphere, plants and soils is
relatively small. However, these stores play a crucial
part in the carbon cycle. They also represent most of
the carbon in circulation at any one time.
There are two strands to the carbon cycle: a slow
cycle and a fast cycle.
Activity
1 Construct a simple systems diagram, comprising
boxes (stores) and arrows (flows) to illustrate
the global water cycle. Add details to show the
volume of water in store and water transfers
between stores.
2 Describe and explain the distribution of water
vapour in Figure 4.3.
The slow carbon cycle
The global carbon cycle
The global carbon cycle consists of a number of stores
or sinks connected by flows of carbon. The principal
stores are: the atmosphere, the oceans, carbonate
rocks, fossil fuels, plants and soils (Table 4.2).
Carbon moves between these stores in an
unending cycle.
Table 4.2 Principal carbon stores
Store
Atmosphere
Oceans
Sedimentary (carbonate)
rocks
Fossil fuels
Land plants
Soils/peat
Carbon in store (billon tonnes)
720
39,000
100,000,000
4,000
560
1,500
8
Carbon stored in rocks, sea-floor sediments and fossil
fuels is locked away for millions of years. The total
amount of carbon circulated by this slow cycle is between
ten and 100 million tonnes a year. CO2 diffuses from the
atmosphere into the oceans where marine organisms,
such as coral and clams, make their shells and skeletons
by fixing dissolved carbon together with calcium to
form calcium carbonate (CaCO3). On death, the remains
of these organisms sink to the ocean floor. There they
accumulate and over millions of years, heat and pressure
convert them to carbon-rich sedimentary rocks.
Typical residence times for carbon held in rocks
is around 150 million years. Some carbon-rich
sedimentary rocks, subducted into the upper mantle
at tectonic plate boundaries are vented to the
atmosphere in volcanic eruptions. Others exposed at or
near the surface by erosion and tectonic movements
are attacked by chemical weathering which releases
CO2 to the atmosphere, and in dissolved form to
streams, rivers and oceans.
On land, partly decomposed organic material
may be buried beneath younger sediments to form
carbonaceous rocks such as coal, lignite, oil and natural
gas. Like deep-ocean sediments, these fossil fuels act as
carbon sinks that endure for millions of years.
The fast carbon cycle
Chapter 4 Earth’s life support systems
●
Inputs of water to the atmosphere include water vapour
evaporated from the oceans, soils, lakes and rivers, and
vapour transpired through the leaves of plants. Together
these processes are known as evapotranspiration.
Moisture leaves the atmosphere as precipitation
(i.e. rain, snow, hail, etc.) and condensation (e.g. fog).
Ice sheets, glaciers and snowfields release water by
melting and sublimation (phase change of water
from ice to vapour).
Precipitation and meltwater drain from the land
surface as run-off into rivers. Most rivers flow to
the ocean, though some, in continental drylands like
southwest USA, drain to inland basins. A large part of
water falling as precipitation on the land reaches rivers
only after infiltrating and flowing through the soil.
After infiltrating the soil, water under gravity may
percolate into permeable rocks or aquifers. This
groundwater eventually reaches the surface as
springs or seepages and contributes to run-off.
Fieldwork opportunities are highlighted throughout, helping you plan relevant human
and physical geography projects that meet the changed assessment requirements
Carbon circulates most rapidly between the atmosphere,
the oceans, living organisms (biosphere) and soils.
These transfers are between ten and 1,000 times faster
than those in the slow carbon cycle. Land plants and
microscopic phytoplankton in the oceans are the key
components of the fast cycle. Through photosynthesis
they absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and combine
it with water to make carbohydrates (sugars/glucose).
Photosynthesis is a fundamental process and the
foundation of the food chain. Respiration by plants and
animals is the opposite process and results in the release
of CO2. Decomposition of dead organic material by
microbial activity also returns CO2 to the atmosphere.
Figure 4.3 Satellite image of global water vapour (mm)
858703_04_OCR_Geog_A_level_06-09.indd 8
In the fast cycle, carbon exchange also occurs
between the atmosphere and the oceans. Atmospheric
CO2 dissolves in ocean surface waters while the oceans
ventilate CO2 back to the atmosphere. Through this
exchange individual carbon atoms are stored (by
natural sequestration) in the oceans for, on average,
about 350 years.
Fieldwork opportunity
Physical systems
Given its pivotal role in the water cycle, it is
perhaps surprising that only a minute fraction of the
Earth’s water is found in the atmosphere. This paradox
is explained by the rapid flux of water into and out of
the atmosphere: the average residence time of a water
molecule in the atmosphere is just nine days.
Skills-focused activities enable
students to apply and improve
their theoretical knowledge
Investigate differences in the soil carbon store at two
contrasting sites: grassland and either deciduous or
coniferous woodland.
a Collect controlled and comparable samples (i.e.
samples at the two sites should be at the same soil
depth, the sites should have the same slope, aspect,
altitude, characteristics, etc.).
b Dry the samples in an oven and weigh them.
c Use a bunsen burner to remove organic material
and reweigh.
d Calculate the percentage of organic material in each
sample and test for significant differences using
Chi2, U-test or t-test (see Chapter 15:
Geographical Skills).
