Frank R. Leslie,
B. S. E. E., M. S. Space Technology, IEEE LS
1/19/10, Rev. 2.2.3
fleslie @fit.edu; (321) 674-7377 www.fit.edu/~fleslie http://my.fit.edu/~fleslie/CourseRE/ClassPres/ClassHTM/RE020bPollution_files/frame.htm

100119






Many forms of energy conversion, primarily combustion, create pollution of air, water, or soil through gases, water discharges, etc.
Temperature changes to the environment may also be considered thermal pollution (heat in air or water)
Fossil fuel combustion produces NO x
, SO
2,
CO
2
, etc.
Wind and solar energy are produced without pollution, but making the energy converters may have these byproducts
(making steel, for example)
Tropical hydroelectric dam reservoirs produce some methane and carbon dioxide through decomposition of organic matter and the displaced forest
Noise or “viewscape” pollution draw protests

100105




It’s not the pollution, it’s what it does!
Human costs
 Health: Lung damage, cancer, kidney failure, vision
 Accidents: Impaired driver visibility ahead on road
Nonhuman costs
 Acid rain affects fish and trees


Lowered crop growth (except for CO
2
)
Building, monument, or other surface damage


Global warming and climate change correlated with CO
2
Costs of pollution are usually not in the energy cost but are externalities!

100105



Air



Power plant emissions of NO x
, SO
2,
CO
2
, Hg, VOCs affect public health
Exhaust gases and soot from “oil” and coal transportation vehicles

Diesel exhaust also contains <2.5 micron particulates that cause lung disease by penetrating deep into the alveoli of the lungs

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), Sulphur hexafluoride (SF
6
) are others
Land


Runoff from mining of coal and oil/gas drilling; city streets and lawns, animals
Spills from chemicals used at energy plants
Pipeline failures or vandalism (Alaska shooting)
Water

Runoff from mining of coal and oil/gas drilling



Coal overburden dumped in nearby ravine; leaching of toxics into water
Thermal pollution affects river or lake creatures
Rain-washed oil flows from streets (Florida ice) into streams and lakes

100119






Governmental regulations affect energy costs and pollution levels
If enforcement is even-handed, no company has a business advantage in polluting; customer pays for reduction or fines
Major US Laws
 1970 Clean Air Act, amended 1977, 1990
 $6.49B Clear Skies Initiatives reduce deposition of SO
2
, NOx, and mercury yields $11B in benefits; but does not include CO
2
Major US Regulations
 New Source Review (NSR) permits use of Best Available Control
Technology (BACT)
 EPA declares CO
2 a pollutant to be regulated
Energy Policy Act of 1992 requires alternative fuel vehicles thus reducing dependence upon foreign sources of oil
 Also reduces air pollution from the vehicles
EPA rules CO2 is a pollutant; restrictions likely

050110
•
•



EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) monitors commercial mines and plants
Regulations ensure compliance by costly fines and possible imprisonment
Intentional polluters’ damage is first detected by appearance, smell, or public complaint
Power plant stacks must have pollution monitoring equipment to detect excess smoke
General air quality monitors sample the air to determine local pollution
Methane, NOx, CO
2 increasing since 1850
Ref.: Nova PBS

070111
Ref.: Nova PBS

090109






The cost of pollution reduction determines how much effort will be expended to reduce it
Companies choose what to do based upon laws, regulations, trade studies, and profits
When a plant shuts down, will the facility be removed or converted to other uses? Who pays for this?
Rocky Flats Nuclear Arsenal area under consideration for wildlife refuge; now hosts National Wind Technology Center
(NWTC; http://www.nrel.gov/wind/ )
Hanford Nuclear Weapons Facilities has many tanks of radioactive materials that are being removed and cleaned
Super Fund Act required extensive cleanup of contaminated sites (remediation)

Figure 1. Distribution of coalbearing strata in the Appalachian region study area. Dots indicate corehole locations. Green, areas having a low potential for acid mine drainage (AMD) from surface mining; red, areas having high
AMD potential; yellow, areas having intermediate AMD potential.
100105
Ref.: USGS
Fact Sheet 073-02
Online Version 1.0
http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs073-02/fs073-02.html
Wind River WY
US Steel closed mine
Photo F. Leslie ~2000

x
050110







NO x forms smog at ground level decreasing visibility and health problems
22 states affected by a court ruling must implement control measures for
NO x emissions during the ozone season by May 2003
Federal NOx Budget Trading Program to provide a cap-and-trade mechanism for Eastern US
Operators must restrict emissions to 0.15lb/MMBtu in a few years
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) cuts stack gas pollution

SCR uses anhydrous ammonia to react with NO x

The ammonia delivery truck could crash and release toxic gas, so urea might be used instead