Review questions
1 Describe two ways in which water moderates global
temperatures.
2 What is meant by the term ‘Goldilocks zone’?
3 Define the term ‘system’.
4 What is the difference between open and closed
systems?
5 Why is water vapour described as a ‘greenhouse
gas’?
6 What is the main store of fresh water in the global
water cycle?
7 Give two examples of permeable rocks.
8 What is an aquifer?
9 State two ways in which water leaves the
atmosphere.
10 What is the difference between evaporation and
transpiration?
11 Name six major carbon stores.
12 Outline the main differences between the fast and
slow carbon cycles.
13 What are phytoplankton and why are they
important in the carbon cycle?
14 What is the role of plate tectonics in the carbon
cycle?
9
02/11/15 11:03 AM
858703_04_OCR_Geog_A_level_06-09.indd 9
Review questions at the end of each
chapter consolidate students’ topic
knowledge and aid self-assessment
02/11/15 11:03 AM
8.1 What is meant by human
rights?
Key idea
➜ There is global variation in human rights norms
Understanding what is meant by
human rights
Chapter 8 Human rights
Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms to
which all human beings are entitled. They are applicable
at all times and in all places and they protect everyone
equally, without discrimination.
The United Nations Office of the High Commissioner
for Human Rights states:
Human rights are rights inherent to all human
beings, whatever our nationality, place of
residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour,
religion, language, or any other status. We are
all equally entitled to our human rights without
discrimination.
10
Definitions and understanding of human rights and the
issues that surround them in the twenty-first century
are derived from The Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UDHR). This was one of the most significant
events in human rights history when it was adopted by
the United Nations General Assembly in 1948.
Two examples of the statements found within the
Declaration are:
l
l
Article 5: No one shall be subject to torture or
to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment.
Article 9: No one shall be subject to arbitrary arrest,
detention or exile.
Other examples, and there are 30 in all, may be found
at www.un.org/en/documents/udhr.
Since that time it has become evident that many of
the principles set out in 1948 have not been adhered
to uniformly. From a geographical perspective these
violations of human rights have occurred in many
different parts of the world, on every continent, in
advanced countries as well as in developing countries,
and at different scales from individuals to large scale
groups. Examples include use of child labour, people
trafficking, genocide and modern slavery.
Globalisation has contradictory impacts on human
rights. Transnational integration and increased mobility
have had the effect of simultaneously strengthening
and diminishing the protection of human rights.
l
l
On the one hand this has enhanced the ability of
civil society to work across borders and to promote
human rights.
On the other it has enabled some organisations to
gain power and perpetrate violations.
Geographical patterns of socio-economic inequality
are closely associated with inequalities in respect for
human rights. Many development programmes and
the steps towards achieving the UN’s Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) have been human
rights led.
The website of the UN Office of the High
Commissioner for Human Rights www.ohchr.org/EN/
Issues/Pages/ListOfIssues.aspx is a useful resource for
further investigation of human rights issues.
GDP/capita (US$ inflation adjusted)
1,000
10,000 100,000
100
Human rights
International human rights law sets out the
obligations of state governments. By signing
international treaties, it is the duty of states to
respect, protect and fulfil international human rights.
Governments that ratify or sign treaties therefore have
to put in practice domestic measures and legislation
which are compatible with that treaty.
There are growing numbers of human rights norms,
laws and treaties or conventions. The most widelyratified of all international human rights is the UN
Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC). This
Convention, signed by governments worldwide, has
been designed to change the ways in which children
are viewed and treated. The rights embedded within it
describe what a child needs in order to survive, grow
and achieve full potential. It explains the responsibilities
of adults and governments to ensure that children
everywhere can enjoy all their rights. This forms the
basis of UNICEF’s work today.
Nevertheless, there is still significant global variation
in deaths of young children. The infant mortality rate
(IMR) is defined as the annual number of deaths of
infants under the age of one per 1,000 live births. And
the 2013 figures exemplify the global range from Mali
106.5 and Chad 91.9 to the UK 4.5, Czech Republic
3.7, and Italy 3.3, see Figure 8.1. Afghanistan also has a
particularly high IMR.
Most of these infant deaths could be prevented. The
UN view is that if a country is not doing what it can to
prevent these deaths it is not meeting its legal and moral
obligations. It is not upholding the rights of its most
vulnerable people. Therefore infant mortality is not just a
health matter but a human rights concern.
Human Interactions
Chapter 8
2
4
10
20
40
100 200 400
Child mortality (0–5 year-olds dying per 1,000 born)
Key
Geographic regions
Total population size
1.36 billion
Figure 8.2 The relationship between child mortality
and GDP per capita, 2011
Activity
1 Describe the global pattern of infant mortality rates
shown in Figure 8.1.
2 Use Figure 8.2 to describe the relationship between
child mortality and GDP/capita.