Ammonia “slip” or bypass must be restricted to below 3 ppm

SCR cost is ~$25/kW peak power
State Implementation Call (SIP) plans required to indicate how compliance will be achieved
As an example, Pennsylvania can emit no more than 50.000 tons/year by
2003, a 75% cutback from 1990

x
050110
Ref.: http://cta.policy.net/fact/4pbook.pdf

2
2
050110
Ref.: http://cta.policy.net/fact/4pbook.pdf

2b.6.3 Selective Catalytic Reduction Process
070107
Process Description
NO x
, which consists primarily of NO with lesser amounts of NO
2
, is converted to nitrogen by reaction with NH
3 over a catalyst in the presence of oxygen. A small fraction of the
SO
2
, produced in the boiler by oxidation of sulfur in the coal, is oxidized to sulfur trioxide (SO
3
) over the
SCR catalyst. In addition, side reactions may produce undesirable by-products: ammonium sulfate,
(NH
4
)2SO
4
, and ammonium bisulfate,
NH
4
HSO
4
.
Ref.: DOE

050110
2
3


SO
2 causes soot, can cause asthma, lung cancer, respiratory aliments
Wet FGD processes can remove 95-98% of SO
2

100105







Coal-burning power plants pollute with mercury that was in the coal, and the Federal Government doesn’t regulate this source
EPA capped emissions in 2005 in Clean Air Mercury Rule
Mercury can cause loss of hearing, blurred vision, kidney failure
Fish consume mercury in their food and concentrate it in their flesh, leading to warnings against people eating too much fish

Yet in 2004 & 2005, EPA loosened Hg emission standards!
Mercury in coal is vaporized and becomes an emission from power plants [recall that “power plants” have power that produces energy; power multiplied by time = energy]
The SCR process can remove up to 75% of the mercury from the exhaust gases --- a serendipitous effect
Washing coal can remove soluble pollutants before firing; more effective on sulfur than mercury

How is the wash water cleaned? Is it clean then?






Exhaust or stack gases contain “particulate matter” that adversely affects lungs; known as PM10 or PM2.5 in law (number is microns)
Utility plants use fabric bags to filter the gases, removing some
95% of particulate pollutants
Plants also use electrostatic precipitators that attract the PM or ash to the walls for collection and disposal
Wet-washing the stack gases also removes PM
Diesel engines can burn more cleanly if electronic emission controls adjust the fuel-air mixture during operation
080101
Photo: PPC Industries

080101







GHGs increase decomposition of ozone in the stratosphere
Less ozone absorption of ultraviolet light means more skin cancer
The “Greenhouse” analogy isn’t entirely accurate, but the nonscientists in the public can relate to the general concept
GHGs consist of pollutants such as NO x
, SO
2
, VOCs, and CO
2
If Kyoto protocols were followed, the US would have to reduce
GHG 7% below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 while population energy demands are increasing!

The US is some 13% above 1990 pollution levels, not below
Developing nations, China and India, are exempted from Kyoto, yet they are best suited to move towards a sustainable energy system
CO
2
 increases global warming but is not strictly a pollutant
A pollutant is any substance that causes harmful or unsuitable effects to air, soil, water, or natural resources


Underground storage of CO
2
Extracted CO
2 may be useful (sequestering) could be used for carbonated beverages? (;-)

051221
Principal GHG component of water vapor is not included?

2



Recovering CO
2 from power plants would reduce GHG
The oceans can sequester CO
2 and buffer the amount present in the atmosphere, but there is a saturation limit
Manmade CO
2 is 10 billion tonnes (metric tons) per year while
Nature creates 200 billion tonnes per year
1 Tonne (metric ton) =
1,000 kilograms or 2,204.62 lbs
080101 http://www.eia.doe.gov/aer/eh/frame.html
Figure 32. Carbon Dioxide
Emissions

St. Lucie Plant , FL - F. Leslie, 2003

Nuclear plants create anguish among some people (anti-nuc activists) due to the Hiroshima view, yet nuclear plants cannot have a nuclear explosion



Radioactivity is too low at ~3 to 4% concentration
Nuclear weapons have concentrated >~90% fissile material
Concentrating uranium hexafluoride process same for fuel or weapons www.pbs.org
090109 Three-Mile Island Plant near Harrisburg, PA --- PBS

090109
www.pbs.org

The 1979 “China Syndrome” movie with Jane Fonda asserted that a meltdown of the core would melt all the way to China
(Could this happen? Why or why not?)

080105
www.pbs.org





The “China Syndrome” movie created a public nonscientific impression
The Three-Mile Island event of 1979 caused ~100,000 people to flee the area; half the core was uncovered as water boiled off; no one died

The Three-Mile Island event of 1979 shows that nuclear power is unsafe because radioactive gases were released

The Three-Mile Island event of 1979 shows that nuclear power is safe because automatic safety features prevented a catastrophe
There are some 104 commercial reactors in 32 US states, and spent fuel is proposed to be moved by rail and truck to Yucca Mountain NM through many states and cities
The major environmental pollution hazard would be from spillage of the fuel rod materials during transport by road or rail vehicles
Now, terrorists might strike plants! What to do? What to do?