3 Suggest reasons why the right to life for infants is
not upheld in many parts of the world.
Human rights norms
Human rights norms represent ways of living that
have been inculcated into the culture of a country or
area over long periods of time. They are the foundation
of human rights. It was on the basis of established
customs and norms drawn from all cultures, religions
and philosophies across the world that the UDHR was
devised. These norms are based on the moral principles
that underpin the universally accepted standards of
human behaviour.
The statements set out in the UDHR are generally
accepted as international human rights norms. And
although this is a non-binding resolution, human rights
are in fact protected by international law.
Key
Number of deaths of infants under age 1 per 1000 live births.
75+
50 – 74
25 – 49
15 – 24
<15
Figure 8.1 Global pattern of infant mortality rates, 2013
11
Intervention includes the use of military force by a
state or group of states in a foreign territory in order
to end gross violation of fundamental human rights
of its citizens. This type of intervention in pursuit
of humanitarian objectives is often referred to as
humanitarian intervention.
The UN Security Council is the only body that can
legally authorise use of force. Irrespective of this, the
entire process of military intervention is controversial.
It can be effective in stopping the violations. This
can have immediate benefits for local communities
and contribute to longer term socio-economic
development and political stability. But it can have
unintended negative impacts. These include injuries
and deaths of civilians, loss of homes and population
displacement. It may also cause an increase in human
rights abuses, further injustices and widening of
the socio-economic inequalities which already exist
within the country.
United Nations involvement takes many forms
and its peacekeeping, political and peacebuilding
missions (see Figure 8.3) serve many purposes, not least
concerning human rights violation. If the international
community is called upon, the UN Security Council
establishes a mandate so that its workers and troops
can be authorised and drawn from a wide range of
member states. Usually military presence helps protect
citizens from human rights abuse, with non-use of force
UNSCO
Middle East
UNSCOL
Lebanon
UNRCCA
Central Asia
UNAMA
UNSMIL
UNOWA
Afghanistan
Libya
UNOCA
UNSOM
Central Africa
Somalia
MENUB
Burundi
Chapter 8 Human rights
MENUB
UNAMA
UNAMI
UNIOGBIS
UNOCA
UNOWA
UNRCCA
UNSCO
UNSCOL
UNSMIL
UNSOM
United Nations Electoral Observation Mission in Burundi
(established 2015)
United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (established 2002)
United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq (established 2003)
United Nations Integrated Peacebuilding Office in Guinea-Bissau
(established 2010)
United Nations Regional Office for Central Africa (established 2011)
United Nations Office for West Africa (established 2001)
United Nations Regional Centre for Preventive Diplomacy for
Central Asia (established 2008)
Office of the United Nations Special Coordinator for the Middle East
Peace Process (established 1999)
Office of the United Nations Special Coordinator for Lebanon
(established 2007)
United Nations Support Mission in Libya (established 2011)
United Nations Assistance Mission in Somalia (established 2013)
Figure 8.3 Ongoing political and peacebuilding UN missions
12
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regional organisations such as the North Atlantic Treaty
Organisation (NATO), the Organisation for Security
and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the ASEAN
Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights
non-governmental organisations such as the
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and
Oxfam
public-private partnerships such as the Gavi
Alliance (Global Alliance for Vaccines and
Immunisation).
Activity
The North Atlantic Treaty organization (NATO) was
established in 1949 with twelve member countries
from Europe and North America; in 2015 there were
28 member states.
1 Access the NATO website www.nato.int and investigate
the purpose of the organisation and the different ways
in which it attempts to achieve its aims.
2 a) Use NATO’s interactive map, (Figure 8.4), to
examine specific details of its work in any one area
(current operations, videos, statistics, partners)
www.nato.int/nato-on-duty/index.html.
b) To what extent has this kind of intervention been
successful in resolving human rights issues?
Iraq
UNIOGBIS
Guinea-Bissau
except in self-defence. In addition a UN human rights
team works in the area to protect and promote human
rights. Its task is to monitor the situation, attempt to
empower populations to assert their human rights,
enable governments to implement their human rights
obligations and strengthen rule of law.
The UN also coordinates the input of a wide range
of agencies and organisations in the area affected.
These include:
UNAMI
West Africa
Human Interactions
Intervention
Figure 8.4 Map of current NATO operations
Geopolitics
The term geopolitics refers to the global balance of
political power and international relations. The pattern
of political power is closely related to economic power
especially in terms of the relative wealth and international
trade strength of nations and groups of nations.
Historically there have been a number of ‘geopolitical
transitions’ in which geopolitical world order or power
has shifted. The most recent has been the ending of
the Cold War. This situation existed from 1946 to 1989
in which period the USA and the USSR were the two
dominant superpowers.
Contemporary geopolitical power has a very uneven
spatial distribution and is viewed from different
perspectives:
l
The term intervention is also used in a wider non-military
sense. For example, other instruments of intervention
designed to compel states, or groups within them, to
respect human rights include economic sanctions and the
international criminal prosecution of individuals responsible
for the abuses. Furthermore, it includes NGOs, private
enterprises and human rights activists working with local
communities and national governments.
Global governance of human rights is therefore
complex and multifaceted: it can involve direct physical
intervention as well as the application of a growing
number of human rights norms, laws and treaties or
conventions, plus the work of civil society. Effective
intervention depends on their interaction and
coordination at all scales.
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the USA is the only superpower. It may have lost
its place to China as the world’s leading trading
nation but it remains dominant militarily and
politically
there are inequalities in power between individual
states depending on wealth, political strength
and development. According to the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) there are the powerful
advanced countries (ACs), the increasingly
influential emerging and developing countries
(EDCs) and the peripheral economies of the lower
income developing countries (LIDCs)
there are supra-national political and economic
organisations such as the UN, EU, ASEAN, and OPEC,
which exert greater geopolitical influence than their
individual member states
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there are the effects of globalisation in which
trans-state organisations such as multi-national
corporations (MNCs) have considerable influence on
the countries in which they invest.
The geopolitics of intervention is therefore a term
which involves an understanding of the:
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political composition of the groups of countries and
organisations that are involved in intervention
nature of the intervention itself
reasons why intervention has been deemed
necessary
characteristic features of the country, government
and peoples affected
possible political, socio-economic and environmental
effects of intervention/global governance.
Key idea
➜ Patterns of human rights violation are influenced
by a range of factors
Current spatial patterns of human
rights issues including forced
labour, maternal mortality rates
and capital punishment
Article 3 of the UDHR states that ‘everyone has
the right to life, liberty and security’. Forced labour,
maternal mortality rates and capital punishment are
all connected to this most basic of human
13
Features in the book:
A variety of visual stimulus materials
illustrate geographical concepts, increase
understanding and support revision
Factors that influence global variations of forced labour
1,500,000
Forced labour
600,000
It is estimated that globally 21 million people are victims
of forced labour – 11.4 million women and girls and
9.5 million men and boys. Nineteen million of these
are exploited by private individuals or enterprises and
2 million by state or rebel groups. In the private economy
this generates US$150 billion in illegal profits annually.
Forced labour includes:
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children who are denied education because they are
forced to work
men unable to leave work because of debts owed to
recruitment agents
women and girls exploited as unpaid, abused
domestic workers.
POLITICAL
• Poverty
• Lack of economic
opportunities and
unemployment
• Low wages
• Subsistence farming
• Migration and seeking work
11,700,000
3,700,000
The term forced labour, as described by the
International Labour Organization (ILO), refers to:
situations in which persons are coerced
to work through the use of violence or
intimidation, or by more subtle means
such as accumulation of debt, retention of
identity papers or threats of denunciation to
immigration authorities.
ECONOMIC
1,600,000
1,800,000
• Political instability
• Conflict
• Breakdown of rule of law
• Corruption
• State sponsorship of modern
slavery, e.g. cotton harvest in
Uzbekistan
• High levels of discrimination
and prejudice
Figure 8.5 Victims of forced labour by region, 2012
The global distribution of these estimates is very uneven
(Figure 8.5). South East Asia has the highest overall
incidence but significantly no region is unaffected.
Activities
Forced labour is a major element of modern slavery
(Figure 8.5).
1 Describe the global pattern of modern slavery shown
in Figure 8.6.
SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENTAL
• Gender inequality
• Age, especially children
• Entire families enslaved
through bonded labour, e.g.
construction, agriculture,
brick making, garment
factories in India and Pakistan
• Women and children
trafficking for sexual
exploitation, e.g. through
organised crime in Europe
from Nigeria
• Indigenous people
• Escaping climate-related
disasters including food and
water shortages
• Hazardous working conditions
in open mines
Figure 8.7 Factors that contribute to vulnerability to forced labour
2 Use the information in Figure 8.7 to suggest reasons
Stretch and challenge
Investigate the factors that contribute to the prevalence of
modern slavery in any one country and assess their relative
significance. The Walk Free Foundation Global Slavery
Index is a useful source: www.globalslaveryindex.org.
Maternal mortality rate (MMR)
The definition of maternal mortality used by the
World Health Organization (WHO) states: ‘the
death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days
of termination of pregnancy … from any cause
related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its
management’. The maternal mortality rate (MMR)
is the annual number of these deaths per 100,000
live births.
In 2013, globally 289,000 women died during and
following pregnancy and childbirth. Most of these
deaths occurred in developing countries (Figure 8.8). The
worst affected countries were all in sub-Saharan Africa –
Sierra Leone (1,100), Chad (980) and the Central African
Republic (880). The lowest figures were in the more
developed countries in Europe, such as Belarus (1) and
Italy (4), and in North America.
Human Interactions
rights. However, maps and statistics of their global
patterns illustrate significant spatial variation in their
prevalence.
Stretch and challenge tasks extend high-achieving
students’ knowledge and skills so they can target
the top grades
for this pattern.