From my past industry anti-terrorist studies at Harris Corp., place protected material in one place by each plant and protect it at high expense with earlyintrusion-detection alarms

070111
Coal
NO
Yes,
6 lb/M
Wh x
SO
2
Yes,
13lb/
MWh
CO little
CO
Yes,
MWh
2
2249 lb/
Hg
Yes
Methane
Mine fumes Yes
Thermal Partic ulate
Matter
Yes
“Fuel”
Extraction
Yes
Deaths of miners yes Yes
Fuel
Residue
Ash, fly ash
Oil
Natural
Gas
Wind
Yes,
4lb/
MW h
1.7 lb/
MW h
*
Yes,
12 lb/
MWh
0.1 lb/
MWh
*
Yes, vehicl es
Yes
* *
1672lb/
MWh
0.02 ppm no
1135lb/
MWh
?
*
NG~80% methane & burned
*
Yes
Yes
Insignificant; no
Solar
Hydro
Geothermal
*
*
*
Nuclear *
*
*
?
*
*
*
*
*
* some
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
In reservoir
?
*
Yes Yes explosions
Engine blowby, gases
Very low if any no No (birds) Low speed wind darkness ?radiation/ conduction from panels no
Yes no no
Yes
Salt? no no no
Affects downstream
Brine spills no
Yes
Saline spills
Spent fuel
* Only during system or components manufacture
Geothermal Air conditioning might have refrigerant leaks (CFC or ammonia) www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/impacts

090120






Combustion energy sources emit pollutants; renewable sources emit none or much less
Wind and solar energy doesn’t pollute, but there may have been pollution from the making of the conversion equipment (a steel wind turbine tower)
Nuclear plants might emit accidental releases of radioactivity, but safe designs reduce this chance
Laws effect (cause) utility plant operations to reduce pollution; they remove economic disincentives to pollute
Emissions credit trading helps reduce pollution since there is an economic incentive to clean up emissions
“Cap-and-trade” or plain caps may be coming

060113









Boyle, Godfrey. Renewable Energy: Power for a Sustainable Future,
Second Ed.
Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 452pp., 2004.
Boyle, Godfrey. Energy Systems and Sustainability,
Press, 620pp., 2003.
Oxford: Oxford Univ.
Brown, Lester R. State of the World 2000. NY: W.W.Norton, 276 pp., 2000.
_______________________________________________________________
_____
Brower, Michael. Cool Energy. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press, 1992. 0-262-
02349-0, TJ807.9.U6B76, 333.79’4’0973.
Duffie, John and William A. Beckman. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes.
NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 920 pp., 1991
Gipe, Paul. Wind Energy for Home & Business. White River Junction, VT:
Chelsea Green Pub. Co., 1993. 0-930031-64-4, TJ820.G57, 621.4’5
Patel, Mukund R. Wind and Solar Power Systems. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1999,
351 pp. ISBN 0-8493-1605-7, TK1541.P38 1999, 621.31’2136
Sørensen, Bent. Renewable Energy, Second Edition. San Diego: Academic Press,
2000, 911 pp. ISBN 0-12-656152-4.

051221
http://www.epa.gov/ebtpages/pollutants.html
http://www.energyjustice.net/coal/ http://www.nadir.org/nadir/initiativ/agp/free/imf/panama/2002/0830Bayano_
Hydroelectric.htm
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/timeline/index_2.html
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/air/NO_IDLE/No_IDLE.html
________________________________________________________ awea-windnet@yahoogroups.com. Wind Energy elist awea-wind-home@yahoogroups.com. Wind energy home powersite elist windenergyexperimenter@yahoogroups.com. Elist for wind energy experimenters www.dieoff.org. Site devoted to the decline of energy and effects upon population www.ferc.gov/ Federal Energy Regulatory Commission www.google.com/search?q=%22renewable+energy+course%22 solstice.crest.org/

0601121 awea-windnet@yahoogroups.com. Wind Energy elist awea-wind-home@yahoogroups.com. Wind energy home powersite elist geothermal.marin.org/ on geothermal energy mailto:energyresources@egroups.com rredc.nrel.gov/wind/pubs/atlas/maps/chap2/2-01m.html PNNL wind energy map of CONUS windenergyexperimenter@yahoogroups.com. Elist for wind energy experimenters www.dieoff.org. Site devoted to the decline of energy and effects upon population www.ferc.gov/ Federal Energy Regulatory Commission www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/ert/otec_hi.html#anchor349152 on OTEC systems telosnet.com/wind/20th.html
www.google.com/search?q=%22renewable+energy+course%22 solstice.crest.org/ dataweb.usbr.gov/html/powerplant_selection.html

090120
Olin Engineering Complex 4.7 kW Solar PV Roof Array