HAITI
2.3%
MAURITANIA
4.0%
INDIA
1.1%
DRC
1.13%
Key
Annual number of female deaths per 100,000 live births
<20
20–99
100–299
300–499
500–999
Key
Not applicable
Percentage of the population that is enslaved (2014)
≥1,000
Data not available
Population <100,000 not included in the assessment
Figure 8.8 Maternal mortality rates, 2013 (Source: WHO)
0.04
14
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.7
0.75
Figure 8.6 Percentage of each country’s population that is enslaved, 2014
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Features in the book:
MMRs have changed over time in most countries. WHO estimates are available in
the country profiles at www.who.int/gho/maternal_health/countries/en.
Skills focus
encourages
students to learn
and practise the
geographical
and data skills
emphasised
in the 2016
specification
differences between countries in the range and type
of crimes for which it is imposed
the incidence of its legality under national law
the increase in the number of countries in which it is
being abolished
its reinstatement in some countries for threats to
state security and public safety posed by terrorism
the number of commutations and pardons (granted
in 28 countries in 2014).
l
1 Construct a graph which enables comparison of changes in MMR between 1990
and 2013 for any six countries to demonstrate global contrasts.
2 Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of your presentation technique.
3 Suggest and justify one alternative technique to represent this data.
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Factors that influence global variations of MMR
The global inequalities in MMR can be explained by:
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access to treatments for pregnancy and birth
complications, especially emergency care
quality of medical services, especially provision of
skilled attendance at birth
level of political commitment and government
investment
availability of information and education
cultural barriers which affect discrimination
poverty.
The vast majority of these deaths are preventable
therefore this is not just a matter of development but
of human rights. These rights are all legally protected
by international human rights treaties including:
l
the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)
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the International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights
various regional treaties and the laws of many
individual states.
Capital punishment
2
3
1 Identify two international human rights norms
stated in the UDHR.
2 What do you understand by the term human rights
norm?
3 What is meant by intervention in human rights
issues?
4 What is meant by forced labour?
5 What factors account for variation in the global
pattern of maternal mortality rates?
6 Why do numbers of executions vary spatially
throughout the world?
Practice questions
1
The death penalty is a denial of the most basic of
human rights, i.e. that states must recognise the right
to life. The UN General Assembly has called for an end
to the death penalty. Human rights organisations such
as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch
campaign against its imposition as a fundamental
breach of human rights norms.
Nevertheless, according to Amnesty International, in
2014 there were at least 607 executions globally and
2,466 people were sentenced to death in 55 countries.
There are significant global inequalities in capital
punishment (Figure 8.9).
Review questions
Human Interactions
Factors that influence global variations of capital
punishment
The inequalities can be explained by factors such as:
Skills focus
?
Structured/data response
1 Study Figure 1 which shows child mortality in
Africa in 2012.
N
a) i) Globally what is the relationship between child
mortality rates and GDP/capita?
(2 marks)
ii) With reference to Figure 1, suggest two possible
reasons why child mortality rates vary from one
part of Africa to another.
(4 marks)
iii) Examine two factors which might cause
decline in the child mortality rate of
a country over time.
(4 marks)
b) With reference to a case study, account
for low levels of female participation in
education.
(8 marks)
Essay
2 ‘Global governance of human rights issues has
only positive consequences.’ How far do you
agree?
(18 marks)
0
1000
kilometres
Key
Children dying before the age of 5 per 1,000 live births
150–199
100–149
50–99
20–49
0–19
no data
Figure 1 Child mortality in Africa, 2012
Figure 8.9 Death penalty executions, 2014
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Practice questions build students’
skills and confidence approaching
assessment
23/11/15 8:49 AM
Factors influencing global shipping routes
Physical geography has a key role to play in the pattern
of ocean routes. The shape of coastlines, winds, water
currents, water depth, reefs, sea-ice and icebergs
influence shipping routes. Two major influences on eastwest routes was the long detour to the south round
either Cape Horn or the Cape of Good Hope.
Exploring oceans
12.5 How have socio-economic
and political factors influenced
the use of oceans?
Impacts of the Suez and Panama Canals
Table 12.1 Growth of global seaborne trade
Key idea
➜ Oceans are a vital element in the process of
globalisation
Chapter 12 Exploring oceans
The importance of oceans in the
process of globalisation
18
Over many centuries oceans have been important as
a means of transportation. Both goods and people
have travelled over increasing distances. Since the
growth of inter-continental air travel, people now tend
to travel mainly short distances by sea, for example
ferries between the UK and Europe. Freight dominates
maritime transport.
Globalisation in the twenty-first century differs
significantly from earlier activities such as gold and
silver shipped from South America to Europe in the
sixteenth century, or the slave trade. Longer and
more extensive connections have led to increasing
interdependence of people and places. Trading of
goods of all sorts criss-crosses the oceans: Australian
coal is shipped to Japan, furniture made in China
makes its way to Europe, grain produced in the USA
and Canada arrives in the UK. World trade has more
than trebled to 45 per cent of global GDP since
the 1950s.
Global connections affect the everyday lives of
billions of people; just a century ago, few people had
links beyond their own country. Today there are global
brands recognised in most countries and billions of
people purchase products made outside their own
country.
Oceans have a role in a key aspect of globalisation,
known as time-space compression. This refers to
the world being considered a ‘smaller place’ as
Year
Oil
1970
1,442
Bulk cargoes1
Dry cargo2
448
Total cargoes
676
2,566
1980
1,871
796
1,037
3,704
1990
1,755
968
1,285
4,008
2000
2,163
1,288
2,533
5,984
2010
2,752
2,333
3,323
8,408
Iron ore, grain, coal, bauxite, phosphate
2
Wide range of products e.g. textiles
1
interconnections grow. New technologies have
revolutionised connectivity. Developments in ocean
transport have increased the speed and reliability of
delivery. Globalisation means that oil tankers from the
Gulf queue up in the Channel waiting for the Hong
Kong-based owners of their cargoes to give permission
to head for Rotterdam, when the global price per barrel
of oil rises to its most profitable level.
The pattern of global shipping routes
The principal shipping routes follow a relatively simple
pattern. An east-west corridor links North America,
Europe and Pacific Asia through the Suez Canal, the
Strait of Malacca and the Panama Canal. A major route
also extends from Europe to eastern South America and
then various secondary routes, such as between Brazil
and South Africa, add to the pattern.
Panama
Canal
Suez Canal
Key
Core route
Secondary route
Figure 12.1 Early twenty-first century shipping routes
Planned by the French but constructed by the British,
the Suez Canal opened in 1869. The Panama Canal, also
initiated by the French, was completed and opened in
1914 under USA control. These engineering projects are
two of the most significant maritime ‘shortcuts’ ever
built and have had far reaching consequences for trade
and geopolitics.
Table 12.2 Fact file: the Suez and Panama Canals
Suez Canal
Red Sea to
Location
Mediterranean
192 km
Length
Maximum size of ship 150,000 tonnes
About 14 hours
Average time to sail
through
Distance saved
Sailing time saved
Panama Canal
Atlantic to Pacific
82 km
65,000 tonnes
About 17 hours
About 8,900 km About 13,000 km
About ten days About twenty days
Both canals are currently being upgraded to allow more
and larger ships to pass through them. The Suez Canal
can only accommodate ships travelling in one direction
at a time while the Panama Canal has locks which slow
the travelling time.
Stretch and challenge
Investigate what is meant by a ‘great circle route’.
Explain why they are significant to intercontinental
shipping trade. Use examples in your explanation.
The physical geography of the coast is an important
influence on port location. Depth of water, tidal range and
shelter are key factors. Natural harbours such as Sydney,
San Francisco and Singapore are long established ports.
But with increasingly ambitious engineering, harbours
can be developed in previously little used locations. For
example, extensive engineering such as dredging and dock
construction have allowed Europoort to develop at the
mouth of the River Rhine in the Netherlands.
Geographical debates
Chapter 12
The direction and type of trade
across oceans
Ocean trade connects producers and consumers of
raw materials and manufactured goods. Market size
exerts a strong influence on the volume of shipping
visiting a port. For example, Europoort serves a large
part of western and central Europe. Total population
is an indication of market size but an imperfect one.
Income levels are also significant as they affect the
ability to purchase goods. In addition the type of goods
traded influence the volume and direction of ocean
trade. For example, there are clear patterns in the
trade in unprocessed primary products such as crude
oil, mineral ores and agricultural products compared
to manufactured goods such as vehicles, electronic
equipment and clothes.
Activities
Study Tables 12.3 to 12.8 which show the percentage of world trade in various categories of goods.
Table 12.3 Leading exporters of agricultural products (2014)
Country
Value
(million US$)
% share of world
trade
EU
613,000
37
USA
172,000
10
Table 12.4 Leading importers of agricultural products (2014)
Country
Value
(million US$)
% share of world
trade
EU
623,000
36
China
157,000
9
Brazil
86,400
5
USA
142,000
8
China
66,175
4
Japan
94,000
5
Canada
62,800
4
Russian Federation
42,000
2
Indonesia
45,000
3
Canada
38,000
2
Argentina
43,150
3
South Korea
33,700
2
India
42,400
3
Saudi Arabia
29,300
2
Thailand
42,000
3
Mexico
27,000
2
Australia
38,400
2
India
25,700
1
Malaysia
34,000
2
Hong Kong, China
25,000
<1
19
Country
Value
(million US$)
% share of world
trade
EU
682,400
16
Russian Federation
377,300
Saudi Arabia
Value
(million US$)
% share of world
trade
EU
4,385,000
38
9
China
1,925,000
17
325,600
8
USA
1,102,000
10
USA
187,200
5
Japan
709,600
6
Australia
160,300
4
South Korea
462,600
4
Canada
149,000
4
Hong Kong, China
423,200
4
United Arab Emirates
129,200
3
Singapore
283,000
2
Norway
121,000
3
Qatar
116,000
2
Kuwait
112,300
2
Nigeria
104,000
2
Table 12.6 Leading importers of fuels and mining products (2014)
Country
Table 12.8 Leading importers of manufactured goods (2014)
Country
Value
(million US$)
% share of world
trade
3,905,000
33
USA
1,618,000
14
China
1,060,000
9
Hong Kong, China
489,000
4
EU
% share of world
trade
1,263,000
30
Japan
418,000
3
China
534,000
13
Canada
340,000
3
USA
486,000
12
Mexico
290,000
2
Japan
361,000
8
South Korea
257,400
2
South Korea
227,300
5
Russian Federation
253,100
2
India
210,300
4
1 On an outline world map, represent the percentage
Singapore
130,000
3
Taiwan
89,000
2
Turkey
68,100
2
Canada
64,800
2
Germany
60,100
2
share figures for each category of trade. Use a located
graphical method such as a bar graph.
2 Describe and suggest reasons for the patterns.
3 The figures are for total trade, not just ocean trade.
Suggest the role that ocean transport is likely to play
in the trade for each category of product.
Marine technology – a revolution in
transport
20,000
Technological changes in ocean shipping, including
ports, have revolutionised movement of all types of
products by sea. The huge increase in the sizes of ships
over the past few decades is unprecedented.
Containerisation is fundamental to the process of
globalisation. By using standard-sized metal boxes to
move a wide variety of goods, costs have been reduced
dramatically. The elimination of item by item, or ‘loose
cargo’ handling reduces costs at every stage of a
journey from factory to final distribution centre. That
so many containers can now be moved by one ship
adds to the economies of scale. Ocean freight rates
have reduced as a consequence, and it is not just costs
which are saved; the time taken for goods to travel
around the globe has greatly reduced. Loading and
16,000
18,000
unloading containers is highly mechanised and benefits
from every single container having its own unique code.
Computers track each container allowing the logistics
of distribution to be very efficient.
Bulk carriers of goods such as oil, mineral ores and
grains have also increased in size and achieved similar scale
economies. The largest oil tankers carry some 3 million
barrels of oil, equivalent to some 440,000 tonnes. Iron ore
carriers can be nearly as big at 400,000 tonnes.
Although oceans are primarily highways for goods,
cruise ships have also been a growing presence. The
largest of these are up to 225,000 tonnes, 360 metres
long and can carry around 6,000 passengers and 2,300
crew. Unsurprisingly, this class of vessel is the most
expensive ever constructed.
When large vessels come to port, the scale of the
handling facilities matches that of the ships.
Table 12.9 Port of Singapore – vital statistics per year
Factor
Statistic
% world’s containers handled
20
% world’s crude oil handled
50
Number of ships docked
Number of containers handled
130,000
About 33 million
Until 2005, Singapore was the world’s busiest port in
terms of total tonnage handled. It is now second after
Shanghai. However, Singapore remains the world’s
largest trans-shipment port in terms of goods in and out.
The importance of ocean-going vessels in increasing the
interconnectivity of the world cannot be underestimated.
Although much is rightly made of the impact of the
internet, a strong argument can be made for the
revolution in ocean transport as the driver of globalisation.
Submarine cables – unseen connections
Oceans can also be crossed below the surface. The
first submarine cables were laid in the second half of
the nineteenth century, notably the first trans-Atlantic
telegraph cable in 1866. By the early twentieth century
a global telegraphic network had been laid. Telephone
cables were laid during the 1950s. Today, fibre optic
cables criss-cross the oceans forming an essential part
of the globalised telecommunications network. The
internet could not exist without these cables.
When laying a new cable route, several cables are
laid at the same time so that if one were to fail, traffic
can be swiftly re-routed. In the past two decades, the
greatest amount of cable laying has been in Pacific Asia.
A submarine link across the Arctic is also being developed
between locations such as London and Tokyo for example.
Activities
1 Describe the pattern of submarine cable networks.
2 Suggest reasons for this pattern.
400m
395m
14,000
370m
12,000
TEU
Chapter 12 Exploring oceans
Country
Value
(million US$)
EU
20
Table 12.7 Leading exporters of manufactured goods (2014)
Geographical debates
Table 12.5 Leading exporters of fuels and mining products (2014)
10,000
8,000
300 m
6,000
290 m
4,000
215m
2,000
0
130m
1960s 1970s
1980s
Key
2000
Date
2014
Figure 12.2 Increasing size of container ships. TEU: twenty foot
equivalent unit – the measure of the number of containers
carried by a ship
Higher speeds (> 3,000 gigabytes/second)
Medium speeds (2,000–3,000 gigabytes/second)
Lower speeds (< 2,000 gigabytes/second)
Figure 12.3 Main global submarine cable network
21
QINGDAO
Chapter 12 Exploring oceans
China’s growing naval power
China has for centuries been a naval power within
Asia. In recent years, significant investment has
been made into its naval capabilities. This is part of
China’s emerging role both regionally within Asia and
the Pacific but also globally. Economic strength and
increasing technological expertise are allowing the
Chinese navy to expand and modernise at a rapid rate.
China’s coastline extends for 14,500 kilometres which
ranks it tenth in the world simply in terms of length.
There are four primary domestic naval ports covering
the north, central and southern stretches of coastline.
It is significant that China has been establishing bases in
other countries, which allow its navy to operate further
away from home. The term blue water navy describes
one that is able to operate away from its home bases.
That China is extending its naval military capacity is a
strong indication of its emerging superpower status.
The spread of Chinese naval power into the Indian
Ocean is of increasing concern for India. These concerns
are made more serious for India because potential
Chinese naval bases are in countries such as Pakistan
PARACEL
ISLANDS
JAPAN
DINGHAI
SOUTH
KOREA
INDIA
TAIWAN
ZHAN JIANG
N
l
SPRATELY
ISLANDS
PHILIPPINES
l
M
Rival countries have long argued about the ‘right’ of their
ships to sail freely across the seas and to have access
to ocean resources. The establishment of sea areas in
international law such the as ‘exclusive economic zone’
has not been straightforward. In some locations marine
boundaries continue to be disputed. Geopolitics can be
especially contentious in ocean settings. The Arctic is
likely to witness increasing tensions as the region warms
and the Arctic Ocean becomes more accessible.
Over the centuries, gaining naval supremacy has been
important to the political and economic ambitions of
countries. Sometimes a clash at sea has been a pivotal
moment in a nation’s history. The defeat of the Spanish
Armada in 1588, the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 and
the Battle of the Atlantic during the Second World War,
can all be seen as turning points in the course of British
history. Today naval power remains a significant element
for many countries wishing to preserve or expand their
spheres of influence. A superpower such as the USA and
emerging powers such as India and China either maintain
or are growing their ability to exert power via the oceans.
l
TAIWAN
NORTH
KOREA
TNA
MONGOLIA
challenge each other
l
VIE
➜ Oceans are important spaces where countries
N
CHINA
l
SANYA
PHILIPPINES
SRI LANKA
MALAYSIA
VIETNAM
BRUNEI
MALAYSIA
Key
INDONESIA
Chinese naval base
Ports receiving substantial Chinese investment in its facilities
Key
China’s claimed territorial borders
UNCLOS 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone
Figure 12.4 China’s naval bases
with which India does not necessarily have good
relations. The level of infrastructure in each of these
overseas bases, however, is not developed enough to
support substantial Chinese military power. But China’s
developing commercial interests in the trade across
the Indian Ocean, such as that originating from the
Persian Gulf and the Suez Canal, and its involvement in
Africa, mean that its is likely to retain a strong strategic
interest in the Indian Ocean.
Marine conflict – the South
China Sea
For centuries, various countries have argued and on
occasions fought, over territory in the South China Sea.
Two island chains, the Paracels and the Spratlys, as well
as areas of adjacent sea are claimed either in whole or in
part by various countries. The island chains include many
rocky outcrops, coral atolls and reefs, and sandbanks.
China claims the most ocean as defined by the ‘ninedash line’. This claim is based on historical factors
which Vietnam disputes. Taiwan mirrors China’s claim
while the proximity to the Spratlys of the Philippines
archipelago is the basis of its claim. Other countries
also involved in claiming some of the South China Sea
are Malaysia and Brunei. The attractions of the islands
include reserves of oil and gas under the sea bed while
trade routes passing through the region are important
to China’s economy.
Figure 12.5 Marine conflict in the South China Sea
Recent incidents in the South China Sea
l
1974 and 1988 – armed clashes between China and
Vietnam over the Paracels and Spratlys; some 130
Vietnamese military personnel killed
2012 – China and Philippines accuse each other of
incursion in the Scarborough Shoal
2012 – China formally creates Sansha City in the
Paracels to administer Chinese territory in the region;
Vietnam and the Philippines protest
2013 – Philippines challenges legality of China’s actions
under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
2014 – China sets up a drilling rig near to Paracels;
multiple collisions occur between Chinese and
Vietnamese vessels
2015 – US satellite and spy plane reconnaissance
shows China building infrastructure on some of the
Spratly Islands e.g. an airstrip.
Geographical debates
RUSSIA
Key idea
The USA has significant strategic interests in the region.
The region, which is worth US$1.2 trillion to the US
economy, is a very important trading location for the
USA. The USA also has several long-standing allies
such as South Korea and Taiwan whose security it
needs to safeguard.
Militarily, the US Seventh Fleet based in Japan is by
far the strongest in the region. However, the chance
of direct confrontation between the USA and China
is low if past tensions are anything to go by, even
though the USA has not signed up to the UNCLOS
agreement. It only voluntarily agrees to its principles
and so this weakens the argument for a legal and
rules-based solution.
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ISBN 978 147 1858703
© Michael Raw, David Barker, Helen Harris, Andrew Palmer, Peter Stiff 2015
